CHEMICAL COORDINATION AND

REGULATION:
 Chemical control of body is maintained by endocrine system.
 Endocrine system contains endocrine glands and the hormones secreted by these glands regulate chemical
control.
 The word Endocrine is derived from two Greek words; Endon, meaning ‘within' and the other is 'krinein’
meaning to secrete.
 Willam Bayliss and Earnst Starling in 1902 demonstrated that an active substance secreted from the
mucos of the small intestine stimulated the release of pancreatic juice from the pancreas. This active
substance was named as secretin.
 Ernst Starling in 1905 used the word ‘Hormone' for secretin.

Types of Glands: There are two principal types of glands in the body.

1) Exocrine gland: - Exocrine glands are glands, which release their secretions into lumens through ducts.
e.g. Salivary glands, gastric glands, liver etc.
2) Endocrine gland: These are ductless glands. These release their secretions directly into the blood.

CLASSES OF HORMONES:

 Hormones are classified into four major classes;

A. Amine Hormone: These hormones are derived from amino acids tyrosine and tryptophan. e.g. Hormones
secreted by the thyroid, adrenal medulla and pineal glands.
B. Glycoprotein Hormones: These hormones are composed of polypeptide chain with attached
carbohydrate residues. e.g. TSH, FSH and LH.
C. Peptide and Protein Hormones:- These hormones are consist of smaller polypeptide chains. e.g. Insulin
(consists of 51 amino acids)
D. Steroid Hormones: These hormones are derived from cholesterol, a class of lipid. E.g.Hormones
secreted from adrenal cortex, testis (Testosterone) and ovary (estrogen & progesterone). -Some hormones
of the placenta are also steroids.

* Pheromones: pheromones are substances produced by one animal, that act at a distance on another
animal to produce hormonal, behavioural and other physiological changes.

e.g. Two female room-mates have a tendency to synchronize their menstrual cycle i·e. cycles tend to occur
almost at the same time. This effect has been termed as dormitory effect.

ENDOCRINE GLANDS
 Endocrine glands are present all throughout the body. Endocrine glands & release their secretion directly
into the body.
 Following are the endocrine glands present in human body:

1. PITUITARY GLAND:

 Pituitary is also known as hypophysis.

Location: Pituitary lies in a concavity, known as sella turica of the Sphenoid bone of the skull.

Structure: Pituitary connects to hypothalamus through a connection called infundibulum.

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  Pituitary is made by the aposition of two parts; 1. Anterior pituitary and 2-posterior pituitary

(I) Anterior Pituitary (Adenohypophysis):

 It originates from the pharyngeal ectoderm.

 Anterior pituitary consists of following distinct parts;
(a) Pars distalis: It is the bulk part of anterior pituitary and it secretes all tropic hormones.
(b) Pars tuberalis: It is a thin extension of tissue surrounding the infundibulum.
(c) Pars intermedia is an another extension only present in human foetus.
 Histologically pars distalis contains two Primary types of cells; chromophobes and chromophils.
 Chromophils are subdivided into acidophils (α-cells) & Basophils (β-cells).
 Acidophils Secrete GH& prolactin.
 Basophils secrete FSH, LH, TSH and Adenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).

Hormones of Anterior Pituitary:

 Hormones of the anterior pituitary are called as tropic hormones.

 Followings are some the hormones of anterior pituitary;

(a) Growth hormone (GH):

 GH is a protein anabolic hormone that stimulates amino acid movement into muscle cells and promotes
protein synthesis.

(b) Prolactin or Lactogenic Hormone or Luteotropic Hormone (LTH)

 It promotes milk formation and development of mammary glands in human females.

 Induces hyperglycemia.
 Increases fat deposition.
 It also induces the growth of male sex accessory organs.

(c) Thyroid stimulating Hormone (TSH):

 It acts on the thyroid gland and promotes Triiodothyronine (T3) & thyroxine (T4) secretion.

(d) Adenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH) :

 It acts on adrenal gland and stimulates Zona fasciculata & zona reticularis to secrete glucocorticoids.

(e) Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) :

 In males FSH act on seminiferous tubules and promotes spermatogenesis. Also act on Sertoli cells to
produce androgen binding protein (ABP), activin and inhibin.
 In females FSH act on ovarian follicles and promote their growth.

(f) Luteinizing Hormone (LH) or Interstitial Cell Stimulating Hormone (ICSH):

 In males, LH acts on Leydig cells to produce testosterone.

 In females LH causes ovulation, so called as Ovulatory hormone.
 LH also stimulates the formation of corpus luteum and secretion of progesterone from corpus luteum.

(g) B-lipotropin (B-LPH):

 It is a polypeptide of the anterior pituitary.

