Model. Earth Syst. Environ.

(2016)2:174
DOI 10.1007/s40808-016-0234-3

ORIGINAL ARTICLE

Testing the ability of an empirical hydrological model to verify

a knowledge-based groundwater potential zone mapping
methodology
O. O. Aladejana1 • A. Y. B. Anifowose1 • B. J. Fagbohun1

Received: 19 August 2016 / Accepted: 27 September 2016

Ó Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

Abstract Groundwater potential characterization is a accuracy of a GIS-based qualitative groundwater potential

major component of the developmental strategies required mapping.
for sustainable management of the water resources of a
country. This study explores the potential of Natural Keywords Hydrological modeling  Analytical hierarchy
Resources Conservation Service (NRCS-CN) estimated process  Weighted Index Overlay Analysis  NRCS-CN 
runoff/infiltration to verify a knowledge-based groundwa- GIS  Remote sensing
ter potential zone mapping methodology using remote
sensing and GIS. Eight criteria/factors regarded as positive
indicators to the existence of groundwater in the study area Introduction
were mapped and weighted based on the knowledge of the
local geology using analytical hierarchy process (AHP). Water is an important resource for all forms of life on
The results from AHP were integrated using Weighted planet earth. Its significance to humans for agricultural,
Index Overlay Analysis in a GIS environment to delineate domestic, transportation, industrial and recreational pur-
the groundwater potential map of the area. Five classes poses cannot be over emphasized. This makes it critical to
consisting of very good, good, moderate, fair and poor the sustainable development of any region of the world.
groundwater potentials, each occupying 4.6, 53.3, 82.22, Being a finite, scarce and vulnerable resource, there has
37.47, and 0.43 km2, respectively, were delineated. They been growing pressures on its abstraction in different parts
were found to be in agreement with the borehole infor- of the world to satisfy human uses (Rockstrom et al., 2007).
mation of the area. Curve number (CN) for the various land Around the world the occurrence of freshwater varies
cover types was generated using the NRCS-CN approach. spatially with less than 10 countries having about 60 % of
CN was used to compute a qualitative, terrain-based, run- the world’s freshwater (Donkor 2003). Furthermore
off/infiltration response for rainfall events in the study area, changing climatic pattern has birthed increasing frequen-
from which a terrain-based runoff map of the area was cies of extreme events such as heavy rainfall and drought,
computed. A comparison between the groundwater poten- making surface water inaccessible. There is an increasing
tial map and terrain-based runoff map was done using demand for water to meet domestic uses, as well as
linear regression analysis. The coefficient of determination industrial and agricultural requirements (de Vries and
(R2) obtained was 0.80. The result indicates a high appli- Simmers 2002). To effectively exploit the water resources
cation efficiency of NRCS-CN method in verifying the of an area, it is imperative to map its groundwater potential
zones (Maheswaran et al. 2016). This is because productive
aquifer zones are localized, and vary with distance (Sat-
& O. O. Aladejana pathy and Kanungo, 1976). It has been recognized that an
[email protected] effective and practical way of exploring groundwater
1 resources is by establishing a groundwater potential pre-
Department of Remote Sensing and Geoscience Information
System, The Federal University of Technology, Akure, diction model (Adiat et al. 2012; Mogaji et al. 2014). As
Ondo State, Nigeria groundwater varies spatio-temporally within a particular

