EX-704 ELECTRICAL CAD LAB-1

BITS GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS
(BITS/BIT/BITM)
(AICTE Approved, Affiliated to RGPV Bhopal)
ELECTRICAL CAD LAB

EX-704
LAB MANUAL
Student Name:……………………………………………………
Student Name :…………………………
Roll No :…………………………
Branch:……………………………..Section……………………
Year …………………………Semester………………………..
FACULTY INCHARGE
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2
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS SUB: SIMULATION LAB
SUB. CODE: (EX-802)
S.No Topic REMARK
1. Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents
2. Equivalent circuit of a Transformer
3. Determination of voltage and power at the

sending end, voltage regulation using
medium line model
4. Determination of line performance when

loaded at receiving end
5. Formation of bus Admittance matrix
6. Load flow Solution using Gauss Seidel

Method
7. Load flow solution using Newton

Raphson method in Rectangular
Coordinates
8. a) Optimal dispatch neglecting Losses
b) Optimal dispatch including Losses
9. Transient Response of an RLC Circuit
10. Three phase short circuit analysis in a

Synchronous Machine
11. Unsymmetrical Fault Analysis
3
12. Zbus Building Algorithm
13. a) Obtain Symmetrical components of a set

of Unbalanced currents
b) Obtain the original Unbalanced phase

voltages from Symmetrical Components
14. Short Circuit Analysis of 14 bus system
15. Load Frequency control of a single area

system
16. Load frequency control of a two area

system
17. Step response of rotor angle and

generator frequency of a Synchronous
Machine
4
Date: Experiment-1
SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS
Aim: To determine sinusoidal voltages and currents
Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory : The RMS Voltage of an AC Waveform

The RMS value is the square root of the mean (average) value of the squared function of the
instantaneous values. The symbols used for defining an RMS value are VRMS or IRMS.
The term RMS, refers to time-varying sinusoidal voltages, currents or complex waveforms
were the magnitude of the waveform changes over time and is not used in DC circuit analysis
or calculations were the magnitude is always constant. When used to compare the equivalent
RMS
voltage value of an alternating sinusoidal waveform that supplies the same electrical power
to a given load as an equivalent DC circuit, the RMS value is called the “effective value” and is
presented as: Veffor Ieff.
In other words, the effective value is an equivalent DC value which tells you how many volts
or amps of DC that a time-varying sinusoidal waveform is equal to in terms of its ability to
produce the same power. For example, the domestic mains supply in the United Kingdom is
240Vac. This
value is assumed to indicate an effective value of “240 Volts RMS”. This means then that
the sinusoidal RMS voltage from the wall sockets of a UK home is capable of producing the
same
average positive power as 240 volts of steady DC voltage as shown below.
RMS Voltage Equivalent
1
Circuit diagram:
Fig: Simulink model for voltage and current measurement
Procedure:
1. Open Matlab-->Simulink--> File ---> New---> Model
2. Open Simulink Library and browse the components
3. Connect the components as per circuit diagram
4. Set the desired voltage and required frequency
5. Simulate the circuit using MATLAB
6. Plot the waveforms.
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Graph:
Calculations:
3
Result:
4
Signature of the faculty
Date: Experiment-2
EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER
Aim: To determine the parameters of equivalent circuit of transformer from OC SC

test data
Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory : Equivalent Circuit of Transformer
Equivalent impedance of transformer is essential to be calculated because the electrical

power transformer is an electrical power system equipment for estimating different
parameters of electrical power system which may be required to calculate total internal
impedance of an electrical power transformer, viewing from primary side or secondary side
as per requirement. This calculation requires equivalent circuit of transformer referred to
primary or equivalent circuit of transformer referred to secondary sides respectively.
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to

Primary
Let us consider the transformation ratio be,
In the figure right, the applied voltage to the primary isan

V d
1 voltage across the primary
winding is E 1. Total electric current supplied to primary
is I 1. So the voltage V 1 applied to
the primary is partly dropped by I1Z1 or I1R1 + j.I1X1
before it appears across primary winding. The voltage
appeared across winding is countered by primary induced
emf E 1. So voltage
equation of this portion of the transformer can be
written as,
From the vector diagram above, it is found that the total
primary current I 1 has two components, one is no - load
component I o and the other is load component I 2′. As this
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primary current has two components or branches, so there must be a parallel path with
primary winding of transformer. This parallel path of electric current is known as
excitation branch of equivalent circuit of transformer. The resistive and reactive
branches of
the excitation circuit can be represented as
The load 2′ flows through

component I
primary winding the
of transformer and
induced voltage across the winding is E
1as shown in the figure right. This
induced voltage E1 transformsan to
secondary and it is E 2 load d
component of primary current I 2′ is
transformed to secondary as
secondary current I2. Current of
R +
secondary is I 2. So the voltage E2
across
j. X secondary winding is partly
I dropped by I2Z2 or I2 2
2 2 before it appears across load. The
load voltage is V2.
Now if we see the voltage drop in secondary from primary side, then it would be ′K′ times
greater and would be written as K.Z2.I2.
Again I2′.N1 = I 2.N2
Therefore,
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From above equation, secondary impedance of transformer referred to primary is,
So, the complete equivalent circuit of transformer referred to primary is shown in the
figure below,
Approximate Equivalent Circuit of

Transformer
Since Io is very small compared to I 1,

it is less than 5% of full load primary
current, Io changes the voltage drop
insignificantly. Hence, it is good
approximation to ignore the excitation
circuit in approximate equivalent
circuit of transformer. The winding
resistance and reactance being in
series can now be combined into
equivalent resistance and reactance of
transformer, referred to
any particular side. In this case it is side 1 or primary side.
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Secondary
In similar way, approximate equivalent circuit of transformer referred to secondary

can be drawn.
Where equivalent impedance of transformer referred to secondary, can be derived as
7
Circuit Diagram:
8
Procedure:
4. Set the desired voltage and current
6. Plot the waveforms
Graph:
Calculations:
9
Po wer Systems Simulation Lab GRIET/EEE
Result:

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Date: Experiment-3
VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A MEDIUM LINE MODEL
Aim: To determine voltage and power at the sending end and to regulate the voltage
using medium line model.
Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory: The transmission line having its effective length more than 80 km but less than
250 km, is generally referred to as a medium transmission line. Due to the line length
being considerably high, admittance Y of the network does play a role in calculating the
effective circuit parameters, unlike in the case of short transmission lines. For this reason
the modellingof a medium length transmission line is done using lumped shunt admittance
along with the lumped impedance in series to the circuit.
These lumped parameters of a medium length transmission line can be represented using
two different models, namely-
1)Nominal Π
representation. 2)Nominal T
representation.
Let’s now go into the detailed discussion of these above mentioned models.
Nominal Π Representation of a Medium Transmission Line
In case of a nominal Π representation,

the lumped series impedance is
placed at the middle of the circuit
where as
the shunt admittances are at the
ends. As we can see from the diagram
of the Π network below, the total
lumped
shunt admittance is divided into 2
equal halves, and each half with value
Y ⁄ 2 is placed at both the sending and the receiving end while the entire circuit impedance is
between the two. The shape of the circuit so formed resembles that of a symbol Π, and for
this reason it is known as the nominal Π representation of a medium transmission line. It is
11
mainly used for determining the general circuit parameters and performing load flow analysis.
As we can see here, VS and VR is the supply and receiving end voltages respectively,
and Is is the current flowing through the supply end.
IR is the current flowing through the receiving end of the circuit.
I1 and I3 are the values of currents flowing through the admittances.
And I2 is the current through the impedance Z.
Now applying KCL, at node P, we get.
..
Similarly applying KCL, to node Q.
Now substituting equation (2) to equation (1)
Now by applying KVL to the circuit,
Comparing equation (4) and (5) with the standard ABCD parameter equations
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We derive the parameters of a medium transmission line as:
Voltage regulation of transmission line is measure of change of receiving end voltage

from no-load to full load condition.
Circuit Diagram:
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PROCEDURE:
6. Calculate the voltage regulation of medium line model.
Calculations:
Result:
14
Date: Experiment-4
LINE PERFORMANCE WHEN LOADED AT RECEIVING END

Aim: To determine line performance when loaded at receiving end
Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory : Nominal Π Representation of a Medium Transmission Line
In case of a nominal Π representation,

the lumped series impedance is
placed at the middle of the circuit
where as
the shunt admittances are at the
ends. As we can see from the diagram
of the Π network below, the total
lumped
shunt admittance is divided into 2
equal halves, and each half with value
Y ⁄ 2 is placed at both the sending and the receiving end while the entire circuit impedance is
between the two. The shape of the circuit so formed resembles that of a symbol Π, and for
this reason it is known as the nominal Π representation of a medium transmission line. It is
mainly used for determining the general circuit parameters and performing load flow
analysis. As we can see here, VS and VR is the supply and receiving end voltages
respectively, and
Is is the current flowing through the supply end.
IR is the current flowing through the receiving end of the circuit.
I1 and I3 are the values of currents flowing through the admittances.
And I2 is the current through the impedance Z.
Now applying KCL, at node P, we get.
..........(1)
Similarly applying KCL, to node Q.
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..........(2)
Now substituting equation (2) to equation (1)
Now by applying KVL to the circuit,
Comparing equation (4) and (5) with the standard ABCD parameter equations
We derive the parameters of a medium transmission line as:
Voltage regulation of transmission line is measure of change of receiving end voltage

from no-load to full load condition.
16
Circuit Diagram:
PROCEDURE:
6. Obtain the line performance of a line.
Graph:
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Result
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Date: Experiment-5
FORMATION OF BUS ADMITTANCE MATRIX USING MATLAB
Aim: To determine the bus admittance matrix for the given power system Network
Apparatus: MATLAB 7.7
Theory:
Formation of Y BUS matrix

Bus admittance matrix is often used in power system studies.In most of power system
studies it is necessary to form Y-bus matrix of the system by considering certain power system
parameters depending upon the type of analysis. For example in load flow analysis it is
necessary to form Y-bus matrix without taking into account the generator impedance and load
impedance. In short circuit analysis the generator transient reactance and transformer
impedance taken in account, in addition to line data. Y-bus may be computed by inspection
method only if there is
no natural coupling between the lines. Shunt admittance are added to the diagonal
elements corresponding to thebuses at which these are connected. The off diagonal
elements are unaffected. The equivalent circuit of tap changing transformer may be
considered in forming[y- bus] matrix.
There are b independent equations (b = no. of buses) relating the bus vectors of
currents and voltages through the bus impedance matrix and bus admittance matrix:
EBUS = ZBUS IBUS
IBUS = YBUS EBUS
The relation of equation can be represented in the form
IBUS = YBUS EBUS
Where, YBUS is the bus admittance matrix, IBUS & EBUS are the bus current and bus
voltage vectors respectively.
Diagonal elements: A diagonal element (Yii) of the bus admittance matrix, YBUS, is equal
to the sum total of the admittance values of all the elements incident at the bus/node i,
Off Diagonal elements: An off-diagonal element (Yij) of the bus admittance matrix, YBUS,
is equal to the negative of the admittance value of the connecting element present
between the buses I and j, if any.
This is the principle of the rule of inspection. Thus the algorithmic equations for the rule
of inspection are obtained as:
Yii = Σ yij (j = 1,2,…….n)
Yij = - yij (j = 1,2,…….n)
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For i = 1,2,….n, n = no. of buses of the given system, yij is the admittance of
element connected between buses i and j and yii is the admittance of element
connected between bus i and ground (reference bus).
START
Read the no. Of buses ,