 B-LPH is cleaved in to endophin, enkephalin and MSH (melanocyte stimulating hormone)

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  Endophin and enkephalin are believed to act as body's natural analgesics i.e. endogenous pain relieving
molecules.

(II) Posterior Pituitary (Neurohypophysis):

Hormones of posterior Pituitary:

 Posterior pituitary secretes two polypeptide hormones, namely oxytocin or pitocin and vasopressin or
antidiuretic hormone (ADH).
 These two hormones are considered as neurohormones, since there are synthesized by neurosecretory
cells.

(a) Oxytocin : (pitocin):

 Oxytocin in females stimulates uterus contraction during parturition (child birth).

 Oxytocin also stimulate milk ejection from nipples after parturition. It also make a love bond between
mother and baby, so called Love hormone:
 In males, it is believed to facilitate the ejaculation of semen.

(b) Vasopressin (antidiuretic Hormone)/ ADH:

 It acts on proximal renal tubule and promotes the absorption of water from the glomerular filtrate.
 Its deficiency causes diabetes incipidus .ie. Frequent urination & loss of water.

2. PANCREAS:

 Pancreas is a composite gland that acts as both exocrine and endocrine gland.

Origin: It originates from the endoderm of the embryonic germ layer.

Location: It lies below the stomach, in the loop of duodenum.

Structure:

 It is elongated yellowish gland that consists of large number of acini and ducts.
 Pancreas consists of 1-2 millions of small group specialized cells, called Islets of Langerhans.
 Each islet consists of two types of cells;
(i) ∝-cells: They secrete a polypeptide hormone called glucagon.
(ii) β-cells. They secrete another peptide hormone called insulin.

Hormones of Pancreas:

(i) Glucagon: This peptide hormone plays an important role in maintaining blood glucose level.It acts mainly on
liver cells and stimulates glycogenolysis, which results in an increased blood Sugar known as hyperglycemia. It
promotes gluconeogenesis in the liver cells. Gluconeogenesis is the process whereby glucose is formed from non-
carbohydrates sources.

(ii) Insulin:Insulin is hypoglycemic i.e. it decreases blood sugar level. It promotes glycogen Synthesis in muscle
and livercells from glucose. It promoter fatty acid synthesis and triglyceride deposition in adipose tissue.
Increases lipid synthesis in liver cells. Deficiency of insulin causes diabetes mellitus.

3. PINEAL GLAND: (EPIPHYSIS):

 It is a small gland in the brain derived from the embryonic ectoderm.

Location: It is located on the dorsal side of the fore- brain between the cerebral hemisphere.

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Structure: conical in shape solid body and reddish colour. It is composed of pineal cells and supporting glial
cells.

Functions:

 It secretes a hormone called melatonin

 Secretion of melatonin is stimulated by Suprachiasmatic nucleus of hypothalamus.
 This nucleus is the centre of circadian rhythm.
 It synchronizes day night cycle.
 Pineal gland is also known as third eye of body.

4. THYROID GLAND:

 There is a single thyroid gland in human beings.

Location: Situated in neck inferior to the larynx.

Structure: It consists of two lobes; Left and right lobe connected by an isthmus.

 The structural and functional units of thyroid gland are thyroid follicle.
 These follicles remain embedded with rich network of blood capillaries.
 Each follicle is lined by a single layer of cuboidal epithelium.
 These follicles Synthesize and release their products into lumen of follicle.
 The lumen of the follicle is filled with a gelatinous Substance called colloid.
 The colloid is consist of an iodinated glycoprotein and Thyroglubulin [Triiodothyronin (T3) and Thyroxin
(T4)].
 Thyroxin (T4) the inactive form, in target cells T4 changes to T3, the active form.
 The thyroid tissue also contain a pale staining. parafollicular cells. These are the source of calicitonin.

Functions of thyroid hormones:

 Thyroid hormones are synthesized by follicular Cells of thyroid from amino acid tyrosine and iodide
radicals collected from the blood.
 Thyroid hormones in co-operation with growth hormone promote growth.
 Essential for normal differentiation of CNS in foetus.
 Increase the basal metabolic rate (BMR) by enhancing cellular respiration.
 Enhance the rate of respiration protein synthesis.
 Have a hyperglycemic effect. i.e increases blood glucose level.
 Have a lipolytic effect on liver, thereby increasing the cholesterol level in blood.

Functions of calcitonin:

 It regulates blood calcium level by preventing bone dissociation and by promoting excretion of calcium in
the urine.

