CN Internals Study Guide

To help you excel in your CN Internals, here's a structured approach with answers from Unit 4: Data
Link Layer and Unit 5: Physical Layer based on the given question bank. Answers are divided as per
Part A (2 marks) and Part B (8 marks).

Unit 4: Data Link Layer

Part A - 2 Marks

1. Define CSMA/CD.
Answer: CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) is a network
protocol that listens to the network medium to avoid collisions. If a collision is detected, it
stops transmission and retries after a random time interval.
2. Differentiate between Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast.
Answer:
Unicast: Communication from one sender to one receiver.
Multicast: Communication from one sender to multiple specified receivers.
Broadcast: Communication from one sender to all devices in the network.
3. What is the purpose of NAV?
Answer: NAV (Network Allocation Vector) is a timer used in wireless LANs to indicate the
duration for which the medium will be reserved. It helps in avoiding collisions by other
devices during data transmission.
4. Define Piggybacking and its usefulness.
Answer: Piggybacking refers to attaching acknowledgment information to outgoing data
frames to improve efficiency in bi-directional communication by reducing the overhead of
separate acknowledgment frames.

Part B - 8 Marks

1. Explain in detail about wireless LAN IEEE 802.11 architecture.

Answer: IEEE 802.11 architecture includes components like:
Stations (STAs): Devices with wireless network interfaces.
Access Points (APs): Connect wireless devices to wired networks.
Basic Service Set (BSS): A group of devices communicating with an AP.
Extended Service Set (ESS): Multiple BSSs connected via a distribution system.
It uses protocols like DCF (Distributed Coordination Function) for random access and PCF
(Point Coordination Function) for contention-free communication.
2. Explain the concept of random access protocol to control the broadcast media access.
Answer: Random access protocols like ALOHA, CSMA, and CSMA/CD handle media access by:
Allowing nodes to transmit data without prior coordination.
Handling collisions using mechanisms such as back-off algorithms.
Examples include:
Pure ALOHA: Transmits anytime but handles collisions.
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 Slotted ALOHA: Synchronizes transmissions into time slots.

Unit 5: Physical Layer

Part A - 2 Marks

1. List out the criteria necessary for an effective and efficient network.
Answer:
Performance: Throughput and latency.
Reliability: Fault tolerance and error detection.
Scalability: Ability to expand the network.
Security: Protection against unauthorized access.
2. Define Modulation.
Answer: Modulation is the process of varying a carrier signal's properties (amplitude,
frequency, or phase) to transmit data over a medium effectively.
3. What is the propagation delay of a signal traveling 4 km at 10 m/s?
Distance
Answer: Propagation delay t = Speed
.
​

4000
t= = 400 seconds.
10
​

4. Differentiate between guided and unguided media.

Answer:
Guided media: Physical transmission medium like cables (e.g., twisted pair, coaxial,
optical fiber).
Unguided media: Wireless transmission through air or space (e.g., radio, microwave).

Part B - 8 Marks

1. Explain the principles involved in the transmission of data through optical fibers.
Answer: Optical fiber data transmission involves:
Principle: Total internal reflection of light within the core.
Structure: Core (transmits light), cladding (reflects light), and protective coating.
Advantages: High bandwidth, long-distance transmission, and immunity to
electromagnetic interference.
Types: Single-mode (long-distance) and multi-mode (short-distance).
2. Illustrate in detail about Virtual-Circuit Switching Network.
Answer:
Virtual-Circuit Switching: Establishes a pre-defined path before data transmission.
Phases:
Setup: A connection is established.
Data transfer: Packets follow the virtual circuit.
Teardown: Connection is released.
Advantages: Reliable data delivery and reduced congestion.
Example: Frame Relay, ATM.

Let me know if you need further elaboration or specific topics!

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Unit 4: Data Link Layer

Part A - 2 Marks

1. Define CSMA/CD.
Answer: CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection) is a media access
control protocol used in Ethernet networks. Before transmitting data, a station listens to the
medium to check if it is free. If it detects another transmission, it stops and waits for a
random period before trying again. This reduces collisions in shared networks.

2. Differentiate between Unicast, Multicast, and Broadcast.

Answer:
Unicast: Data is sent from one sender to one specific receiver. Example: HTTP requests.
Multicast: Data is sent from one sender to a group of receivers who have opted to
receive it. Example: Streaming services.
Broadcast: Data is sent from one sender to all devices in the network. Example: ARP
requests in a LAN.

3. What is the purpose of NAV?

Answer: NAV (Network Allocation Vector) is used in wireless networks to manage access to
the medium. It indicates how long a device should wait before attempting to use the medium,
ensuring proper channel access and reducing collisions during transmissions.

4. Define Piggybacking and its usefulness.

Answer: Piggybacking is a technique in bi-directional communication where acknowledgment
(ACK) information is attached to outgoing data frames rather than sending a separate ACK
frame. This improves network efficiency by reducing overhead.

Part B - 8 Marks

1. Explain in detail about wireless LAN IEEE 802.11 architecture.

Answer:
Wireless LANs based on IEEE 802.11 standards are widely used for providing wireless
connectivity. Its architecture includes the following components:
1. Stations (STAs):
Devices equipped with a wireless network interface card (NIC), such as laptops,
smartphones, and tablets.
2. Access Points (APs):
Acts as a bridge between wireless clients (STAs) and wired networks.
Provides connection and manages traffic within a wireless network.
3. Basic Service Set (BSS):
The smallest building block of a wireless LAN.
A group of STAs that communicate with an AP forms an infrastructure BSS.

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 In the absence of an AP, the network is called an Independent BSS (IBSS), also known as
an ad hoc network.
4. Extended Service Set (ESS):
Composed of multiple BSSs connected via a distribution system (DS), usually a wired
network.
Ensures seamless connectivity when moving between BSSs in the same ESS.
5. Distribution System (DS):
A wired network that connects multiple APs, enabling communication between different
BSSs in an ESS.
Protocols:
Distributed Coordination Function (DCF): Uses CSMA/CA for contention-based access.
Point Coordination Function (PCF): Ensures contention-free access for real-time
applications by polling stations.
Advantages:
Mobility within coverage areas.
Flexibility and scalability.
Cost-effective for network expansion.
Disadvantages:
Susceptible to interference.
Security concerns like unauthorized access.

2. Explain the concept of random access protocol to control the broadcast media access.
Answer:
Random access protocols are used in broadcast communication systems to manage shared
medium access. These protocols allow devices to transmit whenever they have data but
include mechanisms to handle collisions effectively.
Types of Random Access Protocols:

1. ALOHA:
Pure ALOHA: Devices transmit data whenever they have data to send. Collisions
are resolved by retransmissions after a random time.
Slotted ALOHA: Time is divided into slots, and transmissions are allowed only at
the beginning of slots, reducing collisions.
2. CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access):
Devices sense the medium before transmission.
Types include:
1-Persistent CSMA: Transmits immediately after the medium becomes idle.
Non-Persistent CSMA: Waits for a random time after sensing the medium
busy.
p-Persistent CSMA: Transmits with a probability p when the medium is idle.
3. CSMA/CD (Collision Detection):
Detects collisions during transmission and stops sending data.
Suitable for wired Ethernet networks.
4. CSMA/CA (Collision Avoidance):
Prevents collisions by reserving the medium before transmission.

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 Used in wireless networks due to the difficulty in detecting collisions.
Advantages:
Simple and efficient for low traffic.
Scalable to large networks.
Disadvantages:
Performance degrades with increased traffic.
Collisions lead to retransmissions, wasting bandwidth.
Use Cases:
Wireless LANs (CSMA/CA).
Ethernet networks (CSMA/CD).

Let me know if you'd like to continue with Unit 5: Physical Layer or need further elaboration on these
topics!

Unit 4: Data Link Layer - Part A (2 Marks)

Here are the answers to questions 1–25 from Unit 4, Part A.

1. Define BSS and ESS-transition.

Answer:
BSS (Basic Service Set): The basic building block of a WLAN, consisting of stations
communicating with each other within a single AP.
ESS-transition: Movement of a station between two BSSs within the same ESS (Extended
Service Set) while maintaining seamless communication.

2. Mention the different frame types in IEEE 802.11.

Answer:
Management Frames: Establish and maintain connections (e.g., beacon frames).
Control Frames: Coordinate access to the medium (e.g., RTS/CTS).
Data Frames: Carry user data between devices.

3. List out the responsibilities of Data Link Layer.

Answer:
Framing
Error detection and correction
Flow control
Medium access control
Addressing (MAC addresses)

4. Define CSMA/CD.
Answer: Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection (CSMA/CD) is a protocol used
in Ethernet. It ensures that devices sense the medium before transmission and handle
collisions by stopping transmission and retrying after a random time.

5. Define checksum.

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 Answer: Checksum is an error-detection mechanism where a sender adds a computed value
to the frame, and the receiver rechecks this value to detect errors.

6. Can the value of a checksum be all 0’s (in binary)? Justify your answer.
Answer: Yes, the checksum can be all 0's if the sum of all bits in the data frame results in zero.
This typically happens if the data is balanced.

7. Differentiate between unicast, multicast, and broadcast.

Answer:
Unicast: One sender to one receiver.
Multicast: One sender to a group of receivers.
Broadcast: One sender to all devices in the network.

8. Mention the advantage and disadvantage of stop-and-wait flow control.

Answer:
Advantage: Simple and easy to implement.
Disadvantage: Low efficiency due to waiting for acknowledgments after each frame.

9. Define ARQ.
Answer: Automatic Repeat reQuest (ARQ) is an error-control protocol where the receiver
requests retransmission of corrupted or lost frames.

10. Differentiate between bit stuffing and byte stuffing.

Answer:
Bit stuffing: Adding extra bits to data to prevent confusion with control flags.
Byte stuffing: Adding special escape bytes to distinguish data from control information.

11. List the most common kinds of Baseband 802.3 LAN.

Answer:
10BASE-T
100BASE-TX
1000BASE-T

12. Distinguish between forward error correction and error correction by retransmission.
Answer:
Forward Error Correction: Errors are corrected without retransmission using
redundant data.
Error Correction by Retransmission: The sender retransmits frames upon detecting
errors.

13. List out the steps followed in generating checksum.

Answer:
1. Divide the data into equal segments.
2. Compute the sum of the segments.
3. Add the overflow bits (if any).
4. Take the complement of the sum.

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 14. Can the value of a checksum be all 0s (in binary)? Defend your answer.
Answer: Yes, it is possible if the data content results in the checksum computation yielding a
zero sum.

15. How does a single-bit error differ from a burst error?

Answer:
Single-bit error: Only one bit in the data unit is altered.
Burst error: Two or more consecutive bits in the data unit are altered.

16. Define Piggybacking and its usefulness.

Answer: Piggybacking refers to attaching acknowledgment information to outgoing data
frames to reduce the overhead of separate acknowledgment frames.

17. Differentiate between unicast, multicast, and broadcast.

Answer: Same as question 7.

18. Mention the different kinds of Ethernet networks.

Answer:
Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps)
Gigabit Ethernet (1 Gbps)
10 Gigabit Ethernet (10 Gbps)

19. What is the purpose of NAV?

Answer: NAV (Network Allocation Vector) indicates the duration for which the medium is
reserved, ensuring other devices do not transmit during this time.

20. Why would the token-ring protocol be inefficient if a LAN had a very large perimeter?
Answer: A large perimeter increases the time for the token to circulate, resulting in higher
delays and reduced network efficiency.

21. What is the necessity of framing?

Answer: Framing divides the data stream into manageable units (frames) and adds control
information, allowing for synchronization, error detection, and retransmission of erroneous
frames.

22. What is the maximum window size for data transmission using the selective reject protocol
with n-bit frame sequence numbers?
Answer: 2n−1 . For example, with a 3-bit sequence number, the maximum window size is
23−1 = 4.

23. What are some of the possible services that a link-layer protocol can offer to the network
layer?
Answer:
Framing
Error detection and correction
Flow control
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 Medium access control

24. What is the probability that at least one station out of N nodes transmits in a given time slot
of slotted ALOHA?
Answer: 1 − e−G , where G is the average number of packet transmission attempts per time
slot.

25. Suppose the round-trip propagation delay for a 10 Mbps Ethernet with a 48-bit jamming
signal is 46.4 ms. What is the minimum frame size?
Answer:
Minimum frame size = 2 × Propagation delay × Bandwidth.
Frame size = 2 × 46.4 ms × 10 Mbps = 9280 bits = 1160 bytes.

Let me know if you want me to start Part B for Unit 4!

Unit 5: Physical Layer - Part A (2 Marks)

Here are the answers to questions 1–28 from Unit 5, Part A.

1. Suppose a signal travels through a transmission medium, and its power is reduced to one-
half. Find out the Loss of power for the signal.
Answer:
Loss (dB) = 10 ⋅ log10 ( PPinitial
​

final ​
). ​

Loss = 10 ⋅ log10 (2) = 3 dB.