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area, the major determinants of this variability are factors usually the main factor affecting the amount of water
such as geology, geomorphology, land cover, precipitation, available for runoff (Bras 1990). Therefore, ‘‘the lower the
fractures (lineaments), slope, and soil (Singh et al., 2011). infiltration, the higher the runoff potential will be’’. The
Traditional approaches of groundwater exploration through amount of rainfall that will eventually infiltrate into an
drilling, geological and geophysical methods are cost aquifer to join groundwater, or become surface runoff can
intensive and time consuming (Sander et al. 1996; Singh be determined using the Soil Conservation Service (SCS)
and Prakash, 2002). The application of remote sensing and method [now Natural Resources Conservation Service
Geographic Information System (GIS) in this endeavour (NRCS) method] (Zhan and Huang 2004, Weng 2001).
has made exploration much easier (Singh and Prakash From being an empirical model initially developed to
2002). This is because information on surface features estimate runoff from rainfall events on agricultural fields, it
related to groundwater occurrences can be mapped, inte- has evolved into applications for computing peak runoff
grated with other tabular data, and spatially analysed in a rates and volumes for urban hydrology, especially in
GIS environment (Jha et al. 2007). Remote sensing and ungauged basins such as the study area. It joins the NRCS
GIS-based groundwater potential zone mapping, a quali- runoff equation with unit hydrograph theory for the com-
tative technique, involves the application of surface evi- putation of runoff rates. The curve number (CN) is essen-
dences, e.g. geology, soils, land use/land cover (LULC) tially a coefficient that reduces the total precipitation to
derived from satellite imageries to infer zones of ground- runoff potential, after ‘‘losses’’ through evaporation,
water accumulation (Jha and Peiffer 2006). Several absorption, transpiration, and surface storage. The inte-
researches has been conducted on the application of remote gration of SCS-CN with GIS has proven to be very efficient
sensing using multi-criteria decision making techniques for as it helps to facilitate the analysis of large volumes of
groundwater potential mapping in both basement complex watershed data whilst augumenting the accuracy of com-
and sedimentary environments. While some workers sim- puted data (Zhan and Huang 2004). Over the years, many
ply use a combination of remote sensing and GIS tech- researchers have used the SCS-CN method and similar
niques alone (Kamaraju et al. 1996; Saraf and Choudhury approaches to estimate runoff (Gitika and Rajan 2014; Lim
1998; Kumar 1999; Krishnamurthy et al. 2000; Sahid and et al. 2006; Mishra and Singh 1999; Debo and Reese 2002).
Nath 2002) others used index-based models (Ganapuram A whole lot of watershed models such as AGNPS (Young
et al. 2009; Suja and Krishnan 2009) such as AHP et al. 1987), EPIC (Williams 1995), SWAT (Arnold et al.
(Chowdhury et al. 2010; Machiwal et al. 2010; Dar et al. 1996); and WMS (http://www.ems-i.com/WMS/WMS_
2010; Khodaei and Nassery 2011; Abdalla 2012; Gumma Overview/wms_overview.html) have their methodologies
and Pavelic 2013; Sharma et al. 2014, Mogaji et al. for computing runoff built on the CN approach. Therefore,
2014, 2016) to determine groundwater potential zones. In there is a connection between infiltration, runoff, and
recent years, soft computing techniques such as fuzzy logic groundwater recharge into aquifers as relating to surface
(Shahid et al. 2002; Ghayoumian et al. 2007), numerical conditions of land cover, soil, and terrain properties, of an
modelling and decision tree (DT) (Chenini and Mammou area. In view of these, this study aims to delineate the
2010) have also been applied to various groundwater groundwater potential zones in the study area and to verify
conditioning factors for groundwater potential mapping. the results using borehole data and runoff.
The methodologies described above have found strong
acceptance in the scientific community. Furthermore, in a The study area
tropical rainforest, infiltration of rainfall and surface runoff
in ephemeral streams are the most significant sources of Akure city covers an area of about 180 km2. It is the capital
groundwater recharge (Dinicola 1997). Infiltration here of Ondo State, south western Nigeria. It lies between
refers to the downward flow of moisture under the influ- Latitudes 7°130 0000 N–7°170 0000 N and Longitudes
ence of gravity through an aeration zone. Through this 5°09 00’’E–5°140 0000 E (Fig. 1).
0

zone, infiltration recharge of groundwater occurs under The topography of Akure is undulating with slopes
conditions of incomplete saturation of soil moisture zones. ranging between 0° and 30°. More than 70 % of rainfall
When the zone of aeration in soils are dried up, the first occurs in the rainy season (May to September). The study
part of infiltrating rainfall is used in the saturation of dried area is mainly drained by River Owena on the west. The
zone to the maximum molecular level firmly retained by climate is sub-tropical, and monthly temperature varies
soils and rock particles, after which gravitational ground- between 23–29 °C. Geologically, it belongs to the mig-
water recharge occurs (Kovalevsky 2009). Runoff is the net matite–gneiss complex which is a part of the Precambrian
liquid water supplied to channels after evaporation, inter- basement complex of Nigeria (Jones and Hockey 1964;
ception, surface retention, infiltration and percolation to Rahaman 1988; Dada 2006). The age of the migmatite
underlying aquifers (Sharma et al. 2001); and infiltration is gneiss complex ranges from Pan African to Eburnean, and

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Fig. 1 Location map of Akure area

they exhibit a complex deformation style which underlies Northern Hemisphere Zone 31. Remote sensing and GIS
its polycyclic nature (Odeyemi et al. 1999). Distinct analysis carried out involved pre-processing, image trans-
petrological units recognised in Akure include charnock- formation, image enhancement, filtering, and classification.
ites, migmatite gneisses, granite gneisses, biotite granites, Land cover, lineament density, lithology, soil, borehole
porphyritic granites and quartzites (Anifowos 2000). They discharge, rainfall distribution, drainage density, slope and
exhibit varieties of structural features such as foliations, geomorphology were extracted. These parameters control
folds and fractures. The general trend of the rocks is in the the spatial, temporal and volumetric occurrence of
NNE–SSW direction, while several short fractures trend groundwater, and runoff in the study area.
N–S (Atejioye and Anifowose 2005). They possess low
porosity and with little or no permeability, a characteristic Multi-criteria approach to groundwater modelling
of crystalline basement complex rocks. However, local and using Analytical Hierarchy Model (AHP)
regional evidence of localized and discontinuous complex
faulting and folding as a result of tectonic activities The ability of multi-criteria techniques to effectively
(Olorunfemi et al. 1999; Bala and Ike 2001) have resulted combine several factors for proper decision making has
in both secondary and dual porosities in these rocks. The increased its use in groundwater hydrology (Adiat et al.
groundwater potential in the area depends largely on the 2012; Mogaji et al. 2014; Zhou and Chen 2014). Of all
properties of the overburden and underlying aquifers. MCDM techniques, AHP is the most commonly used
MCDM technique in groundwater studies due to its robust
Methodology capability in the conjunctive and integrated analysis of
multidisciplinary datasets (Madan et al. 2010). In AHP
In order to produce a reliable and precise groundwater (Saaty 1980; Saaty 1990), a complex decision problem is
model and infiltration vis-à-vis runoff of the study area, a broken down into smaller units, resolved and aggregated
spatial database consisting of several remotely sensed, back to a larger unit. AHP relies on the judgement of
ground and ancillary data was constructed (Table 1). The experts to derive priority scales. In this study, opinion on
methodology employed is summarized in Fig. 2. Hardcopy groundwater accumulation in the study area from seven
maps were scanned and georeferenced to UTM, WGS 1984 experts was gathered through questionnaires. After