no of
lines and line data
Initialize the Y- BUS

Matrix
Consider line l =
1
i = sb(1); I=
eb(1)
Y(i,i) =Y(i,i)+Yseries(l)
+0.5Yseries(l) Y(j,j)
=Y(j,j)+Yseries(l) +0.5Yseries(l)
Y(i,j) = -Yseries(l)
Y(j,i) =Y(i,j)
NO YES
Is l =NL?
l = l+1 Print Y -
Bus
Sto
p
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MATLAB PROGRAM
function[Ybus] = ybus(zdata)
nl=zdata(:,1); nr=zdata(:,2); R=zdata(:,3); X=zdata(:,4);
nbr=length(zdata(:,1)); nbus = max(max(nl), max(nr));
Z = R + j*X; %branch impedance
y= ones(nbr,1)./Z; %branch admittance
Ybus=zeros(nbus,nbus); % initialize Ybus to zero
for k = 1:nbr; % formation of the off diagonal
elements if nl(k) > 0 & nr(k) > 0
Ybus(nl(k),nr(k)) = Ybus(nl(k),nr(k)) - y(k);
Ybus(nr(k),nl(k)) = Ybus(nl(k),nr(k));
end
end
for n = 1:nbus % formation of the diagonal
elements for k = 1:nbr
if nl(k) == n | nr(k) == n
Ybus(n,n) = Ybus(n,n) + y(k);
else, end
end
end
Calculations:
Result:
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Date: Experiment-6
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS BY GAUSS SEIDEL METHOD
Aim:
To carry out load flow analysis of the given power system network by Gauss Seidel
metho
d
Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory:
Load flow analysis is the study conducted to determine the steady state operating
condition of the given system under given conditions. A large number of numerical
algorithms have been developed and Gauss Seidel method is one of such algorithm.
Problem Formulation
The performance equation of the power system may be written of
[I bus] = [Y bus][V bus] (1)
Selecting one of the buses as the reference bus, we get (n-1) simultaneous equations. The bus
loading equations can be written as
Ii = Pi-jQi / Vi* (i=1,2,3,…………..n) (2)
Where,
n
Pi=Re [ Σ Vi*Yik Vk] . (3)
k=1
n
Σ
Qi= -Im [ Vi*Yik Vk]. (4)
k=1
The bus voltage can be written in form of
n
Σ
Vi=(1.0/Yii)[Ii- Yij Vj] (5)
j=1
j≠i(i=1,2,… ......... n)& i≠slack bus
Substituting Ii in the expression for Vi, we get
n
Vi new=(1.0/Yii)[Pi-JQi / V io* - Σ Yij Vio] (6)
J=1
The latest available voltages are used in the above expression, we get
n n
Vi new =(1.0/Yii)[Pi-JQi / V oi* - Σ YijVjn- Σ Yij Vi o] (7)
J=1 j=i+1
The above equation is the required formula .this equation can be solved for voltages in
interactive manner. During each iteration, we compute all the bus voltage and check for
22
convergence is carried out by comparison with the voltages obtained at the end of
previous iteration. After the solutions is obtained. The stack bus real and reactive
powers, the reactive power generation at other generator buses and line flows can be
calculated.
Algorithm
Step1: Read the data such as line data, specified power, specified voltages, Q limits at the
generator buses and tolerance for convergences
Step2: Compute Y-bus matrix.
Step3: Initialize all the bus voltages.
Step4: Iter=1
Step5: Consider i=2, where i’ is the bus number.
Step6: check whether this is PV bus or PQ bus. If it is PQ bus goto step 8 otherwise go to next
step.
Step7: Compute Qi check for q limit violation. QGi=Qi+QLi.
7).a).If QGi>Qi max ,equate QGi = Qimax. Then convert it into PQ
bus. 7).b).If QGi<Qi min, equate QGi = Qi min. Then convert it into PQ
bus.
Step8: Calculate the new value of the bus voltage using gauss seidal formula.
i=1 n
Vi=(1.0/Yii) [(Pi-j Qi)/v i0*- Σ Yij Vj- Σ YijVj0]
J=1 J=i+1
Adjust voltage magnitude of the bus to specify magnitude if Q limits are not violated.
Step9: If all buses are considered go to step 10 otherwise increments the bus no. i=i+1 and Go
to step6.
Step10: Check for convergence. If there is no convergence goes to step 11 otherwise go to
step12.
Step11: Update the bus voltage using the formula.
Vinew=Vi old+ α(vinew-Viold) (i=1,2,…..n) i≠ slackbus ,α is the acceleration factor=1.4
Step12: Calculate the slack bus power, Q at P-V buses real and reactive give flows real and
reactance line losses and print all the results including all the bus voltages and all
the bus angles.
Step13: Stop.
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START
Read
1. Primitive Y matrix
2. Bus incidence matrix A
3. Slack bus voltages
4. Real and reactive bus powers Pi& Qi
5. Voltage magnitudes and their limits
Form Ybus
Make initial assumptions
Compute the parameters Ai for i=m+1,…,n and Bik for i=1,2,…,n;

k=1,2,…,n
Set iteration count r=0
Set bus count i=2 and Δ Vmax=0
Test
for type
of bus
(r+1)
Compute Qi
Qi (r+1
) >Qi, Qi (r+1
) <
max Qi,min
Qi (r+1
) = Qi (r+1
) = Compute (r+1)
Qi,max Qi,min Ai
Compute Ai
Compute δi (r+1)
(r+1) Vi(r+1)s
and
Compute Vi =|Vi |/δi(r+1)
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Power Systems Simulation Lab GRIET/EEE
Replace Vi r
by Vi(r+1)
and advance bus count
i = i+1
B Is i<=n
Advance
A iteration Is
Δ Vmax<=ε
count, r = r+1
Compute slack bus power P1+jQ1 and all line flows
FLOW CHART FOR GAUSS SEIDEL METHOD
Procedure
□ Enter the command window of the MATLAB.
□ Create a new M – file by selecting File - New – M – File.
□ Type and save the program in the editor Window.
□ Execute the program by pressing Tools – Run.
□ View the results.
MATLAB program
clear
basemva=100;
accuracy=0.001; maxiter=100;
% no code mag degree MW Mvar MW Mvar Qmin Qmax Mvar
busdata=[1 1 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0
5
2 0 1.0 0.0 256.66 110.2 0.0 0.0 0 0 0
3 0 1.0 0.0 138.6 45.2 0.0 0.0 0 0 0];
% bus bus R X 1/2B =1 for lines
linedata=[ 2 0.02 0.04 0.0 1
1
25
1 3 0.01 0.03 0.0 1
26
2 3 0.0125 0.025 0.0 1];
lfybus
lfgauss
busout
lineflow
Calculations:
Result
27
Date: Experiment-7
LOAD FLOW ANALYSIS BY NEWTON RAPSHON METHOD
Aim
To carry out load flow analysis of the given power system by Newton Raphson method.

Theory:
The Newton Raphson method of load flow analysis is an iterative method which approximates
the set of non-linear simultaneous equations to a set of linear simultaneous equations using
Taylor’s series expansion and the terms are limited to first order approx imation. The load
flow
equations for Newton Raphson method are non-linear equations in terms of real and
imaginary part of bus voltages.
where, ep = Real part of

Vp fp = Imaginary part of
Vp
Gpq, Bpq = Conductance and Susceptances of admittance Ypq respectively.
Algorithm
Step1: Input the total number of buses. Input the details of series line impendence and
line charging admittance to calculate the Y-bus matrix.
Step2: Assume all bus voltage as 1 per unit except slack bus.
Step3: Set the iteration count as k=0 and bus count as p=1.
Step4: Calculate the real and reactive power pp and qp using the
formulaP=ΣvpqYpq*cos(Qpq+ εp-εq)
Qp=ΣVpqYpa*sin(qpq+ εp-εa)
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Evalute pp*=psp-pp*
Step5: If the bus is generator (PV) bus, check the value of Qp*is within the limits.If it Violates
the limits, then equate the violated limit as reactive power and treat it as PQ bus. If limit is
not isolated then calculate,
|vp|^r=|vgp|^rspe-|vp|r ; Qp*=qsp-qp*
Step6: Advance bus count by 1 and check if all the buses have been accounted if not go to step5.
Step7: Calculate the elements of Jacobean matrix.
Step8: Calculate new bus voltage increment pk and
fpk Step9: Calculate new bus voltage ep*h+ ep*
Fp^k+1=fpK+fpK
Step10: Advance iteration count by 1 and go to step3.
Step11: Evaluate bus voltage and power flows through the line .
Procedure
MATLAB program:
clear
basemva=100;accuracy=0.001;maxiter=100;
% no code mag degree MW Mvar MW Mvar Qmin Qmax Mvar
busdata=[1 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0 0 0
1 5
2 0 1.0 0.0 110. 0.0 0.0 0 0 0
256.66 2
3 0 1.0 0.0 138.6 45.2 0.0 0.0 0 0 0];
% bus bus R X 1/2B =1 for lines
linedata=[1 0.02 0.04 0.0 1
2
1 3 0.01 0.03 0.0 1
2 3 0.0125 0.025 0.0 1];
lfybus
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lfnewto
n
busout
lineflow
Calculations:
Result
30
Date: Experiment-8(a)
OPTIMAL DISPATCH NEGLECTING LOSSES
Aim : To develop a program for solving economic dispatch problem without

transmissionlosses for a given load condition using direct method and Lambda-iteration
method.
Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory:
As the losses are neglected, the system model can be understood as shown in Fig, here n
number of generating units are connected to a common bus bar, collectively meeting the
total power demand PD. It should be understood that share of power demand by the units
does not involve losses.
Since transmission losses are neglected, total demand P D is the sum of all generations of n-
number of units. For each unit, a cost functions C i is assumed and the sum of all costs
computed from these cost functions gives the total cost of production CT.
Fig : System with n-
generators where the cost function of the ith unit, from Eq.
(1.1) is:
Ci = αi + βiPi + γ Pi2
i
Now, the ED problem is to minimize C T , subject to the satisfaction of the following equality
and inequality constraints.
Equality constraint
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The total power generation by all the generating units must be equal to the power demand.
where Pi = power generated by ith unit

PD = total power demand.
Inequality constraint
Each generator should generate power within the limits imposed.
Pimin ≤ Pi ≤ Pimax i = 1, 2, … , n
Economic dispatch problem can be carried out by excluding or including generator power
limits, i.e., the inequality constraint.
The constrained total cost function can be converted into an unconstrained function by
using the Lagrange multiplier as:
The conditions for minimization of objective function can be found by equating

partial differentials of the unconstrained function to zero as
Since Ci = C1 + C2+…+Cn
From the above equation the coordinate equations can be written as:
The second condition can be obtained from the following equation:
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Equations Required for the ED solution
For a known value of λ, the power generated by the ith unit from can be written as:
which can be written as:
The required value of λ is:
The value of λ can be calculated and compute the values of P i for i = 1, 2,…, n for
optimal scheduling of generation.
POWER WORLD bus diagram:
33
Procedure :
□ Create a new file in edit mode by selecting File - New File.
□ Browse the components and build the bus sytem
□ Execute the program in run mode by selecting tools-opf areas-select opf
□ Run the primal lp
□ View the results in case information-Generator fuel costs.
□ Tabulate the results.
Results:
Generato Gen Min Max Cost
r Name MW IOA IOB IOC MW MW $/Hr Lambda
1 79.52 150 5 0.11 10 250 1243.12 22.49
2 126 600 1.2 0.085 10 300 2100.66 22.62
3 114 335 1 0.1225 10 270 2041.01 28.93
Total Cost = 5384. 79$/hr
34
Calculations
Result
35
Date: Experiment-8(b)
OPTIMAL DISPATCH INCLUDING LOSSES
Aim : To develop a program for solving economic dispatch problem including

transmissionlosses for a given load condition using direct method and Lambda-iteration
method.
Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory : When the transmission losses are included in the economic dispatch problem, we
can modify (5.4) as
PT  P1  P2   PN  PLOSS
where PLOSS is the total line loss. Since PT is assumed to be constant, we have
0  dP1  dP2   dPN  dPLOSS
In the above equation dPLOSS includes the power loss due to every generator, i.e.,
  
dP  PLOSS dP  PLOSS dP   PLOSS dP
1 2 N
LOSS P1 P2 PN
Also minimum generation cost implies dfT = 0 as given Multiplying by  and combing we get
 PLOSS   PLOSS   PLOSS 

0      dP

  
  dP2     dPN
P P  1  P 
 
1 2 N

Adding with we obtain
N fT PLOSS 
0  i        dPi
 1  Pi Pi 

The above equation satisfies when
fT   PLOSS  
 i  1, , N
Pi Pi 0,
Again since
fT  dfT
, i  1, , N
Pi
Pi
36
we
get
  df1  df2   dfN L N
L 1 L 2
dPi dP2 dPN
where Li is called the penalty factor of load-i and is given by
1
Li    , i  1, , N
1 PLOSS Pi
Consider an area with N number of units. The power generated are defined by the vector
P  P1 P2 PN 
T
Then the transmission losses are expressed in general as
PLOSS  PT BP
where B is a symmetric matrix given by

B B12 B1N 
 11
B B B 
2 N 
B   12 22
□ 
B B B 
 1N 2N NN 

The elements B ij of the matrix B are called the loss coefficients. These coefficients are not
constant but vary with plant loading. However for the simplified calculation of the penalty
factor Li these coefficients are often assumed to be constant.
37
Circuit Diagram:
49
Procedure :
□ Execute the program in run mode by selecting tools-opf areas-select opf
□ Run the primal lp
□ View the results in case information-Generator fuel costs.
Results:
Generato Gen Min Max Cost

r Name MW IOA IOB IOC IOD MW MW $/Hr Lambda
1 106.3 150 5 0.11 0 10 250 1926.6 28.4
8 6
2 126 600 1.2 0.085 0 10 300 2100.6 22.62
6
3 86.22 335 1 0.122 0 10 270 1331.8 22.12
5 4
Total Cost
=
5359.15$/
hr
Result
39
Date: Experiment-9
TRANSIENT RESPONSE OF A RLC CIRCUIT
Aim: To obtain the transient response of an RLC circuit with its damping frequency and
damping ratio using MATLAB
Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory: RLC circuits are widely used in a variety of applications such as filters in
communications systems, ignition systems in automobiles, defibrillator circuits in biomedical
applications, etc. The analysis of RLC circuits is more complex than of the RC circuits we
have seen in the previous lab. RLC circuits have a much richer and interesting response than
the previously studied RC or RL circuits. A summary of the response is given below.
Lets assume a series RLC circuit. The discussion is also applicable to other RLC circuits such as
the parallel circuit.
Figure 1: Series RLC circuit
By writing KVL one gets a second order differential equation. The solution consists of two
parts:
x(t) = xn(t) + xp(t),

in which xn(t) is the complementary solution (=solution of the homogeneous differential
equation also called the natural response) and a x p(t) is the particular solution (also called
forced response). Lets focus on the complementary solution. The form of this solution
depends on the roots of the characteristic equation,
in which is the damping ratio and is the undamped resonant frequency. The roots of
the quadratic equation are equal to,
For the example of the series RLC circuit one has the following characteristic equation for
the current iL(t) or vC(t),
s2 + R/L.s + 1/LC =0.
Depending on the value of the damping ratio one has three possible cases:
Case 1: Critically damped response: two equal roots s= s1= s2
40
The total response consists of the sum of the
complementary and the particular solution. The case
of a critically damped response to a unit input step
function.
Case 2: Overdamped response: two real and unequal roots

s 1 and s2
Case 3: Underdamped response: two complex roots
Procedure:
MATLAB Program:
wn = input('Enter value of undamped natural

frequency')z = input('Enter value of damping ratio')
n = [wn*wn]
p = sqrt(1-z^2)
41
wd = wn*p;
h = [p/z];
k =
atan(h) m
= pi-k;
tr =
[m/wd] tp =
[pi/wd] q =
z*wn
ts =
[4/q] r =
z*pi f =
[r/p]
mp = exp(-f)
num = [0 0 n]
den = [1 z*z*wn n]
s = tf(num,den)
hold on
step(s)
impulse(s)
hold off
Result:
Enter value of undamped natural frequency 16
wn = 16
Enter value of damping ratio0.5
z= 0.5000
42
n = 256
p = 0.8660
k = 1.0472
tr = 0.1511
tp = 0.2267
q= 8
ts = 0.5000
r = 1.5708
f = 1.8138
mp = 0.1630
num = 0 0 256
den = 1 4 256
Transfer
function:
256
s^2 + 4 s + 256
Graph:
43
Calculations:
Result
44
Date: Experiment-10
THREE PHASE SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS OF A SYNCHRONOUSMACHINE
Aim: To Analyze symmetrical fault
Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory: The response of the armature current when a three-phase symmetrical short
circuit occurs at the terminals of an unloaded synchronous generator.
It is assumed that there is no dc offset in the armature current. The magnitude of the
current decreases exponentially from a high initial value. The instantaneous expression
for the fault current is given by
where Vt is the magnitude of the terminal voltage, α is its phase angle
and is the direct axis subtransient reactance

is the direct axis transient reactance
is the direct axis synchronous reactance
with .
The time constants are
45
is the direct axis subtransient time
constant is the direct axis transient time
constant
we have neglected the effect of the armature resistance hence α = π/2. Let us assume
that the fault occurs at time t = 0. From (6.9) we get the rms value of the
current as
which is called the subtransient fault current. The duration of the subtransient current is
dictated by the time constant Td . As the time progresses and Td´ ´ < t < Td´ , the first
exponential term will start decaying and will eventually vanish. However since t is still
nearly equal to zero, we have the following rms value of the current
This is called the transient fault current. Now as the time progress further and the second
exponential term also decays, we get the following rms value of the current for the
sinusoidal steady state
In addition to the ac, the fault currents will also contain the dc offset. Note that a
symmetrical fault occurs when three different phases are in three different locations in the
ac cycle.
Therefore the dc offsets in the three phases are different. The maximum value of the dc
offset is given by
where TA is the armature time constant.
Procedure:
46
Circuit Diagram:
Graph:
47
Calculations:
Result
48
Date: Experiment-11
UNSYMMETRICAL FAULT ANALYSIS
Aim: To analyze unsymmetrical fault
Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory:
Single Line-to-Ground Fault
The single line-to-ground fault is usually referred as “short circuit” fault and occur s when
one conductor falls to ground or makes contact with the neutral wire. The general
representation of a single line-to-ground fault is shown in Figure 3.10 where F is the fault
point with impedances Z f. Figure 3.11 shows the sequences network diagram. Phase a is
usually assumed to be the faulted phase, this is for simplicity in the fault analysis
calculations. [1]
Ia0
F0
+
Va0 Z0
Iaf - N0
Ia1
F1
F
a 3Zf
+
Va1
Z1
+
- N1 1.
0
b Ia2 -
Ia Ibf
f =0 Icf = 0 F2
c +
Z2
Zf Va2
N2
+
-
Vaf
-
General representation of a single Sequence network diagram of a

line-to-ground fault. single line-to-ground fault
Since the zero-, positive-, and negative-sequence currents are equals as it can be
observed in Figure 3.11. Therefore,
I I I  1.00
49
  3Z
a0 a1 a2
Z Z 
Z
0 1 2
50
With the results obtained for sequence currents, the sequence voltages can be obtained
from
V
 a0  0  1 1 1  I a 0 
     2
 
V
 b1a1 1 a  I 
1.0 0   a
V
 c2  01   a a2  Ia 2 

By solving Equation
Vaa0  ZI0 0
Vaa1 Z1I 1
1.0
Vaa2  ZI2 2
If the single line-to-ground fault occurs on phase b or c, the voltages can be found by
the relation that exists to the known phase voltage components,
V
 aVf 1 1 1  a0

   
 bf  1 a
2
V a  Va1 
V 1 a
 cf a 2 Va 2 

as
V  V  aV
2  aV
bf a0 a1 a2
V  V  aV  aV
2
cf a0 a1 a2
Line-to-Line Fault
A line-to-line fault may take place either on an overhead and/or underground
transmission system and occurs when two conductors are short-circuited. One of the
characteristic of this type of fault is that its fault impedance magnitude could vary over a
wide range making very hard to predict its upper and lower limits. It is when the fault
impedance is zero that the highest asymmetry at the line-to-line fault occurs
The general representation of a line-to-line fault is shown in Figure 3.12 where F is

the fault point with impedances Z f. Figure 3.13 shows the sequences network diagram.
Phase b and c are usually assumed to be the faulted phases; this is for simplicity in the fault
analysis calculations [1],
51
Zf
Ia0 = 0 Ia1 Ia2

F F0 F1 F2
a + + +
Va0 = 0 Z1
b Z0
Va1
+
Va2
Z2
c -
N0
-
N1 1.0
o -
N2
Iaf = 0 Ibf Icf = - 0
Ibf -
Zf
Sequence network diagram of a line-to-line fault Sequence network diagram of a single

line-to-line fault.
It can be noticed that
Iaf  0
IIbf  cf
Vbc  ZIf bf
And the sequence currents can be obtained as
I a0  0
II   1.00
Z12Z Z f
a1a 2
If Zf = 0,

II   1.0 0
Z1Z2
a1
a2
The fault currents for phase b and c can be obtained as
Ibf  Icf 3 Ia1 90


The sequence voltages can be found as
Va0  0
Va1a  1.0- Z1I 1
Va2  ZI2 a 2  ZI2 a1
52
Finally, the line-to-line voltages for a line-to-line fault can be expressed as
Vab  Vaf  Vbf

Vbc  Vbf  Vcf
Vca  Vcf  Vaf
Double Line-to-Ground Fault

A double line-to-ground fault represents a serious event that causes a significant
asymmetry in a three-phase symmetrical system and it may spread into a three-phase fault
when not clear in appropriate time. The major problem when analyzing this type of fault is
the assumption of the fault impedance Zf , and the value of the impedance towards the
ground Zg.
The general representation of a double line-to-ground fault is shown in Figure 3.14

where F is the fault point with impedances Z f and the impedance from line to ground Z g .
Figure 3.15 shows the sequences network diagram. Phase b and c are assumed to be the
faulted phases, this is for simplicity in the fault analysis calculations.
F
a
b Ia0 Zf +3Zg Ia1 Zf Ia2 Zf
c
Iaf = 0 Ibf Icf + F0 F1 F2
+ +
Zf Zf Va0 Va1 Z1 Va2
Z0 + Z2
- - o -
N0 N1 1. 0 N2
Zg Ibf +Icf 0
-
N
n
General representation of a Sequence network diagram

double line-to-ground fault. of a double line-to-ground fault
It can be observed that
Iaf  0
Vbf  ()Zf  Ibf 
Zg Vcf  ()Zf ZIgcf Icf 
 Zg ZIgbf
The positive-sequence currents can be found as
 1.00
Ia1
()ZZ1  (Z 20 Zf )(Z  Zf  3Zg )
f
(Z 20 Zf )  (Z  Zf  3Zg )
53
(Z 0 Zfg 3Z )
IaIa21  []    
(Z 20 Zf ) (Z 3Zg )
Zf
()ZZ2  f
IaIa01  []    
(Z 20 Zf ) (Z 3Zg )
Zf
An alternative method is,
Iaf  0  Ia 0  Ia1  Ia
2 Ia 0  ()I a1  Ia 2
If Zf and Z g are both equal to zero, then the positive-, negative-, and zero-sequences
can be obtained from
 1.00
Ia1
(ZZ20)( )
()Z 
1 ()ZZ20

IIaa21 ()Z 0
[]
()ZZ20

IIaa01 ()Z 2
[]
()ZZ20
The current for phase a is
Iaf  0
Ibf  I a 0  aI2 a1
 aIa 2
Icf  I a 0  aI a1  aI2 a2
The total fault current flowing into the neutral is
In  3Ia 0  Ibf  Icf
The resultant phase voltages from the relationship given in Equation 3.78 can
be expressed as
54
Vaf  Va 0 Va1 Va 2  3Va1
VbVf cf 0
55
And the line-to-line voltages are
Vab Vaf  Vaf

f Vbf 0
Vbc Vbf 
 Vaf
f Vcf
Vca 
Vcf 
f
Vaf
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
56
Graph:
57
Result
58
Date: Experiment-12
FORMATION OF BUS IMPEDANCE MATRIX USING MATLAB
Aim: To determine the bus impedance matrix for the given power system Network
Theory:
Formation of Z BUS matrix
Z-bus matrix is an important matrix used in different kinds of power system study such
as short circuit study, load flow study etc. In short circuit analysis the generator uses
transformer impedance must be taken into account. In quality analysis the two-short element
are neglected by forming the z-bus matrix which is used to compute the voltage distribution
factor. This can be largely obtained by reversing the y-bus formed by inspection method or by
analytical method.
Taking inverse of the y-bus for large system in time consuming; Moreover modification in
the system requires whole process to be repeated to reflect the changes in the system. In
such cases is computed by z-bus building algorithm.
Algorithm
Step 1: Read the values such as number of lines, number of buses and line data, generator
data and transformer data.
Step 2: Initialize y-bus matrix y-bus[i] [j]
=complex.(0.0,0.0) Step 3: Compute y-bus matrix by
considering only line data.
Step 4: Modifies the y-bus matrix by adding the transformer and the generator admittance to
the respective diagonal elements of y-bus matrix.
Step 5: Compute the z-bus matrix by inverting the modified y-bus matrix.
Step 6: Check the inversion by multiplying modified y-bus and z-bus matrices to check
whether the resulting matrix is unit matrix or not.
Step 7: Print the z-bus matrix.
59
START
Read the no. Of buses ,

no of
lines and line data
Form Y bus matrix using the

algorithm Y(i,i) =Y(i,i)+Yseries(l)
+0.5Yseries(l) Y(j,j)
l
=Y(j,j)+Yseries( ) +0.5Yseries(l)
Y(i,j) = -Yseries(l)
Y(j,i) =Y(i,j)
Modifying the y bus by adding

generator and transformer
admittances to respective diagonal
elements
Compute Z bus matrix by

inverting
modified Y bus
Multiply modified Y bus and Z bus and

check
whether the product is a unity matrix
Print all the

results
STOP
Procedure:
60
MATLAB Program :
function[Ybus] = ybus(zdata)
zdata(:,1)); nbus = max(max(nl), max(nr));
Z = R + j*X; %branch impedance
y= ones(nbr,1)./Z; %branch admittance
Ybus=zeros(nbus,nbus); % initialize Ybus to zero
for k = 1:nbr; % formation of the off diagonal
elements if nl(k) > 0 & nr(k) > 0
Ybus(nl(k),nr(k)) = Ybus(nl(k),nr(k)) - y(k);
Ybus(nr(k),nl(k)) = Ybus(nl(k),nr(k));
end
end
for n = 1:nbus % formation of the diagonal
elements for k = 1:nbr
if nl(k) == n | nr(k) == n
Ybus(n,n) = Ybus(n,n) + y(k);
else, end
end
end
Zbus= inv(Y)
Ibus=[-j*1.1;-j*1.25;0;0]
Vbus=Zbus*Ibus
OUTPUT:
Result:
61
Date: Experiment-13(a)
SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Aim: To obtain symmetrical components of set of unbalanced currents
Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory:
Before we discuss the symmetrical component transformation, let us first define
the a- operator.
a  j
120 e0
1  j 3
2 2
Note that for the above operator the following relations hold
1 3  
a2  e j 240    j
0
a
2 2
a e 1
3 j 3600
a4  e j 480  e j 360 e j 120  a

0 0 0
a5  e j  e j 360 e j 
0
and so on
6000 2400 a2
Also note that we have
1 31 3 
1  a  a2  1   j j 0
2 2 2 2
Using the a-operator we can write from Fig. 7.1 (b)
Vb1  a2V and  aVa1

a Vc1
1
Similarly
Vb 2  aVa2 and  a2V

Vc2 a2
Finally
Va 0  Vb0  Vc0
The symmetrical component transformation matrix is then given by
62
Va 0  1 1 1 Va 
   1  2  
Va1  a Vb 
1 a
Va2  3 1 a  Vc 
a
2
Defining the vectors Va012 and Vabc as


Va 0  Va 
    V 

V V
a 012 Va1 ab  b 
, c Vc 
Va2 



Program:
V012 = [0.6 90
1.0 30
0.8 -30];
rankV012=length(V012(1,:));
if rankV012 == 2
mag= V012(:,1); ang=pi/180*V012(:,2);
V012r=mag.*(cos(ang)+j*sin(ang));
elseif rankV012 ==1
V012r=V012;
else
fprintf('\n Symmetrical components must be expressed in a one column array in
rectangular complex form \n')
fprintf(' or in a two column array in polar form, with 1st column magnitude & 2nd column
\n')
fprintf(' phase angle in degree.
\n') return, end
a=cos(2*pi/3)+j*sin(2*pi/3);
A = [1 1 1; 1 a^2 a; 1 a a^2];
Vabc= A*V012r
Vabcp= [abs(Vabc) 180/pi*angle(Vabc)];
fprintf(' \n Unbalanced phasors \n')
fprintf(' Magnitude Angle Deg.\n')
disp(Vabcp)
Vabc0=V012r(1)*[1; 1; 1];
Vabc1=V012r(2)*[1; a^2; a];
Vabc2=V012r(3)*[1; a; a^2];
63
Procedure:
1. Open Matlab--> File ---> New---> Script
2. Write the program
3. Enter F5 to run the program
4. Observe the results in MATLAB command window.
Result:
Vabc =
1.5588 + 0.7000i
-0.0000 + 0.4000i
-1.5588 + 0.7000i
Unbalanced phasors
Magnitude Angle Deg.
1.708 24.1825
8
0.400 90.0000
0
1.708 155.817
8 5
Result
64
Date: Experiment-13(b)
UNBALANCED VOLTAGES FROM SYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS
Aim: To obtain the original unbalanced phase voltages from symmetrical components
Apparatus: MATLAB
Theory:
Va012  CVabc
where C is the symmetrical component transformation matrix and is given by

1 1 1 
1  2 
C 1 a a 
3 
1 a2 a 

The original phasor components can also be obtained from the inverse symmetrical
component transformation, i.e.,
Vab  C Va 012 
1
c

Inverting the matrix C we get

Va  1 Va 0 Va 0 
1 1 
     1  
a Va1  C Va1 
2
Vb  1 a  

Vc  1 a a 2  Va 2 Va2 
 
Va  Va 0  Va1  Va
2

Vb  Va  a2V  aVa2  Vb0  Vb1 Vb 2

0 a
1
Vc  Va  aVa1 a2Va 2  Vc0  Vc1  Vc 2
0
Finally, if we define a set of unbalanced current phasors as I abc and their

symmetrical components as Ia012, we can then define
Ia012  CIabc
1
Iabc  C Ia012
65
Program:
Iabc = [1.6 25
1.0 180
0.9 132];
rankIabc=length(Iabc(1,:))
; if rankIabc == 2
mag= Iabc(:,1);
ang=pi/180*Iabc(:,2);
Iabcr=mag.*(cos(ang)+j*sin(ang));
elseif rankIabc ==1
Iabcr=Iabc;
else
fprintf('\n Three phasors must be expressed in a one column array in rectangular complex
form \n')
fprintf(' or in a two column array in polar form, with 1st column magnitude & 2nd column
\n')
fprintf(' phase angle in degree.
\n') return, end
a=cos(2*pi/3)+j*sin(2*pi/3);
A = [1 1 1; 1 a^2 a; 1 a a^2];
I012=inv(A)*Iabcr;
symcomp= I012
I012p = [abs(I012) 180/pi*angle(I012)];

fprintf(' \n Symmetrical components
\n') fprintf(' Magnitude Angle Deg.\n')
disp(I012p)
Iabc0=I012(1)*[1; 1; 1];
Iabc1=I012(2)*[1; a^2; a];
Iabc2=I012(3)*[1; a; a^2];
Result:
symcomp =
-0.0507 + 0.4483i
0.9435 - 0.0009i
0.5573 + 0.2288i
Symmetrical
components Magnitude
Angle Deg.
0.4512 96.4529
0.9435 -0.0550
0.6024 22.3157
66
Result
67
Date: Experiment-14
SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS OF 14 BUS SYSTEM
Aim: To obtain the short circuit analysis for a IEEE 14 bus system
Apparatus: POWERWORLD
Theory:
V f  Z44I f

Zi 4
V  Z I    V i  1,2,3
,
i i4 f f
Z44
We further assume that the system is unloaded before the fault occurs and that the
magnitude and phase angles of all the generator internal emfs are the same. Then there will
be no current circulating anywhere in the network and the bus voltages of all the nodes
before the fault will be same and equal to Vf. Then the new altered bus voltages due to the
fault will be given from by
 Z  
i4 
Vi  V f  Vi  1 Vf i  1, ,4
 ,
 Z44 
14 bus system :
68
Procedure :
□ Execute the program in run mode by selecting tools-fault analysis
□ Select the fault on which bus and calculate
Results : 3-phase fault is applied on bus 3

Bus
Numbe Va Vb Vc Ang A Ang B Ang C
r
1 0.4193 0.4193 0.4193 19.64 -100.36 139.64
7 7 7
2 0.3486 0.3486 0.3486 10.87 -109.13 130.87
2 2 2
3 0 0 0 0 0 0
4 0.2960 0.2960 0.2960 -2.25 -122.25 117.75
2 2 2
69
5 0.3295 0.3295 0.3295 0.58 -119.42 120.58
6 6 6
70
6 0.47538 0.47538 0.47538 -10.63 -130.63 109.37
7 0.42742 0.42742 0.42742 -8.44 -128.44 111.56
8 0.55864 0.55864 0.55864 -10.06 -130.06 109.94
9 0.41373 0.41373 0.41373 -9.5 -129.5 110.5
10 0.42145 0.42145 0.42145 -9.94 -129.94 110.06
11 0.44639 0.44639 0.44639 -10.37 -130.37 109.63
12 0.46474 0.46474 0.46474 -11.44 -131.44 108.56
13 0.45879 0.45879 0.45879 -11.27 -131.27 108.73
14 0.42532 0.42532 0.42532 -11.3 -131.3 108.7
Fault current = 4.45 p.u
= 1861.67 A
Fault current angle = -77.74 deg
Result
71
Date: Experiment-15
LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL OF A SINGLE AREA POWER SYSTEM
Aim: To obtain the frequency response of single and two area power system using MATLAB
Formula used:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Where
D = damping coefficient
GG – gain of generator
GT - gain of turbine
GP - gain of power
KP – power system constant
KT- turbine constant
KG- generator constant
TP – power system time
constant TG- generator time
constant
Procedure:
72
SIMULINK RESULTS:
Single Area Power System Block Diagram
Graph:
73
RESULT
74
Date: Experiment-16
LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL OF A TWO AREA POWER SYSTEM
Aim: To obtain the frequency response of two area power system using MATLAB
Apparatus: MATLAB
Formula used:
1)
2)
3)
4)
Where
D = damping coefficient
GG – gain of generator
GT - gain of turbine
GP - gain of power
KP – power system constant
KT- turbine constant
KG- generator constant
TP – power system time
constant TG- generator time
constant
Procedure:
75
SIMULINK RESULTS:
Single Area Power System Block Diagram
Graphs:
76
77
Result

78
Date: Experiment-17
STEP RESPONSE OF A SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
Aim: To obtain step response of rotor angle and generator frequency of a synchronous
machine
Apparatus: MATLAB
Circuit Diagram:
Procedure:
1. Open File ---> New---> Model
79
Graph:
80
Result
81
82

EX-704 ELECTRICAL CAD LAB-1

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BITS GROUP OF INSTITUTIONS

(AICTE Approved, Affiliated to RGPV Bhopal)

ELECTRICAL CAD LAB

Student Name :…………………………

S.No Topic REMARK

1. Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents

2. Equivalent circuit of a Transformer

3. Determination of voltage and power at the

4. Determination of line performance when

5. Formation of bus Admittance matrix

6. Load flow Solution using Gauss Seidel

7. Load flow solution using Newton

8. a) Optimal dispatch neglecting Losses

b) Optimal dispatch including Losses

9. Transient Response of an RLC Circuit

10. Three phase short circuit analysis in a

11. Unsymmetrical Fault Analysis

13. a) Obtain Symmetrical components of a set

b) Obtain the original Unbalanced phase

14. Short Circuit Analysis of 14 bus system

15. Load Frequency control of a single area

16. Load frequency control of a two area

17. Step response of rotor angle and

SINUSOIDAL VOLTAGES AND CURRENTS

Aim: To determine sinusoidal voltages and currents

Theory : The RMS Voltage of an AC Waveform

RMS Voltage Equivalent

Fig: Simulink model for voltage and current measurement

EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT OF TRANSFORMER

Aim: To determine the parameters of equivalent circuit of transformer from OC SC

Theory : Equivalent Circuit of Transformer

Equivalent impedance of transformer is essential to be calculated because the electrical

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to

Let us consider the transformation ratio be,

In the figure right, the applied voltage to the primary isan

The load 2′ flows through

Approximate Equivalent Circuit of

Since Io is very small compared to I 1,

Equivalent Circuit of Transformer Referred to Secondary

In similar way, approximate equivalent circuit of transformer referred to secondary

Where equivalent impedance of transformer referred to secondary, can be derived as

Signature of the faculty

VOLTAGE REGULATION OF A MEDIUM LINE MODEL

Nominal Π Representation of a Medium Transmission Line

In case of a nominal Π representation,

and Is is the current flowing through the supply end.

IR is the current flowing through the receiving end of the circuit.

I1 and I3 are the values of currents flowing through the admittances.

And I2 is the current through the impedance Z.

Now applying KCL, at node P, we get.

Similarly applying KCL, to node Q.

Now substituting equation (2) to equation (1)

Now by applying KVL to the circuit,

Voltage regulation of transmission line is measure of change of receiving end voltage

Signature of the faculty

LINE PERFORMANCE WHEN LOADED AT RECEIVING END

Theory : Nominal Π Representation of a Medium Transmission Line

In case of a nominal Π representation,

Is is the current flowing through the supply end.

IR is the current flowing through the receiving end of the circuit.