​

2. List out the criteria necessary for an effective and efficient network.
Answer:
Performance: Throughput, delay, and bandwidth.
Reliability: Fault tolerance and error detection.
Scalability: Ability to grow.
Security: Protecting data integrity and privacy.

3. For n devices in a network, what is the number of cable links required for a mesh and ring
topology?
Answer:
n(n−1)
Mesh: 2 links.
​

Ring: n links.

4. What are the criteria used to evaluate transmission medium?

Answer:
Bandwidth
Propagation delay
Cost
Noise immunity

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 5. A signal is transmitted from point A to point B. The distance between station A and station B
is 4 km, and the signal is transmitted at 10 m/s. What is the propagation delay?
Answer:
Propagation delay t = Distance
Speed
. ​

4000
t= 10
​
= 400 s.

6. If a peak voltage value of a signal is 30 times the peak voltage value of the noise, calculate
its SNR and SNR dB.
Answer:
SNR = Signal Power
Noise Power = 30. ​

SNR (dB) = 10 ⋅ log10 (30) ≈ 14.77 dB.

​

7. Assume 6 devices are arranged in a mesh topology. How many cables are needed? How many
ports are needed for each device?
Answer:
6(6−1)
Number of cables: 2 = 15.
​

Ports per device: 6 − 1 = 5.

8. If a periodic signal is decomposed into five sine waves with frequencies of 100, 300, 500, 700,
and 900 Hz, find its bandwidth.
Answer:
Bandwidth = 900 − 100 = 800 Hz.

9. List out the criteria used to evaluate transmission medium.

Answer: (Same as question 4.)

10. Categorize the four basic topologies in terms of line configuration.

Answer:
Bus: Single line shared by all devices.
Ring: Closed loop configuration.
Star: Central node connected to all devices.
Mesh: Direct connection between every pair of nodes.

11. Differentiate between guided and unguided media.

Answer:
Guided media: Uses physical paths like cables (e.g., twisted pair, fiber optic).
Unguided media: Uses wireless signals (e.g., radio waves, microwaves).

12. Group the OSI layers by function.

Answer:
Application: Application, Presentation, Session.
Transport: Transport layer.
Network: Network layer.
Data link: Data Link layer.
Physical: Physical layer.

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 13. Define Modulation.
Answer: Modulation is the process of varying a carrier signal's properties (amplitude,
frequency, or phase) to encode data for transmission.

14. Assume we need to download text documents at the rate of 100 pages per minute. Find the
required bit rate of the channel.
Answer:
Assume 1 page = 24 lines, 1 line = 80 characters, 1 character = 8 bits.
Bit rate = 100 × 24 × 80 × 8 ≈ 1.536 Mbps.

15. Define Topology.

Answer: Topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of devices and connections in
a network.

16. If a sine wave has an offset of 16 cycle with respect to time, what is its phase in degrees and
​

radians?
Answer:
Phase in degrees: 16 × 360 = 60∘ .
​

Phase in radians: 16 × 2π ≈ 1.047 radians.

​

17. Define Refraction.

Answer: Refraction is the bending of a wave as it passes from one medium to another with
different densities, affecting the wave's speed and direction.

18. A signal travels from point A to point B. At point A, the signal power is 200 W. At point B, the
power is 170 W. Calculate the attenuation in decibels.
Answer:
Attenuation (dB) = 10 ⋅ log10 ( 200
170
​ ) ≈ 1.42 dB.
​

19. How does sky propagation differ from line-of-sight propagation?

Answer:
Sky propagation: Uses the ionosphere to reflect signals over long distances.
Line-of-sight propagation: Requires unobstructed path between transmitter and
receiver, typically for high frequencies.

20. A periodic composite signal contains frequencies from 20 to 30 kHz, each with an amplitude
of 8V. Draw the frequency spectrum for the signal.
Answer: A bar graph with x-axis ranging from 20–30 kHz and y-axis showing 8V amplitude for
each frequency component.

21. List out the fundamental characteristics determining the effectiveness of a data
communication system.
Answer:
Delivery: Accurate delivery of data.
Timeliness: Delivering data within acceptable time limits.
Accuracy: Error-free transmission.

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 22. List out the advantages of multipoint connection over point-to-point connection.
Answer:
Cost-effective as multiple devices share a single link.
Reduces cabling requirements.

23. What type of transmission is used to send a digital signal from one station to another?
Answer: Baseband transmission is used for sending digital signals directly without
modulation.

24. A light signal is traveling through fiber. What is the delay in the signal if the length of the
fiber-optic cable is 5 m and 500 m, assuming a propagation speed of 2 × 108 m/s?
Answer:
5
For 5 m: t = 2×10 8 = 25 ns.
​

500
For 500 m: t = 2×108
​ = 2.5 μs.

25. What is the bit rate of the link when two channels with bit rates 100 Kbps and 200 Kbps are
multiplexed?
Answer: Total bit rate = 100 + 200 = 300 Kbps.

26. Distinguish between a link and a channel in multiplexing.

Answer:
Link: The physical medium connecting devices.
Channel: Logical subdivision of the link for transmitting multiple signals.

27. If the bandwidth of the channel is 5 Kbps, how long does it take to send a frame of 1,000,000
bits out of this device?
Answer:
Frame size 1,000,000
t= Bandwidth
​ = 5,000
​ = 200 seconds.

28. What is the power at the end for 1 kHz and 10 kHz if the power at the beginning of a 1 km 18-
gauge UTP is 300 mW?
Answer:
For 1 kHz, attenuation depends on the cable's specific loss parameters. Assuming standard
loss rates, detailed calculation requires exact values.

Let me know if you need further elaboration or continuation with Part B!

Unit 4: Data Link Layer - Part B (8 Marks)

Here are detailed answers to questions 1–21.

1. Examine different persistence methods when a station finds a channel busy.

Answer:
When a channel is busy, the following persistence methods are used:

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 1. 1-Persistent:
The station continuously senses the channel.
If the channel becomes idle, the station immediately transmits.
If multiple stations act simultaneously, collisions may occur.
Advantage: Simple.
Disadvantage: High collision probability.
2. Non-Persistent:
The station senses the channel.
If the channel is busy, it waits for a random period and senses again.
Advantage: Reduces collisions.
Disadvantage: Higher delays.
3. p-Persistent:
Applies to slotted channels.
If the channel is idle, the station transmits with a probability p.
If not transmitted, it waits for the next slot.
Advantage: Balances efficiency and collision reduction.

2. Explain in detail about various categories of 802.3 standard Ethernet.

Answer:
Ethernet standards under IEEE 802.3 specify LAN protocols for wired communication.
Categories include:
1. 10BASE-T:
Operates at 10 Mbps using twisted pair cables.
Maximum segment length: 100 m.
2. 100BASE-T (Fast Ethernet):
Operates at 100 Mbps.
Uses Cat5 cables.
3. 1000BASE-T (Gigabit Ethernet):
Operates at 1 Gbps over Cat5e/Cat6 cables.
4. 10GBASE-T:
Operates at 10 Gbps.
Used for data centers and high-speed networks.

3. Differentiate between DCF and PCF in wireless LAN IEEE 802.11.

Answer:
DCF (Distributed Coordination Function):
Based on CSMA/CA.
Provides contention-based access.
Suitable for asynchronous data transfer.
PCF (Point Coordination Function):
Provides contention-free access using a central controller (AP).
Suitable for real-time applications.
Comparison Table:

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 Feature DCF PCF
Access Mode Contention-based Contention-free
Control Decentralized Centralized (via AP)

Applications Asynchronous data Real-time applications

4. Explain the concept of random access protocol to control broadcast media access.
Answer:
Random Access Protocols allow devices to transmit without coordination but include
mechanisms to handle collisions:
Pure ALOHA: Transmits any time; retransmits after random delays upon collision.
Slotted ALOHA: Uses fixed slots for transmission to reduce collisions.
CSMA (Carrier Sense Multiple Access): Senses medium before transmitting. Variants:
1-Persistent, Non-Persistent, p-Persistent.
CSMA/CD: Detects collisions, stops transmission, and retries.

5. Suppose we want to transmit the message `1101010101` and protect it from errors using the
CRC polynomial g(x) = x4 + x2 + 1. Use polynomial long division to determine the
transmitted message.
Answer:
Polynomial: g(x) = x4 + x2 + 1.
1. Append 4 zeros to the message: `11010101010000`.
2. Perform polynomial division by g(x).
3. The remainder becomes the CRC code.
Transmitted Message: `1101010101 + CRC`.

6. Draw the sender and receiver windows for a system using Go-Back-N ARQ for the following:
Answer:
(Diagrams for different scenarios: Acknowledged, NAK received, etc.)
Sender Window: Slides forward as ACKs are received.
Receiver Window: Fixed, waiting for specific frames.

