INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIAL/MODULE

Engineering Data Analysis

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 MODULE 1

Definition of Statistical Concepts

and Principles

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 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

• To understand the basic concepts

used in statistics and to analyze the
basic terms in probability.

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 Basic Concepts of Probability
Probability is a chance of something will happen.

Definition 1: The set of all possible outcomes of a statistical

experiment is called the sample space and is represented by the
symbol S. Each outcome in a sample space is called an element, or a
member of the sample space, or simply a sample point.
If a sample space has a finite number of elements, we may list the
members separated by commas and enclosed in braces. Thus, the
sample space S, of possible outcomes when a die is tossed may be
written

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 Basic Concepts of Probability
Example 1: Consider an experiment of flipping a coin, what are
the possible outcomes?
S = {H,T}

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 Basic Concepts of Probability
Example 2: An experiment consists of flipping a coin and then
flipping it a second time if a head occurs. If a tail occurs on the
first flip, then a die is tossed once. List the possible sample
points.
H S = {HH,HT,T1,T2,T3,T4,T5,T6}
H
T

T – T1,T2,T3,T4,T5,T6

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 Basic Concepts of Probability
Example 3: Suppose that three items are selected at random from a
manufacturing process. Each item is inspected and classified defective D, or
non-defective N. List the elements of the sample space.
S ={DDD,DDN,DND,DNN.NDD,NND,NDN,NNN}
D
D
D N D
N
D N
D
N DN
N
7
N
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 Basic Concepts of Probability
Sample space with a large or infinite number of sample points
are best described by a statement or rule method. For example,
if the possible outcomes of an experiment are the set of cities in
the world with a population over 1 million, our sample space is
written
is a city with a population over 1 million}
If S is a set of all points (x,y) on the boundary or the interior of a
circle of radius 2 with center at the origin, we write the rule

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 Basic Concepts of Probability

Definition 2: An event is a subset of a sample space.

Given the sample space ,where t is the life in years of a

certain electronic component, then the event A that the
component fails before the end of the fifth year is the subset

Definition 3: The complement of an event A with respect to S is

a subset of all element of S that are not in A. We denote the
complement of A by the symbol A’.
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 Basic Concepts of Probability
Consider the sample space

Let A = {book, stationery, laptop, paper}

Then the complement of A is A’ = {cellphone, mp3}
Definition 4: The intersection of two events A and B denoted by
the symbol A∩B, is the event containing all elements that are
common to A and B.
Let E be the event that a person selected at random in a classroom
is majoring in engineering, and let F be the event that the person is
female. Then E∩F is the event of all female engineering students in
the classroom.
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 Basic Concepts of Probability
Let V = {a,e,i,o,u) and C = {l,r,s,t} then it follows that V∩C =Ф,
that is, if A and B have no elements in common.

For certain statistical experiment, it is by no means unusual to

define two events A and B, and cannot both occur simultaneously.
The events A and B are the said to be mutually exclusive. Stated
more formally, we have the following definition.

Definition 5: Two events A and B are mutually exclusive, or

disjoint, if A∩B = Ф, that is, if A and B have no elements in
common.
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 Basic Concepts of Probability
Definition 6: The union of the two events A and B, denoted by the
symbol AUB, is the event containing all the elements that belong to
A or B or both.

Example: Let A = {a,b,c} and B = {b,c,d,e}; then A U B =

{a,b,c,d,e}
Example: Let P be the event that an employee selected at random
from an oil drilling company smokes cigarettes. Let Q be the event
that the employee selected drinks alcoholic beverages. Then the
event PUQ is the set of all employees who either drink or smoke or
do both.
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 Basic Concepts of Probability

1. Determine the following:

a)A U C = {1,2,4,7,3,5} B
A
b) B’∩A = {4,7}
2
B’= {7,4,5} 6
7
A = {1,2,7,4}
1
c) A∩B∩C = {1} 4 3
d) (AUB)∩C’ = {2,6,7}
AUB = {1,2,3,4,6,7}
5
C’= {2,6,7}
C

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 Counting Sample Points
Theorem 1 : If an operation can be performed in n1 ways, and if for
each of these ways a second operation can be performed in n2 ways,
then the two operations can be performed together in n1n2 ways.
Example: How many sample points are there in the sample space
when a pair of dice is thrown once? N1=6, n2=6 6(6) = 36 samples
Example: A developer of a new subdivision offers prospective home
buyers a choice of Tudor, Rustic, Colonial and Traditional exterior
styling in ranch, two-story, and split level floor plans. In how many
different ways can a buyer order one of these homes?
N1= 4, n2= 3 4(3) = 12 ways
Example: If a 22-member club needs to elect a chair and a
treasurer, how many different ways can these two to be elected?
N1 = 22, N2 = 21 22(21) = 462 ways
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 Counting Sample Points
Theorem 2: If an operation can be performed in n1 ways, and if for
each of these a second operation can be performed in n2 ways, and for
each of the first two a third operation can be performed in n3 ways,
and so forth, then the sequence of k operations can be performed in
n1n2...nk ways.
Example: Sam is going to assemble a computer by himself. He has
the choice of chips from two brands, a hard drive from four, memory
from three, and an accessory bundle from five local stores. How
many different ways can Sam order the parts? 2(4)(3)(5) = 120 ways
Example: A drug for the relief of asthma can be purchased from 5
different manufacturers in liquid, tablet, or capsule form, all of which
come in regular and extra strength. How many different ways can a
doctor prescribe the drug for a patient suffering from asthma?
15
5(3)(2) = 30 ways
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 Counting Sample Points
Theorem 3: A permutation is an arrangement of all or part of a set of
objects. The number of permutation of n objects is n!
Example: In how many ways can 5 examinees be lined up to go
inside the testing centers? 5! = 120 ways
Example: In how many ways can four dating reviewees be seated in
the review center without restriction? 8! = 40320 ways
Theorem 4: The number of permutations of n distinct objects taken r
at a time is

Example: In one year, three awards (research, teaching ans service)

will be given to a class of 25 graduate students in a statistics
department. If each student can receive at most one award, how many
possible selections are there? N = 25, r = 3 25P3 = 13800 ways
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 Counting Sample Points
Theorem 5: The number of permutations of n object arranged in a circle
is (n-1)! Permutation that occur by arranging objects in a circle are called
circular permutations.
Example: In how many ways can 6 students be seated in a round dining
table? (6-1)! = 120 ways
Theorem 6: The number of distinct permutations of n things of which n1
are of one kind, n2 of a second kind,..., nk of a kth kind is

Example: In a college football training session, the defensive

coordinator needs to have 10 players standing in a row. Among these 10
players, there are 1 freshman, 2 sophomores, 4 juniors and 3 seniors.
How many different ways can they be arranged in a row if only their
class level will be distinguished? 10!/(1!x2!x4!x3!) = 12600 ways
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 Counting Sample Points
Theorem 7: The number of ways of partitioning a set of n objects into
r cells with n1 elements in the first cell, n2 elements in the second, and
so forth, is

Example: In how many ways can 7 graduate students be assigned to 1

triple and 2 double hotel rooms during a conference?
7!/(3!x2!x2!) = 210 ways
Theorem 8: The number of combinations of n distinct objects taken r
at a time is

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 Counting Sample Points

Example: How many ways are there to select 3 applicants from 8

equally qualified CIE’s for a Capacity Planner position in a
Semiconductor company.

8!/3!(8-3)! = 56 WAYS
8C3 = 56 ways

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 Probability of an Event

The probability of an event A is the sum of the weights of all sample

points in A. Therefore,

P(Ф) = 0P(S) = 1

Furthermore, if A1,A2,A3,... is a sequence of mutually exclusive

events, then
P(A1UA2UA3) = P(A1) + P(A2) + P(A3) + ...

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 Probability of an Event
Example: A coin is tossed twice. What is the probability that at least
1 head occurs? S = {HH,HT,TH,TT} = ¼ + ¼ + ¼ = ¾ = 0.75 = 75%
Example: A die is loaded in such a way that an even number is twice
as likely to occur as an odd number. If E is the event that a number
less than 4 occurs on a single toss of the die, find P(E).
S = {1,2,3,4,5,6}{2,4,6}
E = {1,2,3} P(E) = 1/9 + 2/9+1/9 = 4/9 = 0.44 = 44%
Theorem 9: If an experiment can result in any of N different equally
likely outcomes, and if exactly n of these outcomes correspond to
event A, then the probability of event A is

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 Probability of an Event

Example: A statistics class for engineers consists of 25 industrial, 10

mechanical, 10 electrical and 8 civil engineering students. If a person
is randomly selected by the instructor to answer a question, find the
probability that the student chosen is (a) an industrial engineering
major (b) a civil engineering or an electrical engineering major.
N = 25+10+10+8 = 53
a.P(IE) = 25/53 = 0.47

b.P(CE or EE) = 8/53 + 10/53 = 18/53 = 0.34

If or = addition
If and = multiplication
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