BITS GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS

(BITS/BIT/BITM)

(AICTE Approved, Affiliated to RGPV Bhopal)

POWER SYSTEM
PROTECTION
EX-701
LAB MANUAL

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FACULTY INCHARGE
 CONTENTS

S.NO. TITLE OF REMARK

EXPERIMENT
01 Introduction to MATLAB and Electrical Transients
Analyzer Program (ETAP)
02 Introduction to Power System Protection

IMPACT OF INDUCTION MOTOR STARTING ON POWER

03 SYSTEM
SELECTION OF CIRCUIT BREAKER FOR DIFFERENT
04 BRANCHES OF A GIVEN POWER SYSTEM USING ETAP
05 Transient stability analysis of a given power system
using ETAP
06 Introduction to Ground Grid Modeling in ETAP
07 Ground Grid Modeling of a Given System using ETAP
08 Modeling of Single‐Phase Instantaneous Over‐Current
Relay using MATLAB
09 Modeling of a Three Phase Instantaneous Over‐Current
Relay using MATLAB
10 Modeling of a Differential Relay Using MATLAB
11 Comparison between the Step and Touch Potential of
a T‐Model and Square Model of Ground Grids under
Tolerable and Intolerable in ETAP
12 Modeling of an Over‐Current Relay using ETAP
13 Modeling of a Differential Relay Using ETAP

14 Modeling of Single‐Phase Definite Time Over‐Current

Relay using MATLAB
 EXPERIMENT NO: 01

Introduction to MATLAB and Electrical Transients

Analyzer Program (ETAP)
MATLAB

This is a very important tool used for making long complicated calculations and plotting
graphs of different functions depending upon our requirement. Using MATLAB an m‐file is
created in which the basic operations are performed which leads to simple short and simple
computations of some very complicated problems in no or very short time.

Some very important functions performed by MATLAB are given as follows:

 Matrix computations
 Vector Analysis
 Differential Equations computations
 Integration is possible
 Computer language programming
 Simulation
 Graph Plotation
 2‐D & 3‐D Plotting

Benefits:

Some Benefits of MATLAB are given as follows:

 Simple to use
 Fast computations are possible
 Wide working range
 Solution of matrix of any order
 Desired operations are performed in matrices
 Different Programming languages can be used
 Simulation is possible
Basic Commands:

Some basic MATLAB commands are given as follows:

Addition:

A+B

Subtraction:

A‐B

Multiplication:

A*B

Division:

A/B

Power:

A^B

Power Of each Element individually:

A.^B

Range Specification:

A:B

Square‐Root:

A=sqrt(B)

Where A & B are any arbitrary integers

Basic Matrix Operations:

This is a demonstration of some aspects of the MATLAB language.

Creating a Vector:

Let’s create a simple vector with 9 elements called

a. a = [1 2 3 4 6 4 3 4 5]
a=
1 2 3 4 6 4 3 4 5

Now let's add 2 to each element of our vector, a, and store the result in a new vector.

Notice how MATLAB requires no special handling of vector or matrix math.

Adding an element to a Vector:

b = a + 2b
=
3 4 5 6 8 6 5 6 7

Plots and Graphs:

Creating graphs in MATLAB is as easy as

one command. Let's plot the result of
our vector addition with grid lines.

Plot (b)
grid on

MATLAB can make other graph types as well,

with axis labels.
bar(b) xlabel('Sample #')
ylabel('Pounds')
 MATLAB can use symbols in plots as well. Here is an example using stars to mark the points.
MATLAB offers a variety of other symbols and line types.

Creating a matrix:

Creating a matrix is as easy as making a vector, using semicolons (;) to separate the rows of
a matrix.

A = [1 2 0; 2 5 ‐1; 4 10 ‐
1] A =
1 2 0
2 5 ‐1
4 10 ‐1

Adding a new Row:

B(4,:)=[7 8 9]
ans=
1 2 0
2 5 ‐1
4 10 ‐1
7 8 9
Adding a new Column:
C(:,4)=[7 8 9]
ans=
1 2 0 7
2 5 ‐1 8
4 10 ‐1 9
Transpose:

We can easily find the transpose of the matrix

A. B = A' B
=
1 2 4
2 5 10
0 ‐1 ‐1
Matrix Multiplication: Now let's multiply these two matrices together.
 Note again that MATLAB doesn't require you to deal with matrices as a collection of
numbers. MATLAB knows when you are dealing with matrices and adjusts your calculations
accordingly.

C=A * BC
=
5 12 24
12 30 59
24 59 117

Matrix Multiplication by corresponding elements:

Instead of doing a matrix multiply, we can multiply the corresponding elements of two
matrices or vectors using the’.* ‘operator.
C = A .* B C
=
1 4 0
4 25 ‐10
0 ‐10 1
Inverse:

Let's find the inverse of a matrix : X =

inv(A) X
=
5 2 ‐2
‐2 ‐1 1
0 ‐2 1

And then illustrate the fact that a matrix times its inverse is the identity matrix.
I = inv(A) * A I =
1 0 0
0 1 0
0 0 1

MATLAB has functions for nearly every type of common matrix calculation.
Eigen Values:

There are functions to obtain Eigen values:

eig(A)
ans =
3.7321
0.2679
1.0000

Polynomial coefficients:
The "poly" function generates a vector containing the coefficients of thecharacteristic polynomial.

The characteristic polynomial of a matrix A is p =

round(poly(A))

p=
1 ‐5 5 ‐1
We can easily find the roots of a polynomial using the roots function. These are

actually the eigenvalues of the original matrix.

roots (p)

ans =
3.7321
1.0000
0.2679
MATLAB has many applications beyond just matrix computation.

Vector Convolution:

To convolve two vectors : q =

conv (p, p)
q=
1 ‐10 35 ‐52 35 ‐10 1
 Or convolve again and plot the result.

r = conv (p, q)
plot (r);
r=
1 ‐15 90 ‐278 480 ‐480 278 ‐90 15 ‐1

Matrix Manipulation:

We start by creating a magic square and assigning it to the variable A. A =

magic(3)
A=
8 1 6
3 5 7
4 9 2

MATLAB IN POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION

The MATLAB System:

The MATLAB system consists of five main parts: Development Environment. This is the set of
tools and facilities that help you use MATLAB functions and
 files. Many of these tools are graphical user interfaces. It includes the MATLAB
desktop and Command Window, a command history, an editor and debugger, and browsers for
viewing help, the workspace, files, and the search path.

The MATLAB Mathematical Function Library:

This is a vast collection of computational algorithms ranging from elementary functions, like
sum, sine, cosine, and complex arithmetic, to more sophisticated functions like matrix
inverse, matrix Eigen values, Bessel functions, and fast Fourier transforms.

The MATLAB Language:

This is a high‐level matrix/array language with control flow statements, functions, data
structures, input/output, and object‐oriented programming features. It allows both
"programming in the small" to rapidly create quick and dirty throw‐away programs, and
"programming in the large" to create large and complex application programs.

Graphics:

MATLAB has extensive facilities for displaying vectors and matrices as graphs, as well as
annotating and printing these graphs. It includes high‐level functions for two‐dimensional and
three‐dimensional data visualization, image processing, animation, and presentation
graphics. It also includes low‐ level functions that allow you to fully customize the
appearance of graphics as well as to build complete graphical user interfaces on your MATLAB
applications.

The MATLAB Application Program Interface (API):

This is a library that allows you to write C and FORTRAN programs that interact with MATLAB.
It includes facilities for calling routines from MATLAB (dynamic linking), calling MATLAB as a
computational engine, and for reading and writing MAT‐files.
MATLAB Documentation:

MATLAB provides extensive documentation, in both printed and online format, to help you
learn about and use all of its features. If you are a new user, start with this Getting Started
book. It covers all the primary MATLAB features at a high level, including many examples. The
MATLAB online help provides task‐oriented and reference information about MATLAB features.
MATLAB documentation is also available in printed form and in PDF format.

Working with Matrices:

Generate matrices, load matrices, create matrices from M‐files and concatenation, and
delete matrix rows and columns.

More About Matrices and Arrays:

Use matrices for linear algebra, work with arrays, multivariate data, scalar expansion, and
logical subscripting, and use the find function.

Controlling Command Window Input and Output:

Change output format, suppress output, enter long lines, and edit at the command line.

Bioinformatics Toolbox:

The Bioinformatics Toolbox extends MATLAB to provide an integrated software environment

for genome and proteome analysis. Together, MATLAB and the Bioinformatics Toolbox give
scientists and engineer a set of computational tools to solve problems and build applications
in drug discovery, genetic engineering, and biological research. You can use the basic
bioinformatics functions provided with this toolbox to create more complex algorithms and
applications. These robust and well tested functions are the functions that you would
otherwise have to create yourself.Connecting to Web accessible databases, Reading and
converting between multiple data formats, Determining statistical characteristics of data,
 Manipulating and aligning sequences, Modeling patterns in biological sequences using Hidden
Markov Model (HMM) profiles, Reading, normalizing, and visualizing microarray data creating
and manipulating phylogenetic tree data interfacing with other bioinformatics software. The
field of bioinformatics is rapidly growing and will become increasingly important as biology
becomes a more analytical science.

The Bioinformatics Toolbox provides an open environment that you can customize for
development and deployment of the analytical tools you and scientists will need. Prototype
and develop algorithms Prototype new ideas in an open and extendable environment. Develop
algorithms using efficient string processing and statistical functions, view the source code for
existing functions, and use the code as a template for improving or creating your own
functions. See Prototype and Development Environment.

Visualize data Visualize sequence alignments, gene expression data, phylogenetic trees, and
protein structure analyses. See Data Visualization. Share and deploy applications Use an
interactive GUI builder to develop a custom graphical front end for your data analysis
programs. Create stand‐ alone applications that run separate from MATLAB. See Algorithm
Sharing and Application Deployment.

Control System Toolbox:

Building Models Describes how to build linear models, interconnect models, determine model
characteristics, convert between continuous‐ and discrete‐ time models, and how to perform
model order reduction on large scale models. This chapter develops a DC motor model from
basic laws of physics. Analyzing Models Introduces the LTI Viewer, graphical users interface
(GUI) that simplifies the task of viewing model responses. This chapter also discusses
command‐line functions for viewing model responses.

Designing Compensators Introduces the SISO Design Tool, a GUI that allows you to rapidly
iterate on compensator designs.

You can use this tool to adjust compensator gains and add dynamics, such as poles, zeros,
lead networks, and notch filters. This chapter also discusses command‐line functions for
compensator design and includes examples of LQR and Kalman filter design.

Curve Fitting Toolbox:

The Curve Fitting Toolbox is a collection of graphical user interfaces (GUIs) and M‐file
functions built on the MATLAB® technical computing environment. The toolbox provides you
with these main features: Data preprocessing such as sectioning and smoothing Parametric
and nonparametric data fitting: You can perform a parametric fit using a toolbox library
equation or using a custom equation. Library equations include polynomials, exponentials,
rationales, sums of Gaussians, and so on. Custom equations are equations that you define to
suit your specific curve fitting needs. You can perform a nonparametric fit using a smoothing
spine or various interpellants. Standard linear least squares, nonlinear least squares,
weighted least squares, constrained least squares, and robust fitting procedures Fit statistics
to assist you in determining the goodness of fit Analysis capabilities such as extrapolation,
differentiation, and integration A graphical environment that allows you to: Explore and
analyze data sets and fits visually and numerically Save your work in various formats including
 M‐files, binary files, and workspace variables.

Data Acquisition Toolbox:

Introduction to Data Acquisition provides you with general information about making
measurements with data acquisition hardware. The topics covered should help you
understand the specification sheet associated with your hardware. Getting started with the
Data Acquisition Toolbox describes the toolbox components, and shows you how to access
your hardware, examine your hardware resources, and get command line help.
Database Toolbox:

Overview of how databases connect to MATLAB, toolbox functions, the Visual Query Builder,
major features of the toolbox, and the expected background for users of this product. System
Requirements Supported platforms, MATLAB versions, databases, drivers, SQL commands,
data types, and related products. Setting Up a Data Source Before connecting to a database,
set up the data source for ODBC drivers or for JDBC drivers. Starting the Database Toolbox
Start using functions or the Visual Query Builder GUI, and learn how to get help for the
product.

Data feed Toolbox:

This document describes the Data feed Toolbox for MATLAB®. The Data feed Toolbox
effectively turns your MATLAB workstation into a financial data acquisition terminal. Using
the Data feed Toolbox; you can download a wide variety of security data from financial data
servers into your MATLAB workspace. Then, you can pass this data to MATLAB or to another
toolbox, such as the Financial Time Series Toolbox, for further analysis.

Filter Design Toolbox:

The Filter Design Toolbox is a collection of tools that provides advanced techniques for
designing, simulating, and analyzing digital filters. It extends the capabilities of the Signal
Processing Toolbox with filter architectures and design methods for complex real‐time DSP
applications, including adaptive filtering and MultiMate filtering, as well as filters
transformations. Used with the Fixed‐Point Toolbox, the Filter Design Toolbox provides
functions that simplify the design of fixed‐point filters and the analysis of quantization
effects. When used with the Filter Design HDL Coder, the Filter Design Toolbox lets you
generate VHDL and Verilog code for fixed‐point filters.

Key Features:

Advanced FIR filter design methods, including minimum‐order, minimum‐

 phase Perfect reconstruction and two‐channel FIR filter bank design Advanced IIR design
methods, including arbitrary magnitude, group‐delay equalizers, constrained‐pole radius,
peaking, notching, and comb filters Analysis and implementation of digital filters in
single‐precision floating‐point and fixed‐point arithmetic Support for IIR filters implemented in
second‐ order sections, including design, scaling, and section reordering Round‐off noise
analysis for filters implemented in single‐precision floating point or fixed point FIR and IIR
filter transformations, including low pass to low pass, low pass to high pass, and low pass to
multiband. Adaptive filter design, analysis, and implementation, including LMS‐based,
RLS‐based, lattice‐based, frequency‐domain, fast transversal, and affine projection Multi‐rate
filter design, analysis, and implementation, including cascaded integrator‐comb (CIC)
fixed‐point MultiMate filters VHDL and Verilog code generation for fixed‐point filters.

RF Toolbox:

The RF Toolbox enables you to create and combine RF circuits for simulation in the frequency
domain with support for both power and noise. You can read, write, analyze, combine, and
visualize RF network parameters. Work Directly with Network Parameter Data You can work
directly with your own network parameter data or with data from files. Functions enable you
to: Read and write RF data in Touchstone® .snp, .ynp, .znp, and .hnp formats, as well as the
Math Works .AMP format. Conversion among S, Y, Z, h, T, and ABCD network parameters Plot
your data on X‐Y plane and polar plane plots, as well as Smith® charts Calculate cascaded
S‐parameters and de‐embed S‐parameters from a cascaded network Calculate input and
output reflection coefficients, and voltage standing‐wave ratio (VSWR) at the reflection
coefficient.

Wavelet Toolbox:

Everywhere around us are signals that can be analyzed. For example, there are seismic
tremors, human speech, engine vibrations, medical images,
 financial data, music, and many other types of signals. Wavelet analysis is a new and
promising set of tools and techniques for analyzing these signals. The
Wavelet Toolbox is a collection of functions built on the MATLAB® Technical Computing
Environment. It provides tools for the analysis and synthesis of signals and images, and tools
for statistical applications, using wavelets and wavelet packets within the framework of
MATLAB.

The MathWorks provides several products that are relevant to the kinds of tasks you can
perform with the Wavelet Toolbox.

The Wavelets Toolbox provides two categories of tools: Command line functions Graphical
interactive tools the first category of tools is made up of functions.

Simulink:

Simulink® is a software package for modeling, simulating, and analyzing dynamic systems.

It supports linear and nonlinear systems, modeled in continuous time, sampled time, or a
hybrid of the two. Systems can also be MultiMate, i.e., have different parts that are sampled
or updated at different rates. Simulink encourages you to try things out. You can easily build
models from scratch, or take an existing model and add to it. Simulations are interactive, so
you can change parameters on the fly and immediately see what happens.

A goal of Simulink is to give you a sense of the fun of modeling and simulation, through an
environment that encourages you to pose a question, model it, and see what happens. With
Simulink, you can move beyond idealized linear models to explore more realistic nonlinear
models, factoring in friction, air resistance, gear slippage, hard stops, and the other things
that describe real‐ world phenomena. Simulink turns your computer into a lab for modeling
and analyzing systems that simply wouldn't be possible or practical otherwise, whether the
behavior of an automotive clutch system, the flutter of an airplane wing, the dynamics of
a predator‐prey model, or the effect of the
 monetary supply on the economy.
Simulink is also practical. With thousands of engineers around the world using it to model
and solve real problems, knowledge of this tool will serve you well throughout your
professional career.

Signal Processing Toolbox:

The Signal Processing Toolbox is a collection of tools built on the MATLAB® numeric
computing environment.

The toolbox supports a wide range of signal processing operations, from waveform generation
to filter design and implementation, parametric modeling, and spectral analysis.

The toolbox provides two categories of tools: Command line functions in the following
categories:

Analog and digital filter analysis Digital filter implementation FIR and IIR digital filter design
Analog filter design Filter discretization Spectral Windows Transforms Cepstral analysis
Statistical signal processing and spectral analysis Parametric modeling Linear Prediction
Waveform generation. A suite of interactive graphical user interfaces for Filter design and
analysis Window design and analysis Signal plotting and analysis Spectral analysis Filtering
signals Signal Processing Toolbox Central Features The Signal Processing Toolbox functions are
algorithms, expressed mostly in M‐files, that implement a variety of signal processing tasks.

These toolbox functions are a specialized extension of the MATLAB computational.

ETAP is the most comprehensive analysis platform for the design, simulation, operation,
control, optimization, and automation of generation, transmission, distribution, and
industrial power systems.
Project Toolbar

The Project Toolbar contains icons that allow you to perform shortcuts of many
commonly used functions in PowerStation.

Create Create a new project file Open

Open an existing project file

Save Save the project file

Print Print the one‐line diagram or U/G raceway system

Cut Cut the selected elements from the one‐line diagram or U/G
raceway system to the Dumpster

Copy Copy the selected elements from the one‐line diagram or U/G
raceway system to the Dumpster

Paste Paste elements from a Dumpster Cell to the one‐line diagram or U/G
raceway system

Zoom In Magnify the one‐line diagram or U/G raceway system Zoom Out

Reduce the one‐line diagram or U/G raceway system Zoom to Fit Page

Re‐size the one‐line diagram to fit the window

Check Continuity Check the system continuity for non‐energized

elements

Power Calculator Activate PowerStation Calculator that relates MW,

MVAR, MVA, kV, Amp, and PF together with either kVA or
MVA units
 Help Point to a specific area to learn more about Power Station
Mode Toolbar

ETAP offers a suite of fully integrated software solutions including arc flash, load flow, short
circuit, transient stability, relay coordination, cable ampacity, optimal power flow, and more.
Its modular functionality can be customized to fit the needs of any company, from small to
large power systems.

Edit Mode

Edit mode enables you to build your one‐line diagram, change system connections, edit
engineering properties, save your project, and generate schedule reports in Crystal Reports
formats. The Edit Toolbars for both AC and DC elements will be displayed to the right of the
screen when this mode is active. This mode provides a wide variety of tasks including:

 Drag & Drop Elements

 Connect Elements
 Change IDs
 Cut, Copy, & Paste Elements
 Move from Dumpster
 Insert OLE Objects
 Cut, Copy & OLE Objects
 Merge PowerStation Project
 Hide/Show Groups of Protective Devices
 Rotate Elements
 Size Elements
 Change Symbols
 Edit Properties
 Run Schedule Report Manager
Instrumentation Elements:

AC Elements:
DC Elements:

Load Flow Analysis:

Short Circuit Analysis:

Motor Starting Analysis:

Harmonic Analysis:
 Transient Stability Analysis:

Optimal Power Flow Analysis:

 Reliability Assesment Analysis:

DC Load Flow Analysis:

 DC Short Circuit Analysis:

Battery Sizing And Discharge Analysis:

COMMENTS:
MATLAB is very useful and very easy to use software which is basically used for the
matrices problems but it is also used for many applications like:

 Matrix computations
 Vector Analysis
 Differential Equations computations
 Integration is possible
 Computer language programming
 Simulation
 Graph Plotation
 2‐D & 3‐D Plotting

ETAP is the most comprehensive analysis platform for the design, simulation, operation,
control, optimization, and automation of generation,
transmission, distribution, and industrial power systems. This software is used to analyze.
very large power systems. ETAP is used for the following types of analysis of any power
system:

 Battery Sizing And Discharge Analysis

 DC Short Circuit Analysis
 DC Load Flow Analysis
 Reliability Assesment Analysis
 Optimal Power Flow Analysis
 Transient Stability Analysis
 Harmonic Analysis
 Motor Starting Analysis
 Short Circuit Analysis
 Load Flow Analysis
 EXPERIMENT NO: 02

Introduction to Power System Protection

Protection System
A protection scheme in power system is designed to continuously monitor the power system to
ensure maximum continuity of electrical supply with minimum damage to life, equipment and
property.

Isolation of faulty element

The ill effects of faults are minimized by quickly isolating the faulty element from
the rest of the healthy system, thus limiting the disturbance footprint to as small an area in
time and space as possible.

FAULTS AND ABNORMAL OPERATING CONDITIONS

Shunt Fault:
“When the path of the load current is cut short because of breakdown of insulation,
we say that a ‘short circuit’ has occurred.” These faults due to insulation flashover are many
times temporary, i.e. if the arc path is allowed to de‐ionize, by interrupting the electric
supply for a sufficient period, then there arc does not restrike after the supply is restored.
This process of interruption followed by intentional re‐energization is known as
“RECLOSURE”. In low voltage system up to 3 reclosure are attempted, after which the
breaker is locked out. The repeated attempts at reclosure, at times, help in burning out the
object, which is causing the breakdown of insulation. The reclosure may also be done
automatically.

EHV SYSTEM:

In these systems where the damage due to short circuit may be very large and the
system stability at stake, only one reclosure is allowed. At times the short circuit may be
total (sometimes called a dead short circuit) or it may
 be partial short circuit.

METALLIC FAULT:

“A fault which bypasses the entire load current through itself is called a metallic
fault”. A metallic fault presents a very low, practically zero, fault resistance. A partial short
circuit can be modeled as a non‐zero resistance (or impedance) parallel with the intended
path of current.

ARC RESISTANCE:

Most of the times, the fault resistance is nothing but the resistance of the arc that
is formed as a result of flash over. The resistance is highly non‐ linear in nature. Early
researches have developed models of arc resistance. One such widely used model is due to
Warrington, which gives the Arc Resistance as;

Rarc=8750(S+3ut)/I1.4

Where

 “S” is the spacing in feet

 “t” is the time in seconds
 “U” is the velocity of air in mph
 “I” is the fault current in ampere
CAUSES OF SHUNT FAULT:

Shunt fault is basically due to failure of insulation. The insulation may fail because of
it’s own weakening, or it may fail due to over‐voltage the weakening of insulation may be due
to one or more of following factors.

 Ageing
 Temperature
 Rain, Hail, Snow
 Chemical pollution
 Foreign objects
  Other causes

The over voltage may be either internal (due to switching) or external (due to lightening).

EFFECTS OF SHUNT FAULTS

If the power system just consisted of isolated alternators feeding their own load, then
steady state fault currents would not be of much concern.

ISOLATED GENERATOR EXPERINCES A THREE PHASE FAULT

Consider an isolated turbo alternator with a three‐phase short circuit on it’s

terminals as shown in fig:

Assuming that;
 Internal voltage=I p.u

Synchronous impedance(Xd) = 2 p.u

Steady stat short circuit current = 0.5

p.u This current is to small to cause any worry. However

considering;

Sub‐transient impedance (Xd)” = 0.1

p.u Sub‐transient current will (I)” =10 p.u

FOR INTERCONNECTED POWER SYSTEM

For these systems all the generators and motors will contribute towards the fault
current, thus building up the value of the fault current to couple of tens of times to the
normal full‐load current. Faults thus cause heavy current to flow. If these current persists for
short duration they can cause serious damage to the equipment.

OVERHEATING:

In faulted circuits the over‐current causes the over heating and attendant danger of
fire, this over heating also causes the deterioration of the insulation, thus weakening it
further. Transformers are known to have suffered mechanical damage to the windings due to
fault.

Some important points of inter‐connected power system are:

 The generators in inter connected system must

operate in synchronism at all instants.
 The electric power out put from an alternator near the fault
drops sharply.
  The mechanical power input remains constant at its pre fault value.
EFFECT OF FAULT:

As mechanical power input remains constant this causes the alternator to accelerate,
along with the rotor angle ф starts increasing, thus the alternators start swinging with respect
to each other. If the swing goes out of
control alternator will be tripped out. Thus system stability is at sake. Therefore
fault need to be isolated and removed as quickly as possible.

CLASSIFICATION OF SHUNT FAULT PHASE FAULT

AND GROUND FAULT
GROUND FAULT:

The fault which involves only one of the phase conductor and ground is called as
ground fault.

PHASE FAULT:

The fault which involves two or more phase conductors with or without ground is
called as phase fault.

FAULT STATICS WITH REFERENCE TO TYPE OF FAULT

FAULT PROBABILITY OF OCCURANCE SEVERITY

L‐G 85% Least
L‐L 8%
L‐L‐G 5%
L‐L‐L 2% Most

FAULT STATICTICS WITH REFERENCE TO POWER SYSTEM ELEMENTS

Further the probability of fault on different elements of power system is different. The
transmission lines which are exposed to the vagaries of the atmosphere are most likely to be
subjected to these faults. The fault statistics is shown in table:
 POWER SYSTEM ELEMENT PROBABILITY OF FAULT (%)
Overhead lines 50
Underground Cables 09
Transformer 10
Generator 07
Switch Gears 12

CT, PT,Relays 12
Phasor Diagram of Voltages and Currents during Various Faults

A fault is accompanied by a build‐up of current, which is obvious. At the same time there is a
fall in voltage throughout the power system. If the fault is a metallic fault, the voltage at the
fault location is zero. The voltage at the terminals of the generator will also drop, though
not drastically. If the source is ideal, there will be no drop in voltage at the generator
terminals. Normally the relay is away from the fault location. Thus, as seen from the relay
location, a fault is characterized by a build‐up of current, and to a certain extent, collapse of
voltage.
 Series Fault

These faults occur simply when the path of current is opened. Practically most of the time
series fault is converted into shunt fault.

Abnormal Operating Conditions

The boundary between the normal and faulty conditions is not crisp. There are certain
operating conditions inherent to the operation of the power system which is definitely not
normal, but these are not electrical faults either. Some examples are the magnetizing
inrush current of a transformer, starting current of an induction motor, and the conditions
during power swing.
What are Protective Relays Supposed to Do?

Relays are supposed to detect the fault with the help of current and voltage and selectively
remove only the faulty part from the rest of the system by operating breakers. This, the
relay has to do with utmost selectivity and speed. In a power system, faults are not an
everyday occurrence. A typical relay, therefore, spends all of its life monitoring the power
system. Thus, relaying is like an insurance against damage due to faults.
Evolution of Power Systems

Systems have evolved from isolated generators feeding their own loads to huge power
systems spanning an entire country. The evolution has progressed systems to high‐voltage
systems and low‐power handling capacities to high power capacities. The requirements
imposed on the protective system are linked to the nature of the power system.
Isolated Power System

The protection of an isolated power system is simpler because firstly, there is no

concentration of generating capacity and secondly, a single synchronous alternator does not
suffer from the stability problem as faced by a multi‐ machine system. Further, when there is
a fault and the protective relays remove the generator from the system, the system may
suffer from a blackout unless there is a standby source of power. The steady‐state fault
current in a single machine power system may even be less than the full‐load current.
Such a fault will, however, cause other effects like speeding up of the generator because
of the disturbed balance between the input mechanical power and the output electrical
power, and therefore should be quickly attended to. Although, there are no longer any
isolated power systems supplying residential or industrial loads, we do encounter such
situations in case of emergency diesel generators powering the uninterrupted power
supplies as well as critical auxiliaries in a thermal or nuclear power station.
Interconnected Power System

An interconnected power system has evolved because it is more reliable than an isolated
power system. In case of disruption in one part of the system, power can be fed from
alternate paths, thus, maintaining continuity of service. An interconnected power system also
makes it possible to implement an economic load dispatch.

The generators in an interconnected system could be of varied types such as turbo‐alternators

(in coal fired, gas fired or nuclear power plants), generators in hydroelectric power plants,
wind‐powered generators, fuel cells or even solar‐powered photovoltaic cells.

Figure shows a simple interconnected power system. Most of the generators operate at the
voltage level of around 20 kV. For bulk transmission of power, voltage levels of the order of
400 kV or higher are used. At the receiving end, the voltage is stepped down to the
distribution level, which is further stepped down before it reaches the consumers.

It can be seen that the EHV lines are the tie lines which interconnect two or more generators
whereas the low voltage lines are radial in nature which terminate in loads at the remote
ends.
There is interconnection at various EHV voltage levels.
Disadvantages of an Interconnected System
 There are other undesirable effects of interconnection. It is
 Very difficult to maintain stability
 Disturbances quickly propagate throughout the system
 Possibility of cascade tripping due to loss of stability is always
looming large
 Voltage stability problem
 Harmonic distortion propagate throughout the system
 Possibility of cyber‐attacks
Various States of Operation of a Power System

A power system is a dynamic entity. Its state is likely to drift from one state to the other as
shown in the figure.