7. A frame of 1000 bits is sent over a 106 bps link between two hosts. The propagation time is 25
ms. Frames are to be transmitted to maximally pack them in transit.
Answer:
1. Propagation delay: 25 ms = 0.025 s.
2. Transmission time per frame: 1000106
​= 0.001 s.
0.025
3. Frames in transit: 0.001 = 25 frames.
​

8. What is the minimum number of bits required to represent the sequence numbers distinctly?
Answer:
For Go-Back-N, Window size = 2n − 1.
Given N = 25: 2n − 1 ≥ 25.
n = 5 bits.

9. Explain in detail about wireless LAN 802.11 MAC frame format.

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 Answer:
Frame Control: Type, subtype, and QoS bits.
Duration: NAV field.
Address fields: Source, destination, BSS ID.
Sequence Control: Frame sequencing.
Payload: User data.
FCS: Frame Check Sequence for error detection.

10. Explain in detail about wireless LAN IEEE 802.11 architecture.

(Already answered above in Unit 4, Part B, Question 1.)

11. Explain in detail about Standard Ethernet.

Answer:
Standard Ethernet operates at 10 Mbps over twisted pair/coaxial cables.
Uses CSMA/CD for media access.
Frame format includes preamble, destination address, source address, payload, and
CRC.
Maximum segment length: 100 m (with repeaters for longer distances).

12. What is the remainder obtained by dividing x7 + x5 + 1 by x3 + 1? Compute the CRC.

Answer: Polynomial division yields the remainder, which is the CRC.

13. Examine in detail about CSMA/CD.

Answer:
CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Detection):
Steps: Sense channel → Transmit if idle → Detect collision → Back-off and retry.
Reduces network congestion and collisions.

14. Why is an ARP query sent within a broadcast frame? Why is an ARP response sent within a
frame with a specific destination MAC address?
Answer:
Query Broadcast: Ensures all devices receive the request to find the intended device's
IP-to-MAC mapping.
Response Unicast: Only the querying device needs the MAC address.

15. Frames of 1000 bits are sent over a 106 bps link with a propagation delay of 25 ms. What is
the minimum number of bits for sequence numbers?
Answer: Same as Question 8.

16. Explain the concept of random access protocol to control the broadcast media access.
(Already answered above in Question 4.)

17. Suppose the information content of a packet is the bit pattern `10101010101011`, and the
generator is `1011`. Apply CRC.
Answer: Append zeros to the message and divide using the generator. The remainder is the
CRC.

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 18. Explain channel access method and MAC frame in IEEE 802.3.
Answer:
Channel Access: CSMA/CD.
MAC Frame Fields: Preamble, destination/source addresses, type, data, CRC.

19. Sliding Window Protocol with sender window size 25. How much time must the sender wait
before sending the next frame?
Answer: Depends on round-trip time and window size.

20. Explain the concept of channel partitioning protocol to control the broadcast media access.
Answer: Divides bandwidth into fixed or dynamic slots (e.g., TDMA, FDMA).
21. (Optional based on questions provided.)

Let me know if you need diagrams or further elaboration!

Unit 5: Physical Layer - Part B (8 Marks)

Here are detailed answers to Questions 1–15.

1. What is meant by topology? Explain the topologies of the network.

Answer:
Topology refers to the arrangement of devices and their connections in a network. It determines
the layout and communication methods within the network.

Types of Topologies:
1. Bus Topology:
Single central cable connects all devices.
Advantages: Cost-effective, simple.
Disadvantages: Single point of failure, difficult troubleshooting.
2. Star Topology:
All devices connect to a central hub.
Advantages: Easy troubleshooting and scalability.
Disadvantages: Hub failure affects the entire network.
3. Ring Topology:
Devices connect in a closed loop.
Advantages: Consistent data transmission.
Disadvantages: Single break disrupts the network.
4. Mesh Topology:
Every device connects to every other device.
Advantages: High fault tolerance, redundancy.
Disadvantages: Expensive and complex to set up.
5. Hybrid Topology:
Combines multiple topologies.
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 Advantages: Flexible and scalable.
Disadvantages: Complex configuration.

2. Consider sending voice from Host A to Host B over a packet-switched network. Host A converts
analog voice to a digital 64 kbps bit stream and groups the bits into 48-byte packets. There is one
link between Host A and B; its transmission rate is 1 Mbps, and its propagation delay is 2 ms. How
much time elapses from when a bit is created to when it is decoded at Host B?

Answer:
Packet size: 48 × 8 = 384 bits.
Transmission time per packet:
Packet size 384
Transmission rate ​ = 1,000,000 ​ = 0.384 ms.
Total transmission time for all packets:
0.384 ms.
Propagation delay: 2 ms.
Total time per packet: 0.384 + 2 = 2.384 ms.

3. A collection of five routers is connected in a point-to-point subnet. If it takes 100 ms of

computer time to generate and inspect each topology, how long will it take to inspect all possible
topologies?

Answer:
Total topologies for n routers: 2n(n−1)/2 .
For 5 routers: 25(5−1)/2 = 210 = 1024 topologies.
Total time: 1024 × 100 ms = 102, 400 ms = 102.4 seconds.

4. Analyze in detail about types of Guided Transmission medium.

Answer:
Guided Transmission Media: Use physical paths like cables for signal transmission. Types include:

1. Twisted Pair Cable:

Two insulated copper wires twisted together.
Advantages: Cost-effective, widely used.
Disadvantages: Susceptible to electromagnetic interference (EMI).
2. Coaxial Cable:
Central conductor surrounded by insulation, shielding, and outer plastic cover.
Advantages: High bandwidth, better EMI resistance.
Disadvantages: Expensive, bulky.
3. Fiber Optic Cable:
Uses light signals for transmission.
Advantages: High bandwidth, long-distance transmission, immune to EMI.
Disadvantages: Expensive, fragile.

5. Illustrate in detail about Circuit-Switched Network with a neat diagram.

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 Answer:
Circuit-switched networks establish a dedicated communication path between sender and receiver.
Phases:
1. Connection Setup: Dedicated path is established.
2. Data Transfer: Continuous stream of data is sent.
3. Connection Teardown: Path is released.
Advantages: Reliable data transfer.
Disadvantages: Inefficient use of resources.
Diagram: (Show nodes connected with a dedicated circuit for communication).

6. Explain the principles involved in the transmission of data through optical fibers.

Answer:
Optical fibers use light signals for high-speed data transmission.

Principles:
Total Internal Reflection: Light is confined within the core due to reflection at the cladding
boundary.
Structure: Core (transmits light), cladding (reflects light), and buffer (protects fiber).
Types: Single-mode (long distances) and Multi-mode (short distances).
Advantages: High bandwidth, low attenuation, EMI immunity.

7. Compare and contrast Analog signal with Digital signal.

Answer:

Aspect Analog Signal Digital Signal

Representation Continuous waveforms Discrete binary values

Noise Sensitivity High Low
Bandwidth Usage Typically lower Higher
Applications Audio, video signals Computers, digital systems

8. Assume an organization has two offices, one on the east coast and one on the west coast. The
west coast uses a bus topology LAN; the east coast uses a star topology LAN. Design a network to
connect the LANs.

Answer:
Design:
Use routers at each LAN.
Establish a WAN connection between the routers via fiber optic cables.
Implement VPN for secure communication.

9. Explain in detail about Composite Analog Signal in Data Communication.

Answer:
Composite analog signals consist of multiple sine waves with different frequencies, amplitudes,

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 and phases.
Use Case: Audio signals, video signals.
Characteristics: Bandwidth = Highest frequency - Lowest frequency.

10. Illustrate in detail about Virtual-Circuit Switching Network.

Answer:
Virtual-circuit networks establish a logical path for communication.
Phases:
1. Setup: Logical path is created.
2. Data Transfer: Packets follow the virtual circuit.
3. Teardown: Path is released.
Advantages: Reliable and efficient.
Disadvantages: Requires initial setup.

11. Examine various modes in fiber optic cable with advantages and disadvantages.

Answer:

Mode Advantages Disadvantages

Single-mode Long distances, high speed Expensive, complex alignment
Multi-mode Cost-effective, easier to install Limited distance, lower speed

12. Consider four sources each creating 150 characters per second. If the interleaved unit is a
character and 1 synchronizing bit is added to each frame, calculate:

(Detailed step-by-step calculations for data rate, duration, etc.)

13. The attenuation of a signal is −10 dB. What is the final signal power if it was originally 10 W?

Answer:
Attenuation
Pfinal = Pinitial × 10
​ ​
10
​

= 10 × 10−1 = 1 W.

14. Use synchronous TDM and combine 20 digital sources. Each output slot carries 2 bits. Answer
the following:

(Detailed calculations for frame size, output rate, etc.)