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Table 1 Information and

Types of data Details of data Format Extracted layer Generated layers Data type
sources of data used in this
study RS imagerya Landsat 8 2015 TIFF Land cover Land cover Raster
Lineament Density Raster
Geological mapb 1: 100000 Hardcopy Lithology Lithology Vector
Soil mapc 1: 500000 Hardcopy Soil Soil types Vector
Borehole recordsd Borehole data Excel Discharge Discharge Raster
e
Rainfall data NIMET Excel Distribution Rainfall distribution Raster
Topographic mapf OSGOF Hardcopy Drainage pattern Drainage density Raster
ASTER DEMg DEM TIFF Slope Slope Raster
Geomorphology Geomorphology Raster
a
Remotely sensing imagery downloaded free from the Global Land Cover Facility homepage (http://glcf.
umiacs.umd.edu/index.shtml)
b
Geological map obtained from the Nigerian Geological Survey Agency (NGSA)
c
Soil derived from crystalline rocks of western Nigeria (Smyth and Montgomery, 1962)
d
Borehole records (which include lithologs and pumping test results) were obtained from Ondo State
Water and Sanitation project (WATSAN)
e
Rainfall data obtained from Nigerian Meteorological Agency
f
Topographic map obtained from Office of the Surveyor General of the Federation
g
ASTER DEM downloaded from NASA’s Land Processes Distributed Active Archive Center (LP DAAC)

Fig. 2 Schematic representation of computational methodology

analysis, comparison between and within thematic layers In Step 1, the values of j (column) were added up, while in
based on their contribution to groundwater accumulation Step 2, each element of the column was divided by the
was done on a scale of 1–9 (Table 2). corresponding sum of the column to derive the relative
weight matrix. In Step 3, the normalized principal
Pair-wise comparison of thematic layers eigenvector was obtained by averaging across the rows.
This provided the factor weights which were further
Using the 8 9 8 matrix for pair wise comparison between normalized by multiplication by 100 (Table 3). This was
thematic layers, three crucial steps were further per- repeated to generate pair wise comparison within factors
formed to calculate the normalized principal eigenvector. (Class Rank).

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Table 2 Measurement scale of AHP (Saaty 1980) than the threshold level of 0.1, RI = 1.41 (from Table 4).
Intensity of importance Definition
This indicates a high level of consistency.

1 Equal importance Weighted Index Overlay Analysis

2 Equal to moderate importance
3 Moderate importance The weighted index overlay analysis is a straightforward
4 Moderate to strong importance method for combined analysis of multiclass maps to
5 Strong importance achieve a particular objective. The major advantage of this
6 Strong to very strong importance technique is that knowledge and experience-based human
7 Very strong importance judgment can be incorporated into the analysis. The
8 Very to extremely strong importance weights assigned here signify the relative importance of a
9 Extreme importance factor vis-à-vis the overall objective. Most importantly, it
considers the relative importance of the factors and the
As a rule of thumb in checking the consistency of the attributes of each factor. As there is no standardized scale
comparison, the consistency ratio (CR) must always be for this method, the criteria for assigning weights should be
B0.1 for an acceptable comparison. If the ratio is [0.1, the well defined, and appropriate weights assigned to each
matrix should be re-evaluated (Sani et al. 2010) factor (Saraf and Choudhury 1998). The eight (8) prepared
The consistency ratio is calculated as follows thematic maps were overlaid to delineate the groundwater
potential using weighted index overlay (Eq. 3) as sum-
CR ¼ CI=RI ð1Þ
marized in Table 9.
where CI is consistency index and RI is random consis- P
ws
tency index. P i ij ð3Þ
wi
CI ¼ ðkmax  nÞ=ðn  1Þ ð2Þ
where wi is the weight of ith factor map, sij the spatial class
where kmax is the principal eigenvalue and n is the number weight of jth factor map, s is the spatial unit value of the
of comparisons. output map.
The random consistency indices used to calculate the
consistency ratio is shown in Table 4. Hydrological modelling for runoff using SCS-CN
The consistency check for the thematic layers used in
the groundwater potential mapping are kmax = 8.91828, The curve number (CN) is essentially a coefficient that
CI = 0.131182, n = 8, CR = 0.09303 which is far less reduces the total precipitation to runoff potential, after

Table 3 Pair-wise comparison between thematic layers

Geology Geomorphology Lineament Slope Soil Drainage Land Rainfall Weights Weights 9 100
density density cover (Eigen vector)

Geology 1 2 2 4 5 6 7 8 0.295915 30
Geomorphology 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0.221452 22
Lineament 1 3 4 5 6 7 0.18796 19
density
Slope 1 3 4 6 6 0.118705 12
Soil 1 3 4 6 0.074702 7
Drainage 1 4 5 0.051104 5
density
Land cover 1 5 0.031936 3
Rainfall 1 0.018226 2

Table 4 Random indices for

Matrix 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
matrices of various sizes
size

RI 0 0 0.58 0.9 1.12 1.24 1.32 1.41 1.45 1.49

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‘‘losses’’ through evaporation, absorption, transpiration, moisture condition, an index of wetness in the study area
and surface storage. It is based on the water balance was also considered. It was determined according to Guta
equation as described in Eqs. 4 and 5 (Deshmukh et al. and Panigraphy (2008), where AMC I is rainfall \35 mm;
2013; Soulis and Valiantzas 2012): AMC II is rainfall C35 mm and B52.5 mm; AMCIII is
P ¼ Ia þ F þ Q ð4Þ rainfall [52.5 mm. In view of this, AMC II was selected
and adjustment of CN was done accordingly. The runoff
Q=ðP  I aÞ ¼ F=S ð5Þ that occurred in the study area was calculated based on the
The SCS-CN is expressed by the following equations fact that for any rainfall event, the ratio of actual retention
of soil after runoff begins to the potential maximum
ðP  Ia Þ2 retention of soil is equal to the ratio of direct runoff to
Q¼ if P [ Ia ð6Þ
P  Ia þ S rainfall (Ponce and Hawkins 1996). This is exemplified by
Q ¼ 0 otherwise Ia ¼ kS ð7Þ the equations below:

where Q is the direct runoff (mm), P is the total precipi- ðrainfall  0:2Þ2
runoff ¼ if rainfall [ 0:2S ð9Þ
tation (mm), Ia is the initial abstraction (mm), S is the rainfall þ 0:8S
potential maximum retention (mm), k is the initial runoff ¼ 0 if rainfall\0:2S ð10Þ
abstraction coefficient (dimensionless).
The S parameter is expressed as where S = 1000/CN) - 10 in inches and S = (25,400/
CN) - 254 in mm, SI units.
25400
S¼  254 ð8Þ
CN
where CN is the curve number, which depends on the soil
Result and discussion
type, land cover, hydrological conditions, and antecedent
moisture condition (AMC).
Factors peculiar to groundwater accumulation
The integration of SCS-CN with GIS has proven to be
in the study area
very efficient as it helps to facilitate the analysis of large
volumes of watershed data whilst augumenting the accu-
Groundwater occurrence/accumulation in any particular
racy of computed data (Zhan and Huang 2004). The land
region depends on many factors that act either locally or
use/cover image was converted from raster to vector data
regionally (Nolan et al., 2007). In the study area, these
models. The hydrological soil group (HSG) classification
factors include land cover, lineament density, lithology,
was used in the soil analysis for runoff (Table 4). The
soil, borehole discharge, rainfall distribution, drainage
runoff potential of the Land-Soil complex of the study area
density, slope and geomorphology.
i.e. the watershed potential also known as the runoff CN
was determined by the intersection of the land cover and
Geomorphology
soil maps. The generated CN values range between 0–100
(Table 5).
For the evaluation of groundwater resources, a geomor-
A CN value of 100 indicates that there is no infiltration,
phological terrain classification is useful, as it takes both
as all rainfall is transformed into direct runoff, while 0
morphological and lithological factors into consideration
indicates that there is no direct runoff as all rainfall infil-
(Aladejana 2012). In hard rock terrains such as the study
trates into the subsurface. The analysis was found to under-
area, relief, slope, depth, type of weathered materials, and
estimate the predevelopment curve number, making it
the overall characteristics of different landforms play an
conservative, hence it was accepted. The antecedent
important function in groundwater accumulation (Karanth
Table 5 Curve number estimation
1987). As landforms are the most common features
encountered by any one engaged in geological field work,
Land cover Hydrologic soil group proper interpretation of them sheds light upon the geologic
A B C D history, structure and lithology and hydrogeologic status of
an area. Digital elevation models (DEM) allows the cre-
Bare surface 39 61 74 80
ation of detailed description of landforms that are useful for
Settlement 61 75 83 87
groundwater potential assessment (Semere 2003). It also
Forest 40 66 77 85
plays an important role in the identification of favourable
Wetland 30 55 70 77
zones for groundwater accumulation. Flood plains, alluvial
Rock 98 98 98 98
fans and valley associated with thick alluvium and
Arable land 77 86 91 94
weathered materials have high porosity and permeability,

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Fig. 3 a Geomorphology, b land cover, c lithology, d soil series

making them favourable areas for groundwater accumula- increases the possibility of infiltration through the soil. This
tion. Pediments generally are not favourable for ground- is in direct contrast with bare surfaces, which permit runoff
water accumulation zones. From the DEM of the study as a result of the high velocity of impact on the ground
area, the slope amount coupled with the contour was used surface. In the study area, the land cover types were bare
to generate the basic geomorphologic classes in the study land, arable land, dense forest, built-up, and water body.
area (Fig. 3a). After field survey, highlands, alluvial plains The land cover of the study area was derived from Landsat
and plains were obtained as the major geomorphologic 8 imagery acquired in 2015. Rectified images were sub-
classes present in the study area. The highlands in the study jected to supervised classification with five (5) classes
area are formed by porphyritic granites in the north eastern using the maximum likelihood algorithm in ERDAS
part, and biotite granites in the southern part. Alluvial ImagineÒ. The classes (Fig. 3b) obtained were verified
plains are occupied by very porous and permeable mate- using pattern recognition through ground truthing and
rials which are excellent hosts for groundwater fieldwork.
accumulation.
Lithology
Land cover
Lithology is the physical characteristic of a rock that is vis-
Land cover is also a major parameter that affects the ible at the surface; it is used as a basis for subdividing rock
accumulation of groundwater in an area. They affect sequences for mapping and verification purposes (Sahl
groundwater accumulation by either increasing or reducing 1987). The lithologic map of the study area was obtained by
run-off. The intersection of rainfall by leaves further scanning, georeferencing and sub-mapping of a larger

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geological map obtained from the Nigerian Geological soil groups for each soil type were also determined based
Survey Agency (NGSA). Field study was conducted to verify on their textures obtained from laboratory analysis: HSG A
the information obtained and several changes were made to for sand, loamy sand or sandy loam; HSG B for silt loam or
produce the final geological map (Fig. 3c). The various loam; HSG C for sandy clay loam; and HSG D for clay
lithologic units in the study area are quartzite, biotite granite, loam, silty clay loam, silty clay or clay texture soils
porphyritic granite, granite gneiss, migmatite gneiss and (USDA-SCS, 1986).
charnockite. Most of these rocks have been subjected to
tectonic stress after emplacement. As a result of this, they Lineament density
have become fractured, serving as conduits for groundwater
flow. Granites and quartzites fracture in similar ways Lineaments are any observable geomorphic linear feature
because of their brittle nature. In contrast to these charac- that can be attributed to geological structures, notably
teristics, the migmatite and gneisses are characterized by fractures, or lithologic contacts (O’Leary et al. 1976).
ductile deformation, making them poor hosts for ground- Zones of lineament occurrence represent weak zones,
water. However, the zones dominated by these two rocks typifying fissures/joint, fractures, and probably weathered
offer the best sites for borehole location and hand dug wells formations (Chowdhury et al. 2009). The lineaments
based on their high lineament density (Mogaji et al. 2016), occurring in the study area was extracted from the Landsat
while areas dominated by migmatites and gneisses only and DEM datasets using Envi 4.3TM and ArcGISTM. Image
produce wells with low yield except when fitted with sub- enhancement, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
mersible pumps for maximum drawdown. It should be noted (NDVI) was conducted on the Landsat imagery while hill-
that charnockites have the poorest water bearing capacities shaded relief image was generated from the DEM. Sobel
because of their low level of secondary porosity. Also, they filter was applied in the four principal directions on
weather into clay which does not support groundwater ASTER DEM (Table 7). To eliminate bias and subjectiv-
accumulation. ity, the DEM and NDVI of the study area were processed
for detection of lineaments. DEMs have shown to be useful
Soil for detecting lineaments because they can eliminate bias
caused by inherent East–West sun illumination (Henderson
Soils in an area affect the accumulation of groundwater by et al. 1996; Yun and Moon 2001). Studies that detect lin-
how much permeation takes place. According to Murthy eaments from DEMs alone rely on the assumption that
(2000), groundwater recharge and runoff characterizing an majority of lineaments in a given area are geomorphic
area is largely dependent on the soil characteristics. A local rather than tonal. This assumption is valid for most regions
soil classification scheme proposed by Smyth and Mont- as valley and cliff orientations are typically controlled by
gomery (1962) peculiar to south western Nigeria was faulting direction (Yun and Moon 2001). The DEM was
employed in this study. It involved breaking down soil processed, and a hillshade surface with a vertical exag-
associations into smaller mappable units referred to as Soil geration of 2X was produced using ArcGISTM Surface
Series. The study area consists of Iwo, Itagunmodi, Ondo Analysis tool. Lineaments occurring in hill-shaded relief
and Jago associations. Further classifications were carried images are commonly associated with variations occurring
out after field survey to extract the distinct soil series from as sun illuminations. These are in turn related to changes in
these associations. These gave rise to the Iwo, Ibadan, slope gradient. These changes reveal linear features. A
Araromi, Fagbo, and Ondo Series. However, the Jago 3 9 3 filter in the x-direction was applied to enhance the
Association could not be classified into series because it visibility of linear features occurring in the east and west as
does not vary in origin. They are all of the same texture and a result of changes occurring in that direction. It was also
composition (Fig. 3d). The soil series were classified based repeated in the y-direction for those occurring in the North
on their clay and sand contents (Table 6). The hydrologic and South. Inherent in this image were geomorphic

Table 6 Clay and sand content

Soil association Soil series Clay content Sand content CN
of soil series
Iwo Iwo Very low Very high A
Ibadan Low High A
Ondo Fagbo Moderate Moderate B
Ondo High Low C
Itagunmodi Araromi Very high Very low D
Jago No series identifiable Not applicable Not applicable D

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Table 7 Sobel filters applied in four principal directions Drainage density

N–S NE–SW NW–SE E–W
The drainage system was obtained from the topographic
-1 0 1 -2 -1 0 0 1 2 -1 -2 -1 map covering the study area. Drainage pattern shows the
-2 0 2 -1 0 1 -1 0 1 0 0 0 spatial distribution of streams over the underlying geology
-1 0 1 0 1 2 -2 -1 0 1 2 1 of an area (Adiat et al. 2012; Magesh et al. 2012). It is one
of the most important indicators of hydrogeological fea-
tures, because drainage pattern and density are controlled
lineaments, especially those occurring along fault-con-
in a fundamental way by the underlying lithology, vege-
trolled cliffs (Anifowose and Aladejana 2016).
tation type, infiltration rate, slope angle and the capacity of
The NDVI which is based on the theory of a difference
soils to absorb rainfall (Manap et al. 2012). In addition to
in reflectance in the near infrared (NIR) and red bands of
this, it is a reflection of the rate that precipitation infiltrates
the electromagnetic spectrum has its roots in this applica-
compared with the surface runoff. The infiltration/runoff
tion. Its valid results fall between -1 and ?1 with higher
relationship is controlled largely by permeability, which is
values indicating more green vegetation. Band 4 (NIR) and
in turn a function of the rock type and fracturing of the
Band 3 (Red) were used for this procedure as shown in
underlying rock or surface bedrock (Edet et al. 1998).
Eq. 12:
According to Mogaji et al. (2014), drainage density is the
NDVI ¼ NIR  RED=NIR þ RED ð12Þ ratio of the sum of length of streams to the size of the area
This technique has its foundation on the fact that lus- of grid under consideration. To derive the drainage density
cious vegetation in hard rock terrains usually aligns with of the study area, the drainage pattern of the study area was
water-bearing fractures (Mogaji et al. 2011). Those with converted into a quantitative model using measures pro-
denser and more active vegetations aligned in linear to posed by (Al-Saud 2008; Sener et al. 2005; Edet et al.
curvilinear patterns were extracted appropriately by digi- 1998). The study area was gridded using the Fishnet tool of
tizing. The final lineament map digitized was overlaid on ArcGISTM. The grid size was set to 3.7 km2 per grid. This
the topographic map and Google EarthÒ imagery of the small size was used to compensate for the variations in
study area to eliminate man-made non-geologic features local geology that occur in the study area. The extracted
such as roads and electric lines. drainage map was overlaid on the grid map in ArcGISTM.
Lineament density is defined as the ratio of total digitized The total length of all drains in each grid which gives the
lineaments divided by the area under consideration (Edet drainage density (Dd) is calculated and interpolated using
et al. 1994). To derive the lineament density of the study kriging technique according to Eq. 14 (Sener et al. 2005;
area, the lineament map was converted into a quantitative Al-Saud 2008).
model as earlier mentioned under Drainage Density. The X
i¼n
Di
study area was gridded using the fishnet tool of ARCGISTM. Dd ¼ ðkm1 Þ ð14Þ
A
The grid size was set to 3.7 km2 per grid. The digitized i¼1
P
lineament map was overlaid on the grid map in ARCGISTM. where Di is the total length of all streams (km) and A is
The total length of all lineaments in each grid which gives the area of the grid (km2).
the lineament density (Ld) of the study area is calculated and The derived drainage density map of the study area is
interpolated using kriging technique according to Eq. 13. shown in Fig. 4b. It was classified into 5 classes using the
X
i¼n natural break classification algorithm.
Li
Ld ¼ ðkm1 Þ ð13Þ
A
i¼1 Rainfall
P
where Li is the total length of all lineaments (km) and A
is the area of the grid (km2). Rainfall, the major form of precipitation determines the
The derived lineament density map of the study area is amount of water available to percolate into the subsurface.
shown in Fig. 4a. It was grouped into 5 classes based on It is a major source of groundwater recharge. For this
natural break. Lineaments are important as they serve as study, rainfall data for a period of 10 years were obtained
conduits for groundwater accumulation and movement in from NIMET (Nigerian Meteorological Agency). Since the
basement terrains (Al-Saud 2010). Studies have established information was represented as point data, they were
that areas with high lineament densities have high interpolated using Inverse Distance Weighted (IDW) to
groundwater potential (Khairul et al. 2000; Travaglia and generate data for areas close by, and also for the generation
Dianelli 2003). of a raster map that can be used for analysis. The resulting

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Fig. 4 a Lineament density, b drainage density, c rainfall, d slope

map was grouped into 3 classes which are 100.83–115.20, The final slope map was grouped into five classes as
115.20–124.37, and 124.37–138.75 mm/year (Fig. 4c). shown in Fig. 4d. The standard for the evaluation of slope
layer according to (European Commission 1995) (Table 8)
Slope was applied to determine the groundwater storage poten-
tiality of the slope classes.
Slope influences the accumulation of groundwater in the
environment. Flat areas where the slope amount is low are Groundwater potential delineation area using
capable of holding rainfall, which in turn facilitates weighted overlay
recharge, whereas in elevated areas where the slope amount
is high, there is high run-off and low infiltration (Et- The groundwater potential map resulting from weighted
tazarizini and El Mahmouhi 2004; Prasad et al. 2008). The index overlay analysis is shown in Fig. 5. The map reveals
slope of the study area was generated from ASTER DEM five major classes of groundwater potential levels namely
which was projected to WGS 84 Northern Hemisphere very good, good, moderate, fair and poor potentials. The
Zone 31, and the pixel size changed to 30 m. The derived areas covered by the poor, fair, moderate, good and very
DEM was used for slope calculation (degrees) in a GIS good groundwater potential types in the study area are 4.6,
environment according to Eq. 15. 53.3, 82.22, 37.47, and 0.43 km2, respectively. In terms of
0v ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u  2  2 !1
u dz the geology, good groundwater potential points occur
dz
Slope ¼ ATAN @t þ A  57:29578 ð15Þ mainly on the quartzite rocks and the porphyritic granite
dx dy

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Model. Earth Syst. Environ. (2016)2:174 Page 11 of 17 174

Table 8 Regional slope classification based on Soil Terrain they occur in areas that are plains and alluvial plains. They
(SOTER) model also occur in areas of high lineament density and inter-
Slope (%) Classification Groundwater storage section, with relatively flat slopes. This result further
potentiality enunciates the fact that geology, lineaments, geomorphol-
ogy and slope are the major hydrogeological factors that
0–2 Flat Very high
determine the groundwater potential of any area in par-
2–8 Undulating High
ticular (Table 9). Areas with moderate groundwater pro-
8–15 Rolling Moderate
spects are attributed to contributions from combinations of
15–30 Moderately steep Low
the land use/cover, lithology, slope and landform. The low
30–60 Steep Very low
to poor categories of groundwater potential zones are
spatially distributed mainly along ridges where slope class
rocks. This is definitely as a result of the high level of is very high, the lithology is compact/massive and far from
secondary porosity of these two rock types. lineaments. Based on borehole information obtained from
They are very brittle rocks with fractures which serve as Ondo State Water and Sanitation Agency (WATSAN)
natural conduits and hosts for groundwater accumulation. (Table 10), the accuracy assessment of the GWP map was
From the hydrogeological point of view, the frequency and done. There are 34 boreholes and wells with yield ranging
extent of jointing, fracturing and flow contacts and from 0 to 4.8 l/s.. The yield was classified thus: poor 0 to
weathering along them are the most significant parameters 1.0 l/s; fair 1.1 to 1.5 l/s; moderate 1.6 to 2.5 l/s; good 2.6
imparting permeability and porosity for forming suit- to 4.5 l/s; very good [4.6 l/s. When their locations were
able groundwater reservoirs. In terms of geomorphology, plotted directly into the GIS environment and overlaid with

Fig. 5 Groundwater potentials (GWP) and borehole discharge in the study area

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174 Page 12 of 17 Model. Earth Syst. Environ. (2016)2:174

Table 9 Classification of weighted factors influencing the potential zones

Factor Data source Classes Class rank Factor weight

Land use/cover Landsat/IKONOS Forest 41 30

Arable land 26
Bare surface 17
Settlement 8
Rock 5
Water body 3
Geology Geological Survey of Nigeria, Sheet 61 1:250,000 Quartzite 46 22
Biotite granite 18
Porphyritic granite 19
Granite gneiss 9
Migmatite gneiss 6
Charnockite 3
Soil Soils derived from crystalline rocks, western Nigeria 1:50,000 Ibadan 49 19
Iwo 20
Ondo 15
Araromi 8
Fagbo 5
Jago 3
Slope ASTER DEM Flat 49 12
Gentle 26
Moderate 15
Steep 7
Very steep 3
Rainfall NIMET High 67 7
Moderate 24
Low 9
Lineament density ASTER DEM and Landsat Very far 3 5
Far 6
Moderate 14
Close 26
Very close 51
Drainage Density Topographic map Sheet 244 (Ado Ekiti) 1:100,000 No drainage 52 3
Low 24
Moderate 15
High 6
Very high 3
Geomorphology Landsat/ASTER Alluvial Plain 55 2
Plain 35
Highland 10

the groundwater potential map of the Akure area, the result Runoff determination using SCS-CN Approach
of this research, various patterns were noticed. Variations
occurred in the fair and moderate groundwater potential The amount of rainfall transported via overland flow is
classes. These variations occurred as a result of variations referred to as runoff. This study implemented soil series,
in the local geology of Akure area. These cannot be land cover, topography (flow accumulation), and rainfall as
accurately accounted for, using only remote sensing and determinants of runoff in the study area. DEM was pro-
GIS techniques. cessed for flow accumulation to determine where water

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Model. Earth Syst. Environ. (2016)2:174 Page 13 of 17 174