When the power system is operating in steady state, it is said to be operating in normal state.
In this state, there is enough generation capacity available to meet the load, therefore, the
frequency is stable around the nominal 50Hz or 60 Hz. This state is also characterized by
reactive power balance between generation and load.
A Protection System and Its Attributes

Following figure shows a protection system for the distance protection of a transmission line,
consisting of a CT and a PT, a relay and its associated circuit breaker. Every protection system
will have these basic components.
 At this stage, we can consider the relay as a black‐box having current and voltage at its
input, and an output, in the form of the closure of a normally‐ open contact. This output of
the relay is wired in the trip circuit of the associated circuit breaker(s) so as to complete
this circuit. The conceptual diagram of a generalized relay is shown in Figure:

Basic Requirements of a Protection System

Sensitivity

The protective system must be alive to the presence of the smallest fault current. The
smaller the fault current it can detect, the more sensitive it is.

Selectivity

In detecting the fault and isolating the faulty element, the protective system
 must be very selective. Ideally, the protective system should zero‐in on the faulty element
and isolate it, thus causing minimum disruption to the system.

Speed

The longer the fault persists on the system, the larger is the damage to the system and
higher is the possibility that the system will lose stability. Thus, it helps a lot if the entire
process of fault detection and removal of the faulty part is accomplished in as short a time
as feasible. Therefore, the speed of the protection is very important.

Reliability and Dependability

A protective system is of no use if it is not reliable. There are many ways in which reliability
can be built into the system. In general, it is found that simple systems are more reliable.
Therefore, we add features like back‐up protection to enhance the reliability and
dependability of the protective system.

System Transducers

Current transformers and voltage transformers form a very important link between the
power system and the protective system. These transducers basically extract the
information regarding current and voltage from the power system under protection and
pass it on to the protective relays.
Current Transformer
The current transformer has two jobs to do.

 Firstly, it steps down the current to such levels that it can be

easily handled by the relay current coil. The standard secondary
current ratings used in practice are 5 A and 1 A. This frees the
relay designer from the actual value of primary current.
 Secondly, it isolates the relay circuitry from the high voltage
of the EHV system.
A conventional electromagnetic current transformer is shown in Figure. Ideally, the
current transformer should faithfully transform the current without any errors. In practice,
there is always some error. The error creeps in, both in magnitude and in phase angle.
These errors are known as ratio error and phase angle error.
Voltage Transformer

The voltage transformer steps down the high voltage of the line to a level safe enough for the
relaying system (pressure coil of relay) and personnel to handle. The standard secondary
voltage on line‐to‐line basis is 110 V. This helps in standardizing the protective relaying
equipment irrespective of the value of the primary EHV adopted.

A PT primary is connected in parallel at the point where a measurement is desired, unlike a

CT whose primary is in series with the line.
A conventional electromagnetic VT is shown in Figure:
Circuit Breaker

The circuit breaker is an electrically operated switch, which is capable of safely making, as
well as breaking short‐circuit currents. The circuit breaker is operated by the output of its
associated relay. When the circuit breaker is in the closed condition, its contacts are held
closed by the tension of the closing spring. When the trip coil is energized, it releases a
latch, causing the stored energy in the closing spring to bring about a quick opening
operation.

Organization of Protection
The protection is organized in a very logical fashion. The idea is to provide a ring of
security around each and every element of the power system. If there is any fault within
this ring, the relays associated with it must trip all the allied circuit breakers so as to
remove the faulty element from the rest of the power system. This 'ring of security' is called
zone of protection. This is depicted in Figure with the help of a simple relay for the
protection of a transformer.
Without going into the detailed of the differential relaying scheme, we can make the
following statements:

Faults within the zone are termed internal faults whereas the faults
outside the zone are called external faults. External faults are also known
as through faults. The farthest point from the relay location, which is still
inside the zone, is called the reach point.
 Zones of Protection
Various zones for a typical power system are shown in Figure. It can be seen that the
adjacent zones overlap; otherwise there could be some portion which
is left out and remains unprotected.

Primary and back‐up Protection

As already mentioned there are times when the primary protection may fail. This could be
due to failure of CT, VT or relay, or failure of circuit breaker. One of the possible causes of
the circuit breaker failure is the failure of the trip‐ battery due to inadequate maintenance.
We must have a second line of defense in such a situation. Therefore, it is a normal practice
to provide another zone of protection which should operate and isolate the faulty element in
case of primary protection failure.
Further, the back‐up protection must wait for the primary protection to operate, before
issuing the trip command to its associated circuit breakers. In other words, the operating
time of the back‐up protection must be delayed by an appropriate amount over that of the
primary protection. Thus, the operating time of the back‐up protection should be equal to
the operating time of primary protection plus the operating time of the primary circuit
breaker.
Maloperation

There should be proper coordination between the operating time of primary and back‐up
protection. It can be seen that the back‐up protection in this case issues trip command to its
breaker without waiting for the primary protection to do its job. This results in operation of
both the primary and the back‐up, resulting in a longer and unnecessary disruption to the
system. It is said that with every additional relay used, there is an increase in the probability
of Maloperation.

Various elements of power system that needs protection

The power system consists of
 Alternators
 Bus bars
 Transformers for transmission and distribution
 Transmission lines at various voltage levels from EHV to 11kV cables
 Induction and synchronous motors
 Reactors
 Capacitors
 Instrument and protective CTs and PTs
 Various control and metering equipment etc
Each of these entities needs protection. Each apparatus has a unique set of operating conditions.
Various Principles of Power System Protection
The most basic principles that are used in any protection system are following

 Over current protection

 Over voltage protection
 Distance protection
 Differential protection
Normally used protection schemes for different elements

Protection schemes used for different elements of any power system are completely dependant
upon the nature of that element. We can not use all protection schemes for every element.
Following table shows the protection schemes used for mentioned elements:
 ELEMENT Principle Non‐ Directional Differential Distance
directional over
over current
current
Alternator Primary yes yes yes
protection
Bus bar Primary yes
protection
Transformer Primary yes
protectio
n
Transmission Primary yes yes yes
line protectio
n
Large Primary
induction protectio yes yes
motor n

COMMENTS

The knowledge about protection system is of great importance. In this experiment, we

understand

 What is a protection system?

 Different kinds of faults and their effects
 Classification of faults
 Abnormal operating conditions
 Function of a relay
 Types of a power system
 Properties of a good protection system
 Zones of protection
Indeed these necessary to select protection scheme for any power system element to
understand the basics of fault effects and regarding protection system.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 03

IMPACT OF INDUCTION MOTOR STARTING ON POWERSYSTEM

ELECTRIC MOTOR
An electric motor uses electrical energy to produce mechanical energy, through the
interaction of magnetic fields and current‐carrying conductors. The reverse process,
producing electrical energy from mechanical energy, is accomplished by a generator or
dynamo.
Traction motors used on vehicles often perform both tasks. Many types of electric motors
can be run as generators, and vice versa.
INDUCTION MOTOR
DEFINITION:

An induction motor (or asynchronous motor or squirrel‐cage motor) is a

type of alternating current motor, where power is supplied to the rotor
by means of electromagnetic induction.
POWER CONVERSION:
An electric motor converts electrical power to mechanical power in
its rotor (rotating part). There are several ways to supply power to the rotor.
In a DC motor this power is supplied to the armature directly from
a DC source, while in an induction motor this power is induced in the rotating device.
ROTATING TRANSFORMER:

An induction motor is sometimes called a rotating transformer because the

stator (stationary part) is essentially the primary side of
the transformer and the rotor (rotating part) is the secondary side. The primary side's
current evokes a magnetic field which interacts with the secondary side's emf to produce a
resultant torque, henceforth serving thepurpose of producing mechanical energy.
APPLICATIONS:

□ Induction motors are widely used, especially polyphase

induction motors, which are frequently used in industrial
drives.
□ Induction motors are now the preferred choice for
industrial motors due to their rugged construction,
□ Absence of brushes (which are required in most DC motors) and
thanks to modern power electronics the ability to control the speed
of the motor.
HISTORY:
The induction motor was first realized by Galileo Ferraris in 1885 in Italy. In 1888, Ferraris
published his research in a paper to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin (later, in the
same year, Tesla gained U.S. Patent 381,968) where he exposed the theoretical foundations
for understanding the way the motor operates.
The induction motor with a cage was invented by Mikhail Dolivo‐ Dobrovolsky about a year
later. Technological development in the field has improved to where a 100 hp (74.6 kW)
motor from 1976 takes the same volume as a 7.5 hp (5.5 kW) motor did in 1897.
Currently, the most common induction motor is the cage rotor motor.
AC INDUCTION MOTOR
Where
n = Revolutions per minute (rpm) f
= AC power frequency (hertz)
p = Number of poles per phase (an even
number) Slip is calculated using:

Where “s” is the slip

The rotor speed is:

STARTING OF INDUCTION MOTOR

THREE‐PHASE (Direct‐on‐line starting):
The simplest way to start a three‐phase induction motor is to connect its terminals to the
line. This method is often called "direct on line" and
abbreviated DOL.
In an induction motor, the magnitude of the induced emf in the rotor circuit is proportional
to the stator field and the slip speed (the difference between synchronous and rotor
speeds) of the motor, and the rotor current depends on this emf.

(A 3‐phase power supply provides a rotating magnetic field in an induction

motor)

When the motor is started, the rotor speed is zero. The synchronous speed is constant, based
on the frequency of the supplied AC voltage. So the slip speed is equal to the synchronous
speed, the slip ratio is 1, and the induced emf in the rotor is large. As a result, a very high
current flows through the rotor. This is similar to a transformer with the secondary coil short
circuited, which causes the primary coil to draw a high current from the mains.
When an induction motor starts DOL, a very high current is drawn by the stator, in the order
of 5 to 9 times the full load current. This high current can, in some motors, damage the
windings; in addition, because it causes heavy line voltage drop, other appliances connected
to the same line may be affected by the voltage fluctuation. To avoid such effects, several
other strategies are employed for starting motors.
STAR‐DELTA STARTERS
An induction motor's windings can be connected to a 3‐phase AC line in twodifferent ways:
 1) Star (Wye)
2) Delta

□ Wye (star in Europe), where the windings are connected from

phases of the supply to the neutral;
□ Delta (sometimes mesh in Europe), where the windings
are connected between phases of the supply.
□ A delta connection of the machine winding results in a higher
voltage at each winding compared to a wye connection (the
factor is ).
□ A star‐delta starter initially connects the motor in wye, which
produces a lower starting current than delta, then switches to
delta when the motor has reached a set speed.
DISADVANTAGES:
Disadvantages of this method over DOL starting are:

□ Lower starting torque, which may be a serious issue with

pumps or any devices with significant breakaway torque
□ Increased complexity, as more contactors and some sort of
speed switch or timers are needed
□ Two shocks to the motor (one for the initial start and another
when the motor switches from wye to delta)
VARIABLE FREQUENCY DRIVES
Key information’s are:

□ Variable‐frequency drives (VFD) can be of considerable use in

starting as well as running motors.
□ A VFD can easily start a motor at a lower frequency than the AC
line, as well as a lower voltage, so that the motor starts with
full rated torque and with no inrush of current.
□ The rotor circuit's impedance increases with slip frequency,
which is equal to supply frequency for a stationary rotor,
□ So running at a lower frequency actually increases torque.
 □ Thus variable frequency drives are used for multiple purposes.
RESISTANCE STARTERS
This method is used with slip ring motors where the rotor poles can be accessed by way of
the slip rings. Using brushes, variable power resistors are connected in series with the poles.
During start‐up the resistance is large and then reduced to zero at full speed.
At start‐up the resistance directly reduces the rotor current and so rotor heating is reduced.
Another important advantage is the start‐up torque can be controlled. As well, the resistors
generate a phase shift in the field resulting in the magnetic force acting on the rotor having a
favorable angle
AUTO‐TRANSFORMER STARTERS
Such starters are called as auto starters or compensators, consists of an auto‐ transformer.
SERIES REACTOR STARTERS
In series reactor starter technology, an impedance in the form of a reactor is introduced in
series with the motor terminals, which as a result reduces the motor terminal voltage
resulting in a reduction of the starting current; the impedance of the reactor, a function of
the current passing through it, gradually reduces as the motor accelerates, and at 95 %
speed the reactors are bypassed by a suitable bypass method which enables the motor to run
at full voltage and full speed. Air core series reactor starters or a series reactor soft starter is
the most common and recommended method for fixed speed motor starting.
SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
A synchronous motor always runs at synchronous speed with 0% slip. The speed of a
synchronous motor is determined by the following formula:

For example a 6 pole motor operating on 60Hz power would have speed:

Where
 “V” is the speed of the rotor (in rpm),

“f” is the frequency of the AC supply (in Hz)

And

“n” is the number of magnetic poles.

p: Some texts refer to number of pole pairs per phase instead of

Note on the use of
number of poles per phase. For example a 6 pole motor, operating on 60Hz power,
would have 3 pole pairs. The equation of synchronous speed then becomes: n=3

PARTS OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

A synchronous motor is composed of the following parts:

 The stator is the outer shell of the motor, which carries the
armature winding. This winding is spatially distributed for
poly‐phase AC current. This armature creates a rotating
magnetic field inside the motor.
 The rotor is the rotating portion of the motor. it carries field
winding, which is supplied by a DC source. On excitation, this
field winding behaves as a permanent magnet.
 The slip rings in the rotor, to supply the DC to the field winding.

STARTING OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR

 Synchronous motors are not self‐starting motors. This property is due to the inertia of the rotor.
When the power supply is switched on, the armature
winding and field windings are excited. Instantaneously, the armature winding creates a
rotating magnetic field, which revolves at the designated motor speed. The rotor, due to
inertia, will not follow the revolving magnetic field. In practice, the rotor should be rotated
by some other means near to the motor's synchronous speed to overcome the inertia. Once
the rotor nears the synchronous speed, the field winding is excited, and the motor pulls into
synchronization.
The following techniques are employed to start a synchronous motor:

□ A separate motor (called pony motor) is used to drive the rotor

before it locks in into synchronization.
□ The field winding is shunted or induction motor like arrangements
are made so that the synchronous motor starts as an induction
motor and locks in to synchronization once it reaches speeds near
its synchronous speed.
ADVANTAGES OF SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR
Synchronous motors have the following advantages over non‐synchronousmotors:

□ Speed is independent of the load, provided an adequate field

current is applied.
□ Accurate control in speed and position using open loop
controls, eg. stepper motors.
□ They will hold their position when a DC current is applied to
both the stator and the rotor windings.
□ Their power factor can be adjusted to unity by using a proper
field current relative to the load. Also, a "capacitive" power
factor, (current phase leads voltage phase), can be obtained by
increasing this current slightly, which can help achieve a better
power factor correction for the whole installation.
□ Their construction allows for increased electrical efficiency when a
 low speed is required (as in ball mills and similar apparatus).
ONE LINE DIAGRAM

POINT UNDER CONSIDERATION

□ Mtr‐1
□ Bus‐7
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS DIAGRAM
STATIC MOTOR STARTING ANALYSIS DIAGRAM
 RESPONSE OF DIFFERENT PARAMETERS IN CASE OF STATIC MOTOR
STARTING ANALYSIS

MOTOR REACTIVE POWER DEMAND

MOTOR REAL POWER DEMAND

MOTOR TERMINAL VOLTAGE

MOTOR CURRENT
DYNAMIC MOTOR STARTING ANALYSIS
DIAGRAM
 RESPONSE OF DIFFERENT PARAMETERS IN CASE OF DYNAMICMOTOR STARTING ANALYSIS

MOTOR REACTIVE POWER DEMAND

MOTOR REAL POWER DEMAND

 ACCELERATION TORQUE

MOTOR TERMINAL VOLTAGE

MOTOR CURRENT

MOTOR SLIP
COMMENTS:

In this experiment, we investigate the effect of motor starting current on the power system
as motor starting current is many times larger than the normal current. For this purpose, we
first take the normal load flow analysis report and then perform motor starting analysis to
compare the current value for both cases.