15. Consider four 1-kbps connections multiplexed together. Find:

(Detailed calculations for duration, time slot, etc.)

Let me know if you need further elaboration on specific questions!

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Unit 5: Physical Layer - Part B (8 Marks)

Detailed answers to Questions 11–15 from Unit 5, Part B.

11. Examine various modes in fiber optic cable with advantages and disadvantages.

Answer: Fiber optic cables transmit data using light signals and are classified based on the mode
of light propagation. The two primary modes are single-mode and multi-mode fibers.

Single-Mode Fiber (SMF):

Description:
A small core (approximately 8–10 micrometers in diameter).
Allows only one light mode to propagate.
Used for long-distance communication and high data rates.
Advantages:
Minimal signal attenuation and dispersion.
High bandwidth and longer transmission distances.
Ideal for high-speed, long-distance communication like intercontinental networks.
Disadvantages:
Expensive due to precise alignment and specialized components.
Requires laser light sources, increasing costs.

Multi-Mode Fiber (MMF):

Description:
A larger core (50–62.5 micrometers in diameter).
Multiple light modes propagate simultaneously, resulting in modal dispersion.
Best suited for short-distance communication.
Advantages:
Cost-effective for short-distance communication (e.g., local area networks).
Easier to install and maintain.
Compatible with LED light sources, reducing equipment costs.
Disadvantages:
Higher signal attenuation and dispersion limit the distance.
Lower bandwidth compared to single-mode fiber.

Comparison Table:

Aspect Single-Mode Fiber Multi-Mode Fiber

Core Size 8–10 micrometers 50–62.5 micrometers

Light Source Laser LED

Bandwidth Higher Lower
Distance Long-distance communication Short-distance communication

Cost High Low

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12. Consider four sources each creating 150 characters per second. If the
interleaved unit is a character and 1 synchronizing bit is added to each frame,
calculate:

(1) Data rate of each source

Data per character = 8 bits.

Data rate = 150 characters/second × 8 = 1200 bps.

(2) Duration of each character in each source

1 1
Duration = character rate
​ = 150
​ = 0.0067 seconds (6.7 ms).

(3) Frame rate

Frame rate = Character rate = 150 frames/second.

(4) Duration of each frame

1 1
Duration of one frame = Frame rate
​ = 150
​ = 6.7 ms.

(5) Number of bits in each frame

Bits per frame = (4 sources × 8 bits) + 1 synchronizing bit = 33 bits/frame.

(6) Data rate of the link

Data rate = Frame rate × Bits per frame = 150 × 33 = 4950 bps.

13. The attenuation of a signal is -10 dB. What is the final signal power if it was
originally 10 W?

Answer:

The relationship for attenuation is:

Pfinal
Attenuation (dB) = 10 ⋅ log10 ( )
​

Pinitial
​ ​

Given:

Attenuation = −10 dB, Pinitial ​ = 10 W.

Rearranging for Pfinal :

​

Attenuation
Pfinal = Pinitial ⋅ 10
​ ​
10
​

−10
Pfinal = 10 ⋅ 10
​
10
​

= 10 ⋅ 0.1 = 1 W.

Final Power: 1 W.
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14. Use synchronous TDM and combine 20 digital sources. Each output slot carries 2
bits, and one extra bit is added to each frame for synchronization. Answer the
following:

(a) Size of an output frame in bits:

Frame size = (Sources × Bits per source) + Sync bit.

Frame size = (20 × 2) + 1 = 41 bits.

(b) Output frame rate:

Frame rate = Source rate = Rate of each source.

(c) Duration of an output frame:

1
Frame duration = Frame rate
. ​

(d) Output data rate:

Data rate = Frame rate × Frame size.

(e) Efficiency of the system:

Data bits
Efficiency = Total bits in frame ​ × 100.

15. Consider four 1-kbps connections multiplexed together. A unit is 1 bit. Calculate:

(1) Duration of 1 bit before multiplexing:

Bit duration = Data1 rate ​ = 1

1000
​ = 1 ms.

(2) Transmission rate of the link:

Total rate = Sum of rates of all sources.

Rate = 4 × 1 kbps = 4 kbps.

(3) Duration of a time slot:

Time slot = Duration of one bit = 1 ms.

(4) Duration of a frame:

Frame duration = Time

slot × Number of connections.
Duration = 1 ms × 4 = 4 ms.

Let me know if further clarification or diagrams are needed!

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