5. PARATHYROID GLAND:
 There are two pairs of parathyroid glands in human.
Location: One pair is superior and one pair is interior present on posterior part of thyroid.
Properties:- Parathyroid gland is made up of two types of cells; principal or chief cells and oxyphil cells.
 Oxyphil cells are larger cells.
 Parathyroid cells arranged into cords surrounded by rich network of blood vessels & capillaries.
 Parathyroid glands secrete only one hormone called parathyroid hormone or parathormone.

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Functions of parathormone:-

 It promotes an increase in the blood calcium level by acting on bones, Kidney and intestine.

6. Adrenal Gland:

 There is a pair of adrenal gland in human being.

 Adrenal gland is also called as supra renal gland, as each adrenal gland is associated with superior pole of
Kidney like a cap.

Structure: Adrenal is divided into; outer cortex and inner medulla.

 Together cortex and medulla constitute adrenal gland but they have different origins and functions.
 The medulla is derived from neural ectoderm and the cortex is from mesoderm.
 The cortex secretes steroid hormones; whereas medulla secretes amine hormones.

Structure of Adrenal cortex:-

 The cortex has three layers or zones;

(i) Zona glomerulosa: The cells of this zone secrete a hormone called aldosterone, a mineral corticoid concern
with mineral metabolism.

(ii) Zona fasciculata: It is the middle zone and thickest of all.

(iii) Zona reticularis:It is the innermost layer of cells.

 Zona fasciculata and zona reticularis secrete two classes of hormones; Glucocorticoids and androgens...
 Glucocorticoids are two types; cortisol and corticosterone.
 Glucocorticoids are involved in carbohydrate metabolism.
 Cortical androgen ( ♂ hormone) include: dehydroepiandrosterone and androstenedione.
 These androgens have less effect on males but in females, these lead to expression of male secondary
characters.
 Zonal fasciculata and zona reticularis are stimulated by ACTH (corticotropin), secreted by anterior
pituitary.

Adrenal medulla:

 Medulla forms the core of Adrenal gland.

 Adrenal medulla is made up of neuron cells that loss their axon and dendrites.
 These cells function as secretary cells, which Synthesize and secrete a class of hormone known as
catecholamines.
 The catecholamines include epinephrine (adrenalin) and norepinephrine (nor- adrenaline).
 The cells of medulla can be stained by chromates, hence, medulla cells are termed as chromaffin cells.

Functions of catecholamines:

 They increase the cardiac output and heart rate.

 Increase respiratory rate and metabolic rate.
 Promote hyperglycemia (increase in the blood sugar or glucose level) by hepatic glycogenolysis
(glycogen breakdown in liver cells into glucose).
 Epinephrine (Adrenalin) is known as emergency hormone as it handles emergency situations like
hyperglycemia arising due to stress etc.

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7. GONADS: Gonads are the Primary sex organ.

 There are two types of gonads; Testis in males & Ovary in females.
 Testis & Ovary act as endocrine glands in addition to their function of gamete production.
 Their Secretions are mostly steroid hormones.

(A) TESTIS: Testis is the male Primary sex organ.

 Human males have a pair of testes.

 Location: Extra-abdominal, inside the scrotum.

Structure: Testes descend into scrotum during 7th month of Pregnancy through inguinal canal.

 Each testes has three layers; tunica albuginea, tunica vasculola & tunica vaginalis.
 Tunica albuginea is the actual covering of testis that forms about 250 testicular lobules.
 Connective tissue sheath of testicular cells contains leydig Cells
 Leydig cells under the influence of LH secrete Testosterone.
 Inside testicular lobule, coiled seminiferous tubules are present.
 Seminiferous tubules have two types of cells; (i) Primary male germ cells & (ii) sertoli cells.
 Primary male germ cells undergo spermatogenesis to produce Sperms under the influence of testosterone.
 Sertoli cells under the influence of FSH, secrete three polypeptides namely Androgen binding protein
(ABP), activin and inhibin⋅
 ABP concentrates androgen around testicular lobules.

(B) OVARY: Ovary is the female primary sex organ. Ovaries were discovered by steno in 1667.

Location: Located in the pelvic cavity, inside the abdomen. They remain suspended in pelvic cavity by means of
ligaments called masovarium.

Structure: Each ovary has; Germinal epithelium, tunica albuginea and stroma.

 Stroma consists of outer cortex and inner medulla.

 Germinal epithelium undergo oogenesis.

Hormones:

 During follicular phase of menstrual cycle, under the influence of FSH, Ovarian follicles present in cortex
develop into graafian follicle.
 During this period, granulosa layer of graafian follicle secretes estrogen.
 After ovulation, the graafian follicle converts into corpus luteum & under the influence of LH, corpus
luteum secretes progesterone.