In case of static motor starting analysis:

□ Motor reactive power demand instantaneously increases from

40KVAR to 80KVAR then attains the previous value which is much
lower
□ Motor real power demand instantaneously increases from
108KW to 160KW then attains the previous value which is much
lower
□ Bus voltage becomes lower at starting instant to a value of
66KV and then achieves the previous high voltage that is
73KV
□ Motor terminal voltage suddenly becomes lower at starting instant
to a value of 48KV and then achieves the previous high voltage that
is 64KV
□ Motor current becomes very high at starting instant to a
value of 280KA and then achieves the previous lower current
value that is 160KA

In case of dynamic motor starting analysis:

□ Motor reactive power demand instantaneously increases to
165KVAR then slowly decreases
□ Motor real power demand slowly(exponentially) increases
□ Acceleration torque increases exponentially and after some
time, it decreases exponentially
□ Motor terminal voltage is almost at a constant level
□ Motor current becomes very high at starting instant to a
value of 360KA and then decrease slowly
 EXPERIMENT NO: 04

SELECTION OF CIRCUIT BREAKER FOR DIFFERENT BRANCHES OF A

GIVEN POWER SYSTEM USING ETAP
INTRODUCTION
POWER SYSTEM PROTECTION
Power system protection is a branch of electrical power engineering that deals with the
protection of electrical power systems from faults through the isolation of faulted parts from
the rest of the electrical network. The objective of a protection scheme is to keep the power
system stable by isolating only the components that are under fault, whilst leaving as much
of the network as possible still in operation. Thus, protection schemes must apply a very
pragmatic and pessimistic approach to clearing system faults. For this reason, the technology
and philosophies utilized in protection schemes can often be old and well‐established
because they must be very reliable.

COMPONENTS OF PROTECTION SYSTEM

Protection systems usually comprise five components:

 Current and voltage transformers to step down the high voltages

and currents of the electrical power system to convenient levels
for the relays to deal with;
 Relays to sense the fault and initiate a trip, or disconnection, order;
 Circuit breakers to open/close the system based on relay and
auto‐ reclosure commands
 Batteries to provide power in case of power disconnection in
the system.
 Communication channels to allow analysis of current and
voltage at remote terminals of a line and to allow remote
tripping of equipment.
 For parts of a distribution system, fuses are capable of both sensing and disconnecting faults.
Failures may occur in each part, such as insulation failure, fallen or broken transmission lines,
incorrect operation of circuit breakers, short circuits and open circuits. Protection devices are
installed with the aims of protection of assets, and ensure continued supply of energy.
CIRCUIT BREAKER
A circuit breaker is an automatically‐operated electrical switch designed to protect an
electrical circuit from damage caused
by overload or short circuit. Its basic function is to detect a
fault condition and, by interrupting continuity, to
immediately discontinue electrical flow. Unlike a fuse,
which operates once and then has to be replaced, a circuit
breaker can be reset (either manually or automatically) to
resume normal operation.

Circuit breakers are made in varying sizes, from small

devices that protect an individual household appliance up to
large switchgear designed to protect high voltage circuits
feeding an entire city.

OPERATION OF BREAKER

All circuit breakers have common features in their

operation, although details vary substantially depending on
the voltage class, current rating and type of the circuit
breaker.

The circuit breaker must detect a fault condition; in

low‐voltage circuit breakers this is usually done
within the breaker enclosure. Circuit breakers for large currents or high voltages are usually
arranged with pilot devices to sense a fault current and to operate the trip opening
mechanism. The trip solenoid that releases the latch
 is usually energized by a separate battery, although some high‐voltage circuit breakers are
self‐contained with current transformers, protection relays, and an internal control power
source.
Once a fault is detected, contacts within the circuit breaker must open to interrupt the
circuit; some mechanically‐stored energy (using something such as springs or compressed air)
contained within the breaker is used to separate the contacts, although some of the energy
required may be obtained from the fault current itself. Small circuit breakers may be
manually operated; larger units have solenoids to trip the mechanism, and electric motors to
restore energy to the springs.

The circuit breaker contacts must carry the load current without excessive heating, and must
also withstand the heat of the arc produced when interrupting the circuit. Contacts are made
of copper or copper alloys, silver alloys, and other materials. Service life of the contacts is
limited by the erosion due to interrupting the arc. Miniature and molded case circuit breakers
are usually discarded when the contacts are worn, but power circuit breakers and high‐voltage
circuit breakers have replaceable contacts.

When a current is interrupted, an arc is generated. This arc must be contained, cooled, and
extinguished in a controlled way, so that the gap between the contacts can again withstand
the voltage in the circuit. Different circuit breakers use vacuum, air, insulating gas, or oil as
the medium in which the arc forms. Different techniques are used to extinguish the arc
including:

 Lengthening of the arc

 Intensive cooling (in jet chambers)
 Division into partial arcs
 Zero point quenching
 Connecting capacitors in parallel with contacts in DC circuits
Finally, once the fault condition has been cleared, the contacts must again be closed to restore
power to the interrupted circuit.

ARC INTERUPTION
 Miniature low‐voltage circuit breakers use air alone to extinguish the arc. Larger ratings will
have metal plates or non‐metallic arc chutes to divide and cool the arc. Magnetic blowout
coils deflect the arc into the arc chute.
In larger ratings, oil circuit breakers rely upon vaporization of some of the oil to blast a jet of
oil through the arc.

Gas (usually sulfur hexafluoride) circuit breakers sometimes stretch the arc using a magnetic
field, and then rely upon the dielectric strength of the sulfur‐ hexafluoride (SF6) to quench the
stretched arc.

Vacuum circuit breakers have minimal arcing (as there is nothing to ionize other than the
contact material), so the arc quenches when it is stretched a very small amount (€2–3 mm).
Vacuum circuit breakers are frequently used in modern medium‐voltage switchgear to 35,000
volts.

Air circuit breakers may use compressed air to blow out the arc, or alternatively, the contacts
are rapidly swung into a small sealed chamber, the escaping of the displaced air thus blowing
out the arc.

Circuit breakers are usually able to terminate all current very quickly: typically the arc is
extinguished between 30 ms and 150 ms after the mechanism has been tripped, depending
upon age and construction of the device.

SHORT CIRCUIT CURRENT

Circuit breakers are rated both by the normal current that are expected to carry, and the
maximum short‐circuit current that they can safely interrupt.

Under short‐circuit conditions, a current many times greater than normal can exist (see
maximum prospective short circuit current). When electrical contacts open to interrupt a
large current, there is a tendency for an arc to form between the opened contacts, which
would allow the current to continue. Therefore, circuit breakers must incorporate various
features to divide and extinguish the arc.

In air‐insulated and miniature breakers an arc chutes structure consisting

 (often) of metal plates or ceramic ridges cools the arc, and magnetic blowout coils deflect the
arc into the arc chute. Larger circuit breakers such as those
used in electrical power distribution may use vacuum, an inert gas such as sulphur
hexafluoride or have contacts immersed in oil to suppress the arc.

The maximum short‐circuit current that a breaker can interrupt is determined by testing.
Application of a breaker in a circuit with a prospective short‐circuit current higher than the
breaker's interrupting capacity rating may result in failure of the breaker to safely interrupt a
fault. In a worst‐case scenario the breaker may successfully interrupt the fault, only to
explode when reset.

Miniature circuit breakers used to protect control circuits or small appliances may not have
sufficient interrupting capacity to use at a panel board; these circuit breakers are called
"supplemental circuit protectors" to distinguish them from distribution‐type circuit breakers.

TYPES OF CIRCUIT BREAKER

Many different classifications of circuit breakers can be made, based on their features such as
voltage class, construction type, interrupting type, and structural features.

LOW‐VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKER

Low voltage (less than 1000 VAC) types are common in domestic, commercial and industrial
application, include:

 MCB (Miniature Circuit Breaker)—rated current not be more

than 100 A. Trip characteristics normally not adjustable.
Thermal or thermal‐magnetic operation. Breakers illustrated
above are in this category.
 MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker)—rated current up to 1000
A. Thermal or thermal‐magnetic operation. Trip current may
be adjustable in larger ratings.
 Low voltage power circuit breakers can be mounted in
multi‐tiers in LV switchboards or switchgear cabinets.
The characteristics of LV circuit breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 947.
These circuit breakers are often installed in draw‐out
enclosures that allow removal and interchange without dismantling the switchgear.

Large low‐voltage molded case and power circuit breakers may have electrical motor
operators, allowing them to be tripped (opened) and closed under remote control. These may
form part of an automatic transfer switch system for standby power.

Low‐voltage circuit breakers are also made for direct‐current (DC) applications, for
example DC supplied for subway lines. Special breakers are required for direct current
because the arc does not have a natural tendency to go out on each half cycle as for
alternating current. A direct current circuit breaker will have blow‐out coils which generate
a magnetic field that rapidly stretches the arc when interrupting direct current.

Small circuit breakers are either installed directly in equipment, or are arranged in a
breaker panel.

The 10 ampere DIN rail‐mounted thermal‐magnetic miniature circuit breaker is the most
common style in modern domestic consumer units and commercial electrical distribution
boards throughout Europe. The design includes the following components:

 Actuator lever ‐ used to manually

trip and reset the circuit breaker.
Also indicates the status of the
circuit breaker (On or Off/tripped).
Most breakers are designed so they
can still trip even if the lever is held
or locked in the "on" position. This is
sometimes referred to as "free trip"
or "positive trip" operation.
 Actuator mechanism ‐
 forces the contacts together or
apart.
 Contacts ‐ Allow current
when touching and break
the current when moved apart.
 Terminals
 Bimetallic strip
 Calibration screw ‐ allows the manufacturer to precisely adjust the trip current of
the device after assembly.
 Solenoid
 Arc

divider/extinguisher

MAGNETIC CIRCUIT BREAKER

Magnetic circuit breakers use a solenoid (electromagnet)

that’s pulling force increases with the current. Certain
designs utilize electromagnetic forces in addition to those
of the solenoid. The circuit breaker contacts are held
closed by a latch. As the current in the solenoid increases
beyond the rating of the circuit breaker, the solenoid's
pull releases the latch which then allows the contacts to
open by springaction. Some types of magnetic breakers
incorporate a hydraulic time delay feature using a viscous fluid. The core is restrained by a
spring until the current exceeds the breaker rating. During an overload, the speed of the
solenoid motion is restricted by the fluid. The delay permits brief current surges beyond
normal running current for motor starting, energizing equipment, etc. Short circuit currents
provide sufficient solenoid force to release the latch regardless of core position thus
bypassing the delay feature. Ambient temperature affects the time delay but does not affect
the current rating of a magnetic breaker.

THERMAL MAGNETIC CIRCUIT BREAKER

Thermal magnetic circuit breakers, which are the type found in most distribution boards,
incorporate both techniques with the electromagnet
 responding instantaneously to large surges in current (short circuits) and the bimetallic strip
responding to less extreme but longer‐term over‐current onditions.
COMMON TRIP CIRCUIT BREAKER

Three pole common trip breaker for supplying a three‐phase device. This breaker has a 2A
rating

When supplying a branch circuit with more than one live conductor, each live conductor must
be protected by a breaker pole. To ensure that all live conductors are interrupted when any
pole trips, a "common trip" breaker must be used. These may either contain two or three
tripping mechanisms within one case, or for small breakers, may externally tie the poles
together via their operating handles. Two pole common trip breakers are common on
120/240 volt systems where 240 volt loads (including major appliances or further
distribution boards) span the two live wires. Three‐pole common trip breakers are typically
used to supply three‐phase electric power to large motors or further distribution boards.

Two and four pole breakers are used when there is a need to disconnect the neutral wire, to
be sure that no current can flow back through the neutral wire from other loads connected to
the same network when people need to touch the wires for maintenance. Separate circuit
breakers must never be used for disconnecting live and neutral, because if the neutral gets
disconnected while the live conductor stays connected, a dangerous condition arises: the
circuit will appear de‐energized (appliances will not work), but wires will stay live and RCDs
will not trip if someone touches the live wire (because RCDs need
power to trip). This is why only common trip breakers must be used when switching of the neutral
wire is needed.
MEDIUM VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Medium‐voltage circuit breakers rated between 1 and 72 kV may be assembled into

metal‐enclosed switchgear line ups for indoor use, or may be individual components installed
outdoors in a substation. Air‐break circuit breakers replaced oil‐filled units for indoor
applications, but are now themselves being replaced by vacuum circuit breakers (up to about
35 kV). Like the high voltage circuit breakers described below, these are also operated by
current sensing protective relays operated through current transformers.
The characteristics of MV breakers are given by international standards such as IEC 62271.
Medium‐voltage circuit breakers nearly always use separate current sensors and protection
relays, instead of relying on built‐in thermal or magnetic over‐current sensors.

Medium‐voltage circuit breakers can be classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc:

 Vacuum circuit breaker

With rated current up to 3000 A, these breakers interrupt the current by creating and
extinguishing the arc in a vacuum container. These are generally applied for voltages up to
about 35,000 V, which corresponds roughly to the medium‐voltage range of power systems.
Vacuum circuit breakers tend to have longer life expectancies between overhaul than do air
circuit breakers.

 Air circuit breaker—rated current up to 10,000 A. Trip

characteristics are often fully adjustable including configurable
trip thresholds and delays. Usually electronically controlled,
though some models are microprocessor controlled via an integral
electronic trip unit. Often used for main power distribution in
large industrial plant, where the breakers are arranged in
draw‐out enclosures for ease of maintenance.
 SF6 circuit breakers extinguish the arc in a chamber filled
with sulfur hexafluoride gas.
Medium‐voltage circuit breakers may be connected into the circuit by bolted connections to
bus bars or wires, especially in outdoor switchyards. Medium‐ voltage circuit breakers in
switchgear line‐ups are often built with draw‐out construction, allowing the breaker to be
removed without disturbing the
 power circuit connections, using a motor‐operated or hand‐cranked mechanism to separate
the breaker from its enclosure.

HIGH VOLTAGE CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Electrical power transmission networks are protected and controlled by high‐ voltage breakers.
The definition of high voltage varies but in power transmission work is usually thought to be
72.5 kV or higher, according to a recent definition by the International Electro‐technical
Commission (IEC).
High‐voltage breakers are nearly always solenoid‐operated, with current sensing protective
relays operated through current transformers. In substations the protection relay scheme
can be complex, protecting equipment and busses from various types of overload or
ground/earth fault.

High‐voltage breakers are broadly classified by the medium used to extinguish the arc.

 Bulk oil
 Minimum oil
 Air blast
 Vacuum
 SF6

Some of the manufacturers are ABB, GE (General Electric) , AREVA, Mitsubishi‐Electric,

Pennsylvania Breaker, Siemens , Toshiba, Končar HVS, BHEL and others.

Due to environmental and cost concerns over insulating oil spills, most new breakers use SF6 gas to
quench the arc.

Circuit breakers can be classified as live tank, where the enclosure that contains the
breaking mechanism is at line potential, or dead tank with the enclosure at earth
potential. High‐voltage AC circuit breakers are routinely available with ratings up to 765
kV.

High‐voltage circuit breakers used on transmission systems may be arranged to allow a single
pole of a three‐phase line to trip, instead of tripping all three poles; for some classes of
faults this improves the system stability and
availability.

ONE LINE DIAGRAM

FAULTED POINTS

 BUS‐7
 BUS‐13
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS DIAGRAM
 SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS DIAGRAM

BREAKERS OPERATED
BREAKERS DATA

Breaker ID Before BUS Normal Short Breaker Breaker

Curren Circuit Interruptin State
t (Amp) Curren g Current
t
CB‐1 BUS‐7 249 1.2KA 0.5KA OPEN
CB‐2 BUS‐6 19 0.1KA CLOSED
CB‐3 BUS‐13 9 15KA 0.1KA OPEN
CB‐5 BUS‐17 243 0.5KA CLOSED
 CB‐6 BUS‐6 19 0.1KA CLOSED

ALERT DIAGRAM

COMMENTS:
We find the normal current flowing through BUS‐7 for which we have to design a circuit
breaker.

Normal current flowing through BUS‐7 is 246Ampere while through BUS‐13 is9Amperes.

After that we perform the short circuit analysis to check that how much current can flow in
case of fault.

Fault current obtained from short circuit analysis is 1.3KAmpere that is many times larger than the
normal operating current

As fault current is greater in magnitude at the fault occurrence event and reduces up to
some extent. Keeping in mind this fact, we connect a circuit breaker of suitable operating
value of current at which circuit breaker will operate.

In this experiment, we have selected interrupting breaker current as 0.5KAmpere for CB‐1
and 0.1KAmpere for CB‐3 that can be varied to any required value of current.

After connecting the circuit breaker, we again perform the short circuit analysis and observe
that the breaker connected to faulty bus is operated and faulty system is isolated.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 05
Transient stability analysis of a given power systemusing ETAP

Transients in Electrical power system

Lightning has long fascinated the technical community. Ben Franklin studied lightning's
electrical nature over two centuries ago and Charles R Steinmetz generated artificial
lightning in his General Electric laboratory in the 1920's. As someone concerned with premises
data communications you need to worry about lightning. Here I will elaborate on why, where
and when you should worry about lightning. I'll then discuss how to get protection from it.

It is unfortunate, but a fact of life, that computers, computer related products and process
control equipment found in premises data communications environments can be damaged by
high‐voltage surges and spikes. Such power surges and spikes are most often caused by
lightning strikes. However, there are occasions when the surges and spikes result from any
one of a variety of other causes. These causes may include direct contact with
power/lightning circuits, static buildup on cables and components, high energy transients
coupled into equipment from cables in close proximity, potential differences between
grounds to which different equipment’s are connected, miss‐wired systems and even human
equipment users who have accumulated large static electricity charge build‐ups on their
clothing. In fact, electrostatic discharges from a person can produce peak Voltages up to 15
kV with currents of tens of Amperes in less than 10 microseconds.

A manufacturing environment is particularly susceptible to such surges because of the

presence of motors and other high voltage equipment. The essential point to remember is,
the effects of surges due to these other sources are no different than those due to lightning.
Hence, protection from one will also protect from the other.

When a lightning‐induced power surge is coupled into your computer

 equipment any one of a number of harmful events may occur.

Semiconductors are prevalent in such equipment. A lightning induced surge will almost always
surpass the voltage rating of these devices causing them to fail. Specifically, lightning induced
surges usually alter the electrical characteristics of semiconductor devices so that they no
longer function effectively. In a few cases, a surge may destroy the semiconductor device.
These are called "hard failures." Computer equipment having a hard failure will no longer
function at all. It must be repaired with the resulting expense of "downtime" or the expense of
a standby unit to take its place.

LIGHTENING SURGES:

In several instances, a lightning‐derived surge may destroy the printed traces in the printed
circuit boards of the computer equipment also resulting in hard failures.

Along with the voltage source, lightning can cause a current surge and a resultant induced
magnetic field. If the computer contains a magnetic disk then this interfering magnetic field
might overwrite and destroy data stored in the disk. Furthermore, the aberrant magnetic field
may energize the disk head when it should be quiescent. To you, the user, such behavior will
be viewed as the "disk crashing."
 Some computer equipment may have magnetic relays. The same aberrant magnetic fields
which cause disk crashes may activate relays when they shouldn't be activated, causing
unpredictable, unacceptable performance.

Finally, there is the effect of lightning on program logic controllers (PLCS) which are found in
the manufacturing environment. Many of these PLCs use programs stored in ROMS. A
lightning‐induced surge can alter the contents of the ROM causing aberrant operation by the
PLC.

So these are some of the unhappy things which happen when a computer experiences lightning.

This is a typical reaction and unfortunately it is based on ignorance. True, people may never,
or rarely, experience, direct lightning strikes on exposed, in‐building cable feeding into their
equipment.

However, it is not uncommon to find computer equipment being fed by buried cable. In this
environment, a lightning strike, even several miles away, can induce voltage/current surges
which travel through the ground and induce surges along the cable, ultimately causing
equipment failure. The equipment user is undoubtedly aware of these failures but usually
does not relate them to the occurrence of lightning during thunderstorm activity since the
user does not experience a direct strike.

In a way, such induced surges are analogous to chronic high blood pressure in a person; they
are "silent killers." In the manufacturing environment, long cable runs are often found
connecting sensors, PLCs and computers. These cables are particularly vulnerable to induced
surges.

LIGHTENING ARRESTORS:

Metal oxide varistors (MOVS) provide an improvement over the response time problem of
gas tubes. But, operational life is a drawback. MOVs protection characteristic decays and
fails completely when subjected to prolong over voltages.
Silicon avalanche diodes have proven to be the
most effective means of protecting computer
equipment against over voltage transients.
Silicon avalanche diodes are able to withstand
thousands of high voltage, high current and
transient surges without failure.
While they can not deal with the surge peaks
that gas tubes can, silicon avalanche diodes do
provide the fastest response time. Thus,
depending upon the principal threat being
protected against, devices can be found
employing gas tubes, MOVS, or silicon avalanche
diodes. This may be awkward, since the threat
is never really known in advance. Ideally,
the protection device selected should be robust, using all three basic circuit breaker elements.
The architecture of such as device is illustrated in Figure
 This indicates triple stage protection and incorporates gas tubes, MOVs and silicon
avalanche diodes as well as various coupling components and a good ground.

With the architecture shown in Figure 20 a lightning strike surge will travel, along the line
until it reaches a gas tube. The gas tube dumps extremely high amounts of surge energy
directly to earth ground. However, the surge rises very rapidly and the gas tube needs
several microseconds to fire.

As a consequence, a delay element is used to slow the propagation of the leading edge wave
front, thereby maximizing the effect of the gas tube. For a 90 Volt gas tube, the rapid rise of
the surge will result in its firing at about 650 Volts. The delayed surge pulse, now of reduced
amplitude, is impressed on the avalanche diode which responds in about one nanosecond or
less and can dissipate 1,500 Watts while limiting the voltage to 18 Volts for EIA‐232 circuits.
This 18 Volt level is then resistively coupled to the MOV which clamps to 27 Volts. The MOV is
additional protection if the avalanche diode capability is exceeded.
As previously mentioned, the connection to earth ground can not be over emphasized. The best
earth ground is undoubtedly a cold water pipe.
However, other pipes and building power grounds can also be used. While cold water pipes
are good candidates you should even be careful here. A plumber may replace sections of
corroded metal pipe with plastic. This wouldrender the pipe useless as a ground.

TRANSIENT STABILITY ANALYSIS IN ETAP

The PowerStation Transient Stability Analysis program is designed to investigate the stability
limits of a power system before, during and after system changes or disturbances. The
program models dynamic characteristics of a power system, implements the user‐defined
events and actions, solves the system network equation and machine differential equations
interactivelyto find out system and machine responses in time domain. From these responses,
users can determine the system transient behavior, make stability assessment, find
protective device settings, and apply the necessary remedy or enhancement to improve the
system stability. The Transient Stability Toolbar section explains how you can launch a
transient stability calculation, open and view an output report, select display options, and
view plots. The Study Case Editor section explains how to create a new study case, to define
parameters for a study case, to create a sequence of switching events and disturbances, to
globally define machine dynamical modeling method, to select plot/tabulation devices, etc.

The Display Options section explains what options are available for displaying some key system
parameters and the output results on the one‐line diagram, and how to set them.

The Calculation Methods section provides some theoretical backgrounds and quick reference
for the fundamentals on transient stability study, which are very helpful for users who do
not have extensive experience on running transient stability studies. The Required Data
section is a very good reference for you to check if you have prepared all necessary data for
transient stability calculations.
 The Output Reports section explains and demonstrates the format and organization of the
transient stability text reports. The One‐Line Diagram
Displayed Results section explains the available one‐line displaying results and provides one
example. The Plots section explains what plots for transient stability are available and how
to select and view them.

TRANSIENT STABILITY TOOLBAR

The Transient Stability Toolbar will appear on the screen when you are in the Transient Stability
Study mode.

Run Transient Stability

Select a study case from the Study Case Toolbar. Then click on the Run Transient Stability
button to perform a transient stability study. A dialog box will appear to ask you to specify
the output report name if the output file name is set to Prompt. The transient stability study
results will appear on the one‐line diagram and stored in the output report, as well as in the
plot file.
Display Options

Click the Display Options button to customize the one‐line diagram annotation options under
the transient stability study mode. Also to edit the one‐line diagram display for transient
stability calculation results.

Report Manager

Click on Report Manager Button to select a format and view transient stability output report.
Transient stability analysis reports are current provided in ASCII formats only, which can be
accessed from the Report Manager.
Transient Stability Plots

Click on the Transient Stability Plots button to select and plot the curves of the last plot file.
The plot file name is displayed on the Study Case Toolbar. The transient stability plot files
have the following extension: .tsp. For more information see plotting section.
Starting Generator Data

To perform a generator start‐up analysis, the following synchronous generator model needs
to be selected. This model is adapted from the latest IEEE Standard 1110 “IEEE Guide for
Synchronous Generator Modeling Practices in Stability Analyses.” It has one damping
winding on each of the direct and quadratic axis.

Turbine ‐ Governor Models

Practically any type of turbine‐governor model in PowerStation can be used in the generator
start‐up study, provided there are no other special control functions required.
ONE LINE DIAGRAM:
 WAVEFORMS FOR GENERATOR

Generator Exciter Current

Generator Exciter Voltage

Explanation

As it is clear from graph that as transients occur in system there is a sudden dip in generator
excitation voltage at start, this dip in voltage then gets higher value after dipping and as long
as transients exists it shows some fluctuations and get stable value when transients get
eliminated.
Generator Electrical power

Explanation
The effect of transients on generator electrical power is shown in figure. there is slight dip
and then alternation in the power values due to alternation in voltage values due to
transients, and as transients are being controlled we get stable value of electrical power as
obvious from graph.

Generator Mechanical Power

Explanation
The same is the case with mechanical power as was with electrical power.
Generator Frequency

Generator Rotor Angle:

Explanation
As graph shows that there is vibration occurance in rotor of a generator at start due to
transient,but as soon as value or effect of transient becomes small the rotor angle degree
slows down or it advances towards stable value in synchronous with other generators of the
system,
Generator Terminal Current:

Explaination :

The effect of transients on generator terminal current is clear from the graph,where it is
quite clear that there is sudden almost steep increment in the current magnitude of
generator,and then it becomes less than original value and then again comes to the same
original current level.

BUS WAVEFORMS
Bus Voltages

Explanation

The machine current graph shows that the value of current increases sharply at start unlike
machine voltage and then it gradually have decline in sinusoidal magnitude variation of
current and finally levels off to the original value as clear from graph. As concerned to bus
voltage, it is obvious from graph that
 the bus voltage dips to zero and remain at zero as shown in circuit graph.
Bus Voltage Angle

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR WAVEFORMS

Electrical Power

Explanation

The electric power of synchronous motor after a slight increment decreases and then there is
a dip in value which then again increases and after that it changed sinusoidaly but gradually
decreasing value and at last becomes stable.
Mechanical power

Machine Frequency

Rotor Angle
 Machine Connected Voltage

Explanation
It is clear from graph that machine connected voltage decreases rapidly as shown by graph
and then it got much value to become equal to the original value, but that value slightly
increases in magnitude as time proceed as shown in graph.

Machine Current
COMMENTS:

Transients are very fast increase in voltage value that exists for a very short interval of time
but can damage the system to such an extent, that power failure may occur due to
component failure. Transients are of two types, external due to cloud discharging and
internal due to switching. However both these cause the system voltage to rise to a
dangerous value limits, that must be avoided.
The internal occur due to switching out inductive load or switching in capacitive load in the
system. Because capacitor provide var’s to our system. Due to transient’s some values relating
to voltage and current parameters of different components have different effects. The
excitation voltage of the generator decreases while excitation current decreases.
The synchronous motor current increases while voltage decreases rapidly for small time and
then levels off. As concerned to the frequency it just fluctuates in its original value by just a
smaller magnitude which almost negligible. But remain constant for most of the time.
The rotor of the generator starts vibrating and is not more synchronized with the system this
could lead to more severe vibrations and may lead to more rotors to vibrate. This is very
dangerous situation for the health of our system. However after the transients the rotor is
brought to the same rotor angle in order to synchronize with the system, to avoid any
unwanted situation in the power system.
As bus bar is a protecting device so whenever a transient occurs in the system, the bus bar
voltage instantly drop to zero as shown in graph.
Thus transient either internal or external are very harmful for our system and they must be
diminished as soon as possible by proper grounding and other safety measurements.
 EXPERIMENT NO: 06
Introduction to Ground Grid Modeling in ETAP

GROUND GRID

An effective substation grounding system typically consists of driven ground rods, buried
interconnecting grounding cables or grid, equipment ground mats, connecting cables from the
buried grounding grid to metallic parts of structures and equipment, connections to grounded
system neutrals, and the ground surface insulating covering material. Currents flowing into
the grounding grid from lightning arrester operations, impulse or switching surge flashover of
insulators, and line‐to‐ground fault currents from the bus or connected transmission lines all
cause potential differences between grounded points in the substation and remote earth.
Without a properly designed grounding system, large potential differences can exist between
different points within the substation itself. Under normal circumstances, it is current flowing
through the grounding grid from line‐to‐ground faults that constitutes the main threat to
personnel.

OBJECTIVES OF GROUNDING

An effective grounding system has the following objectives:

 Ensure such a degree of human safety that a person working or

walking in the vicinity of grounded facilities is not exposed to the
danger of a critical electric shock. The touch and step voltages
produced in a fault condition have to be at safe values. A safe value
is one that will not produce enough current within a body to cause
ventricular fibrillation.
 Provide means to carry and dissipate electric currents into earth
under normal and fault conditions without exceeding any operating
and equipment limits or adversely affecting continuity of service.
 Provide grounding for lightning impulses and the surges occurring
from the switching of substation equipment, which reduces damage
to equipment and cable.
  Provide a low resistance for the protective relays to see and clear
ground faults, which improves protective equipment performance,
particularly at minimum fault.
IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

DC Offset

Difference between the symmetrical current wave and the actual current wave during a
power system transient condition is called DC‐offset. Mathematically, the actual fault current
can be broken into two parts:

 Symmetrical alternating component and

 Unidirectional (dc) component
The unidirectional component can be of either polarity, but will not change polarity and will
decrease at some predetermined rate.

Earth Current

It is the current that circulates between the grounding system and the ground fault current
source that uses the earth as the return path.

Ground Fault Current

It is the current flowing into or out of the earth or an equivalent conductive path during a
fault condition involving ground.

Ground Potential Rise (GPR)

The maximum voltage that a ground grid may attain relative to a distant grounding point
assumed to be at the potential of remote earth. The GPR is equal to the product of the earth
current and the equivalent impedance of the grounding system.

Mesh Voltage

It is the maximum touch voltage within a mesh of a ground grid.

Soil Resistivity

It is the electrical characteristic of the soil with respect to conductivity. The value is typically
given in ohm‐meters.

Step Voltage

The difference in surface potential experienced by a person bridging a distance of 1 meter

with his feet without contacting any other grounded object.

Touch Voltage

It is the potential difference between the ground potential rise and the surface potential at
the point where a person is standing while at the same time having his hands in contact with
a grounded structure.

Transferred Voltage

It is a special case of the touch voltage where a voltage is transferred into or out of the
substation from or to a remote point external to the substation site.

AREA OF THE GROUND GRID

The area of the ground grid should be as large as possible, preferably covering the entire
substation site.

All of the available area should be used since this variable has the greatest effect in lowering
the grid resistance. Measures such as adding additional grid conductor are expensive and do
not reduce the grid resistance to the extent that increasing the area does.

In general, the outer grid conductors should be placed on the boundary of the substation site
with the substation fence placed a minimum of 3 feet inside the outer conductors. This results
in the lowest possible grid resistance and protects persons outside the fence from possibly
hazardous touch voltages. It is therefore imperative that the fence and the ground grid
layout be
coordinated early in the design process.
The simplified design equations require square, rectangular, triangular, T‐ shaped, or
L‐shaped grids. For preliminary design purposes, on a layout drawing of the substation site,
draw in the largest square, rectangular, triangular, T‐shaped, or L‐shaped grids that will fit
within the site. These represent the outer grid conductors and will define the area of the grid
to be used in the calculations. A square, rectangular, triangular, T‐shaped, or L‐ shaped grid
site generally requires no additional conductors once the design is complete. For irregular
sites, once the design has been completed, additional conductors will be run along the
perimeter of the site that were not included in the original grid design and connected to the
grid.

This will take advantage of the entire site area available and will result in a more
conservative design.

GROUND FAULT CURRENTS

When a substation bus or transmission line is faulted to ground, the flow of ground current in
both magnitude and direction depends on the impedances of the various possible paths. The
flow may be between portions of a substation ground grid, between the ground grid and
surrounding earth, along connected overhead ground wires, or along a combination of all these
paths.

The relay engineer is interested in the current magnitudes for all system conditions and fault
locations so that protective relays can be applied and coordinating settings made. The
designer of the substation grounding system is interested primarily in the maximum amount of
fault current expected to flow through the substation grid, especially that portion from or to
remote earth, during the service lifetime of the installed design.

Figure illustrates a case governing ground fault current flow. The worst case for fault current
flow between the substation grounding grid and surrounding earth in terms of effect on
substation safety has to be determined.
 The maximum symmetrical rms fault current at the instant of fault initiation is usually obtained
from a network analyzer study or by direct computation.

Symmetrical Grid Current

That portion of the symmetrical ground fault current that flows between the grounding grid and
surrounding earth may be expressed by:

Ig = If . Sf

Where:

Ig = rms symmetrical grid current in amperes If = rms

symmetrical ground fault current in amperes Sf =

Fault current division factor

For the assumption of a sustained flow of the initial ground fault current, the symmetrical grid
current can be expressed by:

Ig = (3Io). Sf

Where:

Io = Symmetrical rms value of Zero Sequence fault current in amperes

For transmission substations, calculate the maximum Io for a single‐phase‐to‐ ground fault for
both the present station configuration and the ultimate station configuration. Obtain values
for all voltage levels in the station. Use
 the largest of these fault current values.
For distribution stations, since the fault current at distribution stations will not increase
significantly over the life of the station as a result of the high impedance of the 34 and 69 kV
feeders, the future fault current can be modeled using a suitable growth factor (suggest value
of 1.1 x For distribution stations, since the fault current at distribution stations will not
increase significantly over the life of the station as a result of the high impedance of the 34
and 69 kV feeders, the future fault current can be modeled using a suitable growth factor
(suggest value of 1.1 x For distribution stations, since the fault current at distribution stations
will not increase significantly over the life of the station as a result of the high impedance of
the 34 and 69 kV feeders, the future fault current can be modeled using a suitable growth
factor (suggest value of 1.1 x Io).

For an extremely conservative design, the interrupting rating of the equipment can be used
for Io. This value may be as high as ten times the ultimate single‐phase‐to‐ground fault
current. Use of such a large safety factor in the initial design may make it difficult to design
the grid to meet the tolerable touch and step voltage criteria by any means.

Determine the Split Factor, Sf

The split factor is used to take into account the fact that not all the fault current uses the
earth as a return path. Some of the parameters that affect the fault current paths are:

 Location of the fault

 Magnitude of substation ground grid impedance
 Buried pipes and cables in the vicinity of or directly connected
to the substation ground system
 Overhead ground wires, neutrals, or other ground return paths
The most accurate method for determining the percentage of the total fault current that
flows into the earth is to use a computer program such as EPRI’s SMECC, Substation Maximum
Earth Current Computation.
 For the purposes of this Bulletin, the graphical method will be used. Two types of

graphs will be presented:

 100 percent remote, 0 percent local fault current contribution

 25, 50, and 75 percent local, which corresponds to 75, 50,
and 25 percent remote fault current contribution
The Decrement Factor, Df

The decrement factor accounts for the asymmetrical fault current wave shape during the
early cycles of a fault as a result of the dc current offset. In general, the asymmetrical fault
current includes the sub‐transient, transient, and steady‐state ac components, and the dc
offset current component. Both the sub‐transient and transient ac components and the dc
offset decay exponentially, each having a different attenuation rate. However, in typical
applications of this guide, it is assumed that the ac component does not decay with time but
remains at its initial value.

The decrement factor can be calculated using:

Where:

tf = Time duration of fault in seconds

Ta = X/ (wR) = the dc offset time constant in seconds

Maximum Grid Current

During a system fault, the fault current will use the earth as a partial return path to the
system neutral.

The current that is injected into the earth during a fault results in a ground potential rise.
Typically, only a fraction of the total fault current flows from
 the grounding system into the earth. This is due to the transfer of current onto metallic
paths such as overhead static shields, water pipelines, etc.

Faults occurring within the substation generally do not produce the worst earth currents
since there are direct conductive paths that the fault current can follow to reach the
system neutral (assuming the substation has a grounded‐wye transformer). The faults that
produce the largest ground currents are usually line‐to‐ground faults occurring at some
distance away from the substation.

The maximum grid current is the current that flows through the grid to remote earth and is
calculated by:

Where:

IG =Maximum grid current in amperes

Df =Decrement factor for the entire duration of fault t , found for t, given in seconds

Ig = rms symmetrical grid current in amperes

Asymmetrical Fault Current

The asymmetrical fault current includes the sub‐transient, transient, and steady‐state ac
components, and the dc offset current component and can be defined as shown:

Where:

IF = Effective asymmetrical fault current in amperes If = rms

symmetrical ground fault current in amperes Df = Decrement

factor
 The dc offset in the fault current will cause the conductor to reach a higher temperature for
the same fault conditions (fault current duration and magnitude). In addition, if present, dc
offset could result in mechanical forcesand absorbed energy being almost four times the value
of an equivalent symmetric current case.

GROUND GRID MODELING IN ETAP

The Ground Grid Systems program calculates the following:

 The Maximum Allowable Current for specified conductors.

Warnings are issued if the specified conductor is rated lower
than the fault current level
 The Step and Touch potentials for any
rectangular/triangular/L‐ shaped/T‐shaped configuration of a
ground grid, with or without ground rods (IEEE Std 80 and
IEEE Std 665)
 The tolerable Step and Mesh potentials and compares them with
actual, calculated Step and Mesh potentials (IEEE Std 80 and IEEE
Std 665)
 Graphic profiles for the absolute Step and Touch voltages, as well
as the tables of the voltages at various locations (Finite Element
Method)
 The optimum number of parallel ground conductors and rods for
a rectangular/triangular/L‐shaped/T‐shaped ground grid. The
cost of conductors/rods and the safety of personnel in the
vicinity of the substation/generating station during a ground
fault are both considered. Design optimizations are performed
using a relative cost effectiveness method (based on the IEEE Std
80 and IEEE Std 665)
 The Ground Resistance and Ground Potential rise (GPR)
Ground Grid Systems Presentation

The GGS presentation is composed of the Top View, Soil View, and 3D View. The Top View is
used to edit the ground conductors/rods of a ground grid. The Soil View is used to edit the
soil properties of the surface, top, and lower
 layers of soil. The 3D View is used for the three‐dimensional display of the ground grid. The
3D View also allows the display of the ground grid to rotate,
offering views from various angles. The GGS presentation allows for graphical arrangement of
the conductors and rods that represent the ground grid, and to provide a physical
environment to conduct ground grid design studies.

Each GGS presentation is a different and independent ground grid system. This concept is
different from the multi‐presentation approach of the One‐ Line Diagram, where all
presentations have the same elements. There is no limit to the number of GGS
presentations that can be created.

Create a New Ground Grid Presentation

To create a GGS presentation, a ground grid must first be added to the One‐ Line Diagram.
Click on the Ground Grid component located on the AC toolbar, and drop the GGS symbol
anywhere on the One‐Line Diagram.

Right‐click on any location inside the ground grid box, and select Properties to bring up the
Grid Editor. The Grid Editor Dialog box is used to specify grid information, grid styles,
equipment information, and to view calculation results. Click on the Grid Presentation button
to bring up a GGS presentation.
Double‐clicking on the ground grid box located on the One‐Line Diagram will bring up the
Ground‐Grid Project Information dialog box, used to select an IEEE or FEM ‐ Finite Element
Method Study Model.

After selecting the IEEE or FEM Study Model, the Ground Grid Systems graphical user
interface window will be displayed. Below is a GGS presentation of a ground grid for the
FEM Study Model case.
FEM Editor Toolbar

The FEM Editor Toolbar appears when the FEM Study Model is selected, and when in
the Ground Grid Systems Edit mode. This toolbar has the following function keys:

Pointer

The cursor takes the shape of the element selected from the Edit Toolbar. Click on the
Pointer icon to return the cursor to its original arrow shape, or to move an element placed in
the Top View of the GGS presentation.

Conductor

Click on the Conductor icon to create a new conductor and to place it in the Top View of
the GGS. For more information on conductors see the Conductor/Rod Editor section (for
FEM).

Rod

Click on the Rod icon to create a new rod and to place it in the Top View of the GGS. For
more information on rods see the Conductor/Rod Editor section (for FEM).
FEM Rectangular Shape

Click on the FEM Rectangular Shape icon to create a new FEM grid of rectangular shape and
to place it in the Top View of the GGS. For more information on grids see the FEM Group
Editor section.

FEM T‐Shape

Click on the FEM T‐Shape icon to create a new FEM T‐shaped grid and to place it in the Top
View of the GGS. For more information on grids see the FEM Group Editor section.

FEM L‐Shape

Click on the FEM L‐Shape icon to create a new FEM L‐shaped grid and to place it in the Top
View of the GGS. For more information on grids see the FEM Group Editor section.

FEM Triangular Shape

Click on the FEM Triangular Shape icon to create a new FEM grid of triangular shape and to
place it in the Top View. For more information on grids see the FEM Group Editor section.

IEEE Edit Toolbar

The IEEE Editor Toolbar appears when the IEEE Study Model is selected, and when in the
Ground Grid Systems Edit mode. This toolbar has the following function keys:

Pointer

The cursor takes the shape of the element selected from the Edit Toolbar. Click on the
Pointer icon to return the cursor to its original arrow shape, or to move an element placed in
the Top View of the GGS presentation.
IEEE Rectangular Shape

Click on the IEEE Rectangular Shape icon to create a new IEEE grid of rectangular shape
and to place it in the Top View of the GGS. For more information on grids see the IEEE
Group Editor section.

IEEE T‐Shape

The IEEE T‐Shape grid is valid only for the IEEE Std. 80‐2000 method. Click on the IEEE
T‐Shape icon to create a new IEEE T‐shaped grid and to place it in the Top View of the GGS.
For more information on grids see the IEEE Group Editor section.

IEEE L‐Shape

The IEEE L‐Shape grid is valid only for the IEEE Std 80‐2000 method. Click on the IEEE L‐Shape
icon to create a new IEEE L‐shaped grid and to place it in the Top View of the GGS. For more
information on grids see the IEEE Group Editor section.

IEEE Triangular Shape

The IEEE Triangular Shape grid is valid only for the IEEE Std 80‐2000 method. Click on the IEEE
Triangular Shape icon to create a new IEEE grid of triangular shape and to place it in the Top
View. For more information on grids see the
 IEEE Group Editor section.

Ground Grid Study Method Toolbar

The Ground Grid Study Method Toolbar appears when the GGS Study mode is selected. This toolbar
has the following function keys:

Ground‐Grid Calculation

Click on the Ground‐Grid Calculation button to calculate:

 Step and Touch (mesh) Potentials

 Ground Resistance
 Ground Potential Rise
 Tolerable Step and Touch Potential Limits
 Potential Profiles (only for the FEM method)
Optimized Conductors

Click on the Optimized Conductors button to calculate the minimum number of conductors
(that satisfy the tolerable limits for the Step and Touch potentials) for a fixed number of
ground rods. This optimization function is for IEEE Std methods only.

Optimized Conductors and Rods

Click on the Optimized Conductors button to calculate the optimum numbers of conductors
and ground rods needed to limit the Step and Touch potentials. This optimization function
is for IEEE Std methods only.

Summary and Warning

Click on this button to open the GRD Analysis Alert View dialog box of Summary and
Warning for the Ground Grid Systems Calculation.
Plot Selection

This function is valid only for the FEM

method. Click on this button to open the
Plot Selection dialog box to select a variety
of potential profile plots to review, and
click OK to generate the output plots.

Report Manager

Click on this button to open

the Ground Grid Design
Report Manager dialog box to
select a variety of
pre‐formatted output plots to
review. Select a plot type
and click OK to bring up the
output plot.

Output Report files can be

selected from the Output
Report List Box on the Study
Case Toolbar shown below:
Stop

The Stop Sign button is normally disabled, and becomes enabled when a Ground Grid Systems
Calculation is initiated. Clicking on this button will terminate calculations in progress, and the
output reports will be incomplete.

Edit A GGS

Conductors, rods, and grids of various shapes are the elements available for adding to the
Top View of the Ground Grid Systems presentation. These elements are located on the Edit
Toolbar of the GGS module.

Select Elements

Place the cursor on an element located on the Edit toolbar and click the left mouse button.
Note that when a grid shape is selected, regardless of the number of conductors or rods it
contains, the shape is considered to be one element. If a selected shape is deleted or
copied, the shape and its contents will also be deleted or copied. Press the €CtrlΣ key and
click on multiple elements to either select or de‐select them.

Add Elements

To add a new element to the GGS presentation, select a new element from the Edit Toolbar by
clicking on the appropriate element button. Notice that the shape of the cursor changes to
correspond to that of the selected element.

Place the selected element by clicking the mouse anywhere in the Top View section of the GGS
presentation, and note that the cursor returns to its original shape. Double‐click on any element in
the Edit Toolbar to place multiple
 copies of the same element in the Top View section of the GGS presentation.

Rules

 Elements can be added ONLY in Edit mode

 Two conductors/rods cannot be added on top of each other
 Elements cannot be added in the Study mode
 Only one IEEE shape can be added in the Top View
 FEM group shapes can overlap

each other Add Conductors

Click on the Conductor button on the FEM Edit Toolbar, move the cursor to the GGS
presentation, and click to place the element in the Top View.
PowerStation creates the new conductor using default values.

Add Rods

Click on the Rod button on the FEM Edit Toolbar, move the cursor to the GGS presentation,
and click to place the element in the Top View. PowerStation creates the new rod using
default values.

Add Grid Shapes

Click on the desired Shape button on the FEM Edit Toolbar, move the cursor to the GGS
presentation, and click to place the element in the Top View.
PowerStation creates the new grid shape using default values.

Add Conductors by Ungrouping FEM Shapes

An FEM shape added in the Top View of a GGS presentation can be ungrouped into individual
conductors. To ungroup, move the cursor inside the selected shape, right‐click and select
“Ungroup”.

Move / Relocate Elements

When an element is added to a GGS presentation its position coordinates (x, y and z) are
updated automatically in the editor/spreadsheet and in the Help line at the bottom of your
screen. The element may be relocated to new
 coordinates by changing the coordinate values at the editor/spreadsheet (x’s, yes and z’s for
conductors/rods, and Lx, Ly, Depth, # of Rods and # of
Conductors in X/Y Directions for various typical grid shapes) or by dragging the element and
watching the Help line change to the desired position.

To drag an element, first select the element to be moved. Place the cursor on top of the
selected element, Click and hold the left mouse button, drag the element to the desired
position, and release the left button.

Move Conductors/Rods

Select the element, click and hold the left mouse button, drag the element to the new
position and release the left button.

Move Shapes

Shapes can be graphically moved within the Top View. Select the shape, click and hold the
left mouse button, drag the shape to the new location and release the left button.

Cut (Delete) Elements

Select the element or group of elements and press the Delete key on the keyboard.

Copy Elements

Select an element or group of elements, click the right mouse button, and select Copy.

Paste

Use the Paste command to copy the selected cells from the Dumpster into the GGS
presentation.

Size of Elements
When an element is added to a GGS presentation, its size is set by default. The width and
height of grid shapes and the length of conductors can be
 graphically changed. Select the element and move the cursor to a corner or edge of the
element. Once the cursor changes its form, click and hold the left
mouse button to drag the element to its new size. Release the left mouse button once the
desired size has been obtained.

Conductor/rod sizes can be change from the spreadsheet or shape editors. When the
Length is altered, X1, Y1 and Z1 will remain unchanged, and X2, Y2 and Z2 will change
accordingly. The cross‐sectional area of a conductor, the outside diameter and/or length of
a rod can only be changed from the conductor or rod Editor.

Rules

 Sizing elements can be done in Edit mode ONLY

 Elements cannot overlap each other
Study Case Editor

The GGS Study Case Editor contains Average Weight, Ambient Temperature, Current
Projection Factor, Fault Current Durations, option to input or compute Fault Current
Parameters (i.e., zero‐sequence fault current, current division factor, and X/R ratio), and
Plot Parameters (for the Finite Element Method only).

PowerStation allows for the creation and saving of an unlimited number of study cases for
each type of study, allowing the user to easily switch between different GGS study cases.
This feature is designed to organize the study efforts and to save time. To create a new GGS
study case, go to the Study Case Menu on the toolbar and select Create New to bring up the
GGS Study Case Editor.
Study Case ID

A study case can be renamed by simply deleting the old Study Case ID and entering a new
one. The Study case ID can be up to 25 alphanumeric characters. Use of the Navigator button
at the bottom of the Study Case Editor allows the user to go from one study case to another.

Options

In this section, select the average body weight for the person working above the ground grid,
and the ambient temperature. The weight is used to calculate
 the tolerable Step and Touch potentials.
Reports & Plots

Specify the report/plot parameters.

Report Details

Check this box to report intermediate results for an IEEE Std. Method or voltage profiles for
the Finite Element Method.

Auto Display of Summary & Alert

Check this box to automatically show the result window for Summary & Warning.

Plot Step

Plot Step is valid only for the FEM Study Model. This value is entered in m/ft, and it is used to
find the points (or locations) where Absolute/Step/Touch potentials need to be computed
and plotted. Note that the smaller this number, the more calculations are required,
increasing calculation time, but yielding smoother plots. The recommended value is 1
meter. If higher resolution is needed, decrease this number.

Boundary Extension

Enter the boundary extension in m/ft. This value is used to extend the gridboundaries inside which
the Absolute/Step/Touch potentials need to be computed.

Fault Durations

Allows the user to specify Fault Current durations

tf
Enter the duration of fault current in seconds to determine decrement factor. The Fault
duration (tf), tc , and Shock duration (ts) are normally assumed to be equal, unless the Fault
duration is the sum of successive shocks.
 tc
Enter in seconds the duration of Fault Current for sizing ground conductors.

ts
Enter in seconds the duration of Shock Current to determine permissible levels for the
human body.

Grid Current Factors

In this section, the Corrective Projection Factor and the Current Division Factor can be
specified.

Cp
Enter the Corrective Projection Factor in percent, accounting for the relative increase of
fault currents during the station lifespan. For a zero future system growth, Cp = 100.

Sf
Enter the Current Division Factor in percent, relating the magnitude of Fault current to that of
its portion flowing between the grounding grid and the surrounding earth.

Update

Check this box to update/replace the number of conductors/rods in the Conductor/Rod

Editor, with the number of conductors/rods calculated by using optimization methods. This
box is only valid with the IEEE methods.

Required Data

To run a Ground Grid Systems study, the following related data is necessary: Soil Parameters,
Grid Data, and System Data. A summary of these data for different types of calculation
methods is given in this section.
System Data

 System Frequency
 Average Weight of Worker
 Ambient Temperature
 Short Circuit Current
 Short Circuit Current Division Factor
 Short Circuit Current Projector Factor
 Durations of Fault
 System X/R Ratio
 Plot Step (for FEM model only)
 Boundary Extension (for FEM model only)
Soil Parameters

 Surface Material Resistivity

 Surface Material Depth
 Upper Layer Soil Resistivity
 Upper Layer Soil Depth
 Lower Layer Soil

Resistivity Ground

Conductor Library

 Material Conductivity
 Thermal Coefficient of Resistivity
 Ko Factor
 Fusing Temperature
 Ground Conductor Resistivity
 Thermal Capacity

Factor Grid Data (IEEE

Std.’s Only)

 Shape
  Material Type
 Conductor Cross Section
 Grid Depth
 Maximum Length of the Grid in the X Direction
 Maximum Length of the Grid in the Y Direction
 Minimum Length of the Grid in the X Direction (for IEEE Std
80‐2000 L‐ Shaped or T‐Shaped Grids Only)
 Minimum Length of the Grid in the Y Direction (for IEEE Std
80‐2000 L‐ Shaped or T‐Shaped Grid Only)
 Number of Conductors in the X Direction
 Number of Conductors in the Y Direction
 Cost
Rod Data (IEEE Std.’s Only)

 Material Type
 Number of Rods
 Average Length
 Diameter
 Arrangement
 Cost
Conductor Data (FEM model only)

 Material Type
 Insulation
 Cross Section
 X, Y and Z Coordinates of One End of Conductor
 X, Y and Z Coordinates of Other End of Conductor
 Cost
Rod Data (FEM model only)

 Material Type
 Insulation
 Diameter
  X, Y and Z Coordinates of One End of Rod
 X, Y and Z Coordinates of Other End of Rod
 Cost
Optional FEM Model Grid Group Data

 Shape
 Material Type
 Conductor Cross Section
 Grid Depth
 Maximum Length of the Grid in the X Direction
 Maximum Length of the Grid in the Y Direction
 Minimum Length of the Grid in the X Direction (for
L‐Shaped or T‐ Shaped Grids)
 Minimum Length of the Grid in the Y Direction (for L‐Shaped
or T‐ Shaped Grids)
 Number of Conductors in the X Direction
 Number of Conductors in the Y Direction
 Cost

Ground Grid Systems Report Manager

Click on the Report Manager Button on the Ground Grid Study Method Toolbar to open the
Ground
Grid Systems Report Manager dialog
box. The Ground Grid Systems
Report Manager consists of four
pages and provides different
formats for the Crystal Reports.
Plot Selection

Plots are used only with the FEM method,

and are available for Absolute/Step/Touch
Voltages. To select a plot, open up the
Plot Selection dialog box by clicking on
the Plot Selection button located on the
Ground Grid Systems Toolbar.

Plot Selection

The following 3‐D Potential profiles are available for analysis of GGS study case results:

Absolute Voltage

Select to plot an Absolute Potential profile.

Touch Voltage

Select to plot a Touch Potential profile.

Step Voltage

Select to plot a Step Potential profile.

Plot Type

The following plot types are available for analysis of GGS study case results:
3‐D

Plot a 3‐D Potential profile for the Absolute/Touch/Step voltage.

Contour

Plot a Contour Potential profile for the Absolute/Touch/Step voltage.

Display over Limit Voltage

Show areas with potentials exceeding the tolerable limits for 3‐D Touch/Step Potential
profiles. This function is disabled when the Contour plot type is selected. A set of sample
plots is shown below.
COMMENTS:
Some of the main features of the Ground Grid Systems Analysis Study are summarized below:

 Calculate the tolerable Step and Touch potentials

 Compare potentials against the actual, calculated Step and
Touch potentials
 Optimize number of conductors with fixed rods based on cost and
safety
 Optimize number of conductors & rods based on cost and safety
 Calculate the maximum allowable current for specified conductors
 Compare allowable currents against fault currents
 Calculate Ground System Resistance
 Calculate Ground Potential Rise
 User‐expandable conductor library
 Allow a two‐layer soil configuration in addition to the surface material
 Ground grid configurations showing conductor & rod plots
 Display 3‐D/contour Touch Voltage plots
 Display 3‐D/contour Step Voltage plots
 Display 3‐D/contour Absolute Voltage plots
 Calculate Absolute, Step & Touch potentials at any
point in the configuration
 Conductor/Rod can be oriented in any possible 3‐Dimensional direction
 Handle irregular configurations of any shape
 EXPERIMENT NO: 07
Ground Grid Modeling of a Given System using ETAP

GROUND GRID
An effective substation grounding system typically consists of driven ground rods, buried
interconnecting grounding cables or grid, equipment ground mats, connecting cables from the
buried grounding grid to metallic parts of structures and equipment, connections to grounded
system neutrals, and the ground surface insulating covering material. Currents flowing into
the grounding grid from lightning arrester operations, impulse or switching surge flashover of
insulators, and line‐to‐ground fault currents from the bus or connected transmission lines all
cause potential differences between grounded points in the substation and remote earth.
Without a properly designed grounding system, large potential differences can exist between
different points within the substation itself. Under normal circumstances, it is current flowing
through the grounding grid from line‐to‐ground faults that constitutes the main threat to
personnel.

GROUND GRID MODELING IN ETAP

The Ground Grid Systems program calculates the following:

 The Maximum Allowable Current for specified conductors.

Warnings are issued if the specified conductor is rated lower
than the fault current level
 The Step and Touch potentials for any
rectangular/triangular/L‐ shaped/T‐shaped configuration of a
ground grid, with or without ground rods (IEEE Std 80 and
IEEE Std 665)
 The tolerable Step and Mesh potentials and compares them with
actual, calculated Step and Mesh potentials (IEEE Std 80 and IEEE
Std 665)
 Graphic profiles for the absolute Step and Touch voltages, as well
as the tables of the voltages at various locations (Finite Element
Method)
  The optimum number of parallel ground conductors and rods for
a rectangular/triangular/L‐shaped/T‐shaped ground grid. The
cost of
conductors/rods and the safety of personnel in the vicinity of the
substation/generating station during a ground fault are both considered. Design
optimizations are performed using a relative cost effectiveness method (based on the
IEEE Std 80 and IEEE Std 665)
 The Ground Resistance and Ground Potential rise (GPR)
ONE LINE DIAGRAM

Create a New Ground Grid Presentation

To create a GGS presentation, a ground grid must first be added to the One‐
Line Diagram. Click on the Ground Grid component located on the AC toolbar, and drop the
GGS symbol anywhere on the One‐Line Diagram.
DIAGRAM WITH GROUND GRID

Right‐click on any location inside the ground grid box, and select Properties to bring up the Grid
Editor. The Grid Editor Dialog box is used to specify grid information, grid styles, equipment
information, and to view calculation
results. Click on the Grid Presentation button to bring up a GGS presentation.

Double‐clicking on the ground grid box located on the One‐Line Diagram will bring up the
Ground‐Grid Project Information dialog box, used to select an IEEE or FEM ‐ Finite Element
Method Study Model.

After selecting the IEEE Study Model, the Ground Grid Systems graphical user‐ interface window
will be displayed as shown below. Select the T‐shape grid.
Right click on the T‐shape and adjust the dimensions and number of conductors in the
following window:
 After completing this process, we get the following shape of ground grid:

Ground Grid Study

The Ground Grid Study Method

Toolbar appears when the GGS
Study mode isselected.

Clicking on the Ground‐Grid

Calculation tab and the following
shown Alert View window is
displayed.
 Summary and Warning

Observations:

Calculated Volts Tolerable Volts

Touch 1260.6 427.1
Step 2209.3 1216.4

GPR 5677.9 Volts

Rg 2.83 Ohm
 Summary and Warnings after Complete designing

Using FEM method

The FEM Editor Toolbar appears when the FEM Study Model is selected, and when in the
Ground Grid Systems Edit mode. If we use this method, then we get following plots of touch
potential and step potential as shown below:
COMMENTS:

Ground‐Grid Calculations are used to calculate:

 Step and Touch (mesh) Potentials

 Ground Resistance
 Ground Potential Rise
 Tolerable Step and Touch Potential Limits
 Potential Profiles (only for the FEM method)

In this experiment:

 We perform ground grid modeling with low number of rods

 We observe that the step voltage and the touch voltage are
out of tolerable limits as shown in alert view
 Then we perform the analysis after adding more number of rods
 Finally we achieve a position where we do not get any alert and the
 step voltage and the touch voltage are within tolerable limits
 That means that we have modeled the Ground‐Grid
according to our requirements
 EXPERIMENT NO: 08
Modeling of Single‐Phase Instantaneous Over‐CurrentRelay using MATLAB

RELAY
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism, but other operating principles are also used. Relays find applications
where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low‐ power signal, or where several circuits
must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph
circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re‐transmitting it to another.

TYPES OF RELAYS

 Over current Relay

 Distance Relay

 Differential Relay

 And many more…

Over‐Current Relay
The protection in which the relay picks up when the magnitude of current exceeds the pickup
level is known as the over‐current protection. Over current includes short‐circuit protection;
Short circuits can be Phase faults, Earth faults, Winding faults. Short‐circuit currents are
generally several times (5 to 20) full load current. Hence fast fault clearance is always
desirable on
 short circuits. Primary requirements of over‐current protection are: The protection should not
operate for starting currents, permissible over current, current surges. To achieve this, the
time delay is provided (in case of inverse relays. The protection should be coordinated with
neighboring over current protection. Over current relay is a basic element of over current
protection.
In order for an over current protective device to operate properly, over‐ current protective
device ratings must be properly selected.

These ratings include voltage, ampere and interrupting rating.

Of the three of the ratings, perhaps the most important and most often overlooked is the
interrupting rating.

If the interrupting rating is not properly selected, a serious hazard for equipment and
personnel will exist.

Current limiting can be considered as another over current protective device rating, although
not all over current protective devices are required to have this characteristic.

Types of Over‐Current Relay

Instantaneous Time over Current Relay:
It operates in a definite time when current exceeds its pick‐up value. It has operating time is
constant. In it, there is no intentional time delay. It operates in 0.1s or less

Definite Time over Current Relay:

It operates after a predetermined time, as current exceeds its pick‐up value. Its operating
time is constant. Its operation is independent of the magnitude of current above the pick‐up
value. It has pick‐up and time dial settings,
 desired time delay can be set with the help of an intentional time delay mechanism.

Inverse Time over Current Relay:

Over current relay function monitors the general balanced overloading and has current/time
settings. This is determined by the overall protective discrimination scheme. There advantage
over definite time relays is that they
can have much shorter tripping times can be obtained without any risk to the protection
selection process. These are classified in accordance with there characteristic curves, this
indicates the speed of the operation. Based on this they are defined as being inverse, very
inverse or extremely inverse. The typical settings for these relays are 0.7‐2In (normal or rated
generator current) in 1‐10 second.

Inverse Definite Minimum Time over Current Relay:

It gives inverse time current characteristics at lower values of fault current and definite time
characteristics at higher values. An inverse characteristic is obtained if the value of plug
setting multiplier is below 10, for values between 10 and 20; characteristics tend towards
definite time characteristics. It iswidely used for the protection of distribution lines.

Very Inverse Time over Current Relay:

It gives more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT. It is used where there is a reduction in
fault current, as the distance from source increases. It is particularly effective with ground
faults because of their steep characteristics

Extremely Inverse Time over Current Relay:

It has more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT and very inverse over‐ current relay. It is
suitable for the protection of machines against overheating. It is for the protection of
alternators, transformers, expensive cables, etc
Simulink Diagram in MATLAB for Single Phase
Instantaneous Time Over‐Current Relay
Waveform Results in MATLAB for Single Phase Instantaneous Time
Over‐CurrentRelay
COMMENTS:

In this experiment, we designed an instantaneous over‐current relay in MATLAB Simulink and

then observed the behavior of this relay.

We observed that the normal current flowing through the system is 100 Amperes, but when
the fault occurs in the system, the current flowing isincreased from 100 Amperes.

We modeled the circuit such that the breaker must be open just after the current level is
increased over 100 Amperes.

In this experiment, we take the results on scope and observed that when current exceeds
over 100 Amperes, the breaker is opened instantaneously and our required results are
verified.
 Experiment#09

Modeling of a Three Phase Instantaneous Over‐Current Relay using

MATLAB
Relay:
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism, but other operating principles are also used. Relays find applications
where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low‐ power signal, or where several circuits
must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph
circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re‐transmitting it to another.

Type of Relays

 Over current Relay

 Distance Relay

 Differential Relay

 And many more…

Functions of Relays:

 To detect the presence of fault

 Identify the faulted components

 Initiate appropriate circuit breaker

 Remove the effective component from circuit

Over‐Current Relay
The protection in which the relay picks up when the magnitude of current exceeds the pickup
level is known as the over‐current protection. Over current includes short‐circuit protection;
Short circuits can be Phase faults, Earth faults, Winding faults. Short‐circuit currents are
generally several times (5 to 20) full load current. Hence fast fault clearance is always
desirable on short circuits. Primary requirements of over‐current protection are: The
protection should not operate for starting currents, permissible over current, current surges.
To achieve this, the time delay is provided (in case of inverse relays. The protection should
be coordinated with neighboring over current protection. Over current relay is a basic
element of over current protection. In order for an over current protective device to operate
properly, over current protective device ratings must be properly selected. These ratings
include voltage, ampere and interrupting rating. Of the three of the ratings, perhaps the most
important and most often overlooked is the interrupting rating. If the interrupting rating is not
properly, selected, a serious hazard for equipment and personnel will exist. Current limiting
can be considered as another over current protective device rating, although not all over
current protective devices are required to have this characteristic.
 Types of Over Current Relay

Instantaneous Time over Current Relay:

It operates in a definite time when current exceeds its pick‐up value. It has operating time is
constant. In it, there is no intentional time delay. It operates in 0.1s or less.

Definite Time over Current Relay:

It operates after a predetermined time, as current exceeds its pick‐up value. Its operating
time is constant. Its operation is independent of the magnitude of current above the pick‐up
value. It has pick‐up and time dial settings, desired time delay can be set with the help of an
intentional time delay mechanism.

Inverse Definite Minimum Time over Current Relay:

It gives inverse time current characteristics at lower values of fault current and definite time
characteristics at higher values. An inverse characteristic is obtained if the value of plug
setting multiplier is below 10, for values between 10 and 20; characteristics tend towards
definite time characteristics. It iswidely used for the protection of distribution lines.

Very Inverse Time over Current Relay:

It gives more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT. It is used where there is a reduction in
fault current, as the distance from source increases. It is particularly effective with ground
faults because of their steep characteristics

Extremely Inverse Time over Current Relay:

It has more inverse characteristics than that of IDMT and very inverse over‐ current relay. It is
suitable for the protection of machines against overheating. It is for the protection of
alternators, transformers, expensive cables, etc.
 Simulink Diagram in MATLAB for Three‐Phase
Instantaneous Time Over‐Current Relay

Subsystem:
Inst.Relay:

Waveform Results in MATLAB for Three Phase‐

Instantaneous Time Over‐Current Relay
COMMENTS:

In this experiment, we implimented a three phase instantaneous over current relay in MATLAB
Simulink.

In this experiment we have used terminators at the outputs that are notneeded.

We have implimented a three phase fault at a specified time to ensure the breaker
operation at 0.02 on time axis.

When a three phase fault occurs in the system, current exceeds from this value.

Breaker is operated instantaneously at the time when fault occurs and system is protected
against the very high current.

This three phase relay can operate also for single phase or two phases fault.
 Experiment#10

Modeling of a Differential Relay Using MATLAB

WHAT IS A RELAY?
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism, but other operating principles are also used. Relays find applications
where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low‐ power signal, or where several circuits
must be controlled by one signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph
circuits, repeating the signal coming in from one circuit and re‐transmitting it to another.
Relays found extensive use in telephone exchanges and early computers to perform logical
operations.

A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly drive an electric motor is
called a contractor. Solid‐state relays control power circuits with no moving parts, instead
using a semiconductor device to perform switching. Relays with calibrated operating
characteristics and sometimes multiple operating coils are used to protect electrical circuits
from overload or faults; in modern electric power systems these functions are performed by
digital instruments still called protection relays. A protective relay is a
 automatic sensing device which senses an abnormal condition and causes circuit breaker to
isolate faulty element from system. Protective relaying is necessary with almost every
electrical power system and no part of it is left unprotected choice of protection depends
upon several aspects like

 Type and rating of protected equipment and its importance

 Location

 Probable abnormal condition

 Cost

 Selectivity ,Sensitivity , Stability ,Reliability ,Fault

clearance time Functions of Relays

 To detect the presence of fault

 Identify the faulted components

 Initiate appropriate circuit breaker

 Remove the effective component from circuit

Purpose of Relay

 Control
 Protection
 Regulation

Type of Relays

 Over current Relay

 Distance Relay
  Differential Relay
etc. Differential Relay

Differential protection is a unit scheme that compares

the current on the primary side of a transformer with
that on the secondary

side. Where a difference exists (other than

that due to the voltage ratio) it is assumed

that the transformer has developed a fault and the

plant is automatically disconnected by tripping
the relevant circuit

breakers. The principle of operation is made possible by virtue of the fact that large
transformers are very efficient and hence under normal operation power‐in equals
power‐out. Differential protection detects faults on all of the
plant and equipment within the protected circuits. zone, including inter‐turn short

Principle of Operation

The operating principle employed by transformer differential protection is the circulating

current system as shown below. Under normal conditions I1 and I2 are equal and opposite such
that the resultant current through the relay is zero. An internal fault produces an unbalance
or 'spill' current that is
 detected by the relay, leading to operation.

Design Considerations

A number of factors have to be taken into account in designing a scheme to meet these
objectives. These include:

□ The matching of CT ratios

□ Current imbalance produced by tap changing

□ Dealing with zero sequence currents

□ Phase shift through the transformer

□ Magnetizing inrush current

Each of these is considered further below:

The Matching of CT Ratios

The CTs used for the Protection Scheme will normally be selected from a range of current
transformers with standard ratios such as 1600/1, 1000/5, 200/1 etc. This could mean that
the currents fed into the relay from the two sides of the power transformer may not balance
perfectly. Any imbalance must be compensated for and methods used include the application
of biased relays and/or the use of the interposing CTs.

Current Imbalance Produced by Tap Changing

A transformer equipped with an on‐load tap changer (OLTC) will by definition experience a
change in voltage ratio as it moves over its tapping range. This in turn changes the ratio of
primary to secondary current and produces out‐of‐
 balance (or spill) current in the relay. As the transformer taps further from the balance
position, so the magnitude of the spill current increases. To make the situation worse, as the
load on the transformer increases the magnitude of the spill current increases yet again. And
finally through faults could produce spill currents that exceed the setting of the relay.
However, none of these conditions is 'in zone' and therefore the protection must remain
stable i.e. it must not operate. Biased relays provide the solution.

Magnetizing Inrush Current

When a transformer is first energized, magnetizing inrush has the effect of producing a high
magnitude current for a short period of time. This will be seen by the supply side CTs only
and could be interpreted as an internal

fault. Precautions must therefore be taken to prevent a protection operation. Solutions

include building a time delay feature into the relay and the use of harmonic restraint driven,
typically, by the high level of second harmonic associated with inrush current.

Other Issues

Biased Relays

The use of a bias feature within a differential relay permits low settings and fast operating
times even when a transformer is fitted with an on‐load tap‐ changer. The effect of the bias
is to progressively increase the amount of spill current required for operation as the
magnitude of through current increases. Biased relays are given a specific characteristic by
themanufacturer.

Interposing CTs

The main function of an interposing CT is to balance the currents supplied to the relay where
there would otherwise be an imbalance due to the ratios of the main CTs. Interposing CTs
are equipped with a wide range of taps that can be selected by the user to achieve the
balance required.
 As the name suggests, an interposing CT is installed between the secondary winding of the
main CT and the relay. They can be used on the primary side or secondary side of the
power transformer being protected, or both. Interposing CTs also provide a convenient
method of establishing a delta connection for the elimination of zero sequence currents
where this is necessary.

Modern Relays

It should be noted that some of the newer digital relays eliminate the need for interposing
CTs by enabling essentials such as phase shift, CT ratios and zero sequence current
elimination to be programmed directly into the relay.
Simulink Diagram in MATLAB for Differential Relay
Comments:

It is important to note the direction of the currents as well as the magnitude as they are
vectors. It requires a set of current transformers (smaller transformers that transform
currents down to a level which can be measured) at each end of the power line or each side of
the transformer.

In this experiment, we modeled a differential relay in MATLAB which provides the essential
protection against transformer internal faults and it is useful in power transformers like
500,220 and 132KV.

However it can also be used for the protection of distribution transformer.

First of all we have applied a fault on the secondary side of transformer and ensure the operation
of circuit breaker at the instant of fault that was set by us through the timer block.

Then we applied a fault on the primary side and again verify the tripping of circuit breaker.

It was observed that breaker takes a little more time when the fault is on the secondary side as
compared to the fault occurrence on primary side of transformer due to larger distance.

It is verified that the differential relay modeled can detect three phase fault as well as fault
on any single phase on each side of transformer.