Table 10 Borehole locations

No. Name Easting Northing Discharge (L/s) GWP

1 Alagbaka 744,858.968 801,345.15 1.6 Moderate

2 FUTA Area 739,660.283 805,482.94 1.3 Fair
3 Oke-Aro Road 749,419.054 799,441.85 2.6 Good
4 Off New Stadium 742,506.582 804,607.55 2.5 Good
5 Off Oba Adesida Road 743,471.186 802,495.12 1.6 Moderate
6 Off Ijapo Road 743,030.116 804,464.48 3 Good
7 Oba-Ile Road 746,484.238 803,400.77 2.7 Good
8 Orita Obele Area 738,104.025 808,081.1 0.8 Poor
9 Alagbaka Road 744,608.408 802,561.56 3.1 Good
10 Oja Area 742,749.347 802,754.57 1.1 Fair
11 Express Road 744,264.506 805,607.99 1.8 Moderate
12 Bye-pass 740,616.237 802,613.81 1.6 Moderate
13 Off Ministry of Works 741,372.601 803,137.26 1.3 Fair
14 Femi Alewi Street 746,437.343 801,378.89 2.9 Good
15 Alagbaka Area 744,380.184 802,455.71 2.4 Fair
16 Ijare Road 737,817.936 808,689.77 0.7 Poor
17 Leo Area 739,607.534 803,328.41 1.9 Moderate
18 Oke Aro Road 740,896.495 799,277.07 2.6 Good
19 Near School of Nursing 746,531.134 800,186.69 1.8 Moderate
20 Arikawe area 741,977.343 800,040.85 4.8 Very good
21 Behind Min. of Works 741,064.872 803,108.67 1.3 Fair
22 Alagbaka Area 744,842.585 800,878.37 1.8 Moderate
23 Alagbaka Area 744,950.94 802,021.69 1.6 Moderate
24 Ade Super Hotel 739,197.977 805,365.03 2.3 Moderate
25 Ijelu Street 744,279.947 797,554.51 0.9 Poor
26 Oda Road 744,827.255 800,554.42 1.7 Moderate
27 Off Agagu Road 738,964.4 803,013.84 3.5 Good
28 Oba-Ile Road 745,796.434 803,268.09 2.4 Moderate
29 Alejolowo area 746,374.815 801,544.19 4 Good
30 Okuta-Elerinla 740,021.107 804,592.81 3 Good
31 Ijapo Road 744,889.845 803,328.39 4.2 Good
32 Ijapo Estate 744,717.831 803,3893.4 1.7 Moderate
33 Champion Area 739,399.293 803,068.37 1.9 Moderate
34 Expressway 739,913.974 806,063.7 1 Poor

tends to flow under gravity in the study area. The runoff groundwater potential and vice versa. To achieve this,
map was used in assigning weights to the flow accumula- random points were generated in the study area using
tion raster. From this method, a terrain based runoff ARCGIS 10 with the study area extent being the constraint.
map (Fig. 6) was derived. This serves to provide the flow Values from both the GWP and terrain-based runoff map
path of water that will either infiltrate or runoff in the area. were extracted to the randomly generated points. Linear
regression analysis between the GWP map and the terrain-
Model validation using derived infiltration zones based runoff map was conducted. The regression plot
showing the relationship between GWP and infiltration in
We further attempted to validate the groundwater model the area is shown in Fig. 7. A value of 0.80 was obtained as
using the terrain based runoff map of the study area. This coefficient of determination (R2), showing that both GWP
concept relies on the assumption that infiltration is usually and infiltration are well fitted. R2 suggests that runoff as a
the main factor affecting the amount of water available for function of land cover, hydrologic soil group, rainfall and
runoff (Bras 1990), therefore areas with low runoff will flow accumulation can be used in verifying the ground-
have high infiltration rates, and would generally have good water potentiality of the study area (Fig. 7).

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Conclusions

There is an urgent need to meet the water requirement of

developing countries such as Nigeria, to ameliorate water
scarcity problems being experienced. The maximal explo-
ration and management of groundwater resources through
the prediction and detection of promising groundwater sites
in these countries suitably fills this need. In this study, an
integrated and knowledge-based approach for the assess-
ment of groundwater potential sites using remote sensing
and GIS techniques was proposed. Eight parameters (geo-
morphology, land cover, lithology, drainage density, rain-
fall, slope, lineament density and geology) with different
weights were used resulting in the final map. The validity
Fig. 7 Regression plot between GWP and runoff
of the generated groundwater potential map was checked
using available borehole data. Furthermore, the terrain- potential map of the study area. The maps obtained can be
based runoff potential map of the area was also generated used by relevant government agencies and private investors
based on the relationship between runoff, infiltration and as preliminary references to selecting sites for new or
groundwater recharge using an empirical hydrological proposed boreholes to save costs. As this work uses the
model. This was used to further verify the groundwater SCS-CN approach for runoff and infiltration prediction,

Fig. 6 Terrain based runoff map of the study area

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Model. Earth Syst. Environ. (2016)2:174 Page 15 of 17 174

consequent research works would involve the consideration towards the mapping of groundwater potential zones in hard rock
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