CIT 852:

DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

CONTENTS PAGE

Introduction…………………………………………………….. 1
What You Will Learn in this Course …………………….……. 1
Course Aims …………………………………………………… 1
Course Objectives ……………………………………………... 1
Working through this Course ………………………………….. 2
Course Materials ………………………………………………. 2
Study Units …………………………………………………….. 2
Textbooks and References …………………………………….. 3
Assignment File ……………………………………………….. 4
Presentation Schedule …………………………………………. 4
Assessment …………………………………………………….. 4
Tutor-Marked Assignment ……………………………………... 5
Final Examination and .Grading ………………………………... 5
Course Marking Scheme ……………………………………….. 6
Course Overview ……………………………………………….. 6
How to Get the Best from this Course ………………………… 7
Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials ………………………………. 8
Summary ……………………………………………………….. 9
Introduction

CIT 852 -Data Communication and Networks is a three [3] credit unit
course of 16 units. The main objective of the course is to deal with
fundamental issues in Computer Networks. It starts with the philosophy
of data communication covering different modulation and multiplexing
techniques. Then, it proceeds to cover MAC layer protocols, several
routing techniques protocols, congestion techniques and several network
layer protocol. The final module of the course takes up issues related to
the transport layer mechanism, such as, addressing, connection,
establishment, flow control and multiplexing issues. It also covers the
transport layer protocol in details. The module ends with the security
issue, which is an important topic today.

This Course Guide gives you a brief overview of the course content,
course duration, and course materials.

What You Will Learn in this course

The main purpose of this course is to deal with fundamental issues in

Computer Networks. It makes available the steps and tools that will
enable you to make proper and accurate decision about data
transmission and computer systems connectivity whenever the need
arises. This, we intend to achieve through the following:

Course Aims

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i. Introduce the concepts data communication and computer

networks;
ii. Provide in-depth knowledge of Data Link Layer fundamental
such as, error detection, correction, and flow techniques; as well
as introduce data link layer switching concepts;
iii. Discuss the concept of routing and congestion as well as
highlight the different routing and congestion control algorithms;
and
iv. Introduce internetworking concepts and protocols; v. Discuss
topics like network security which include symmetric key
algorithm, public key algorithm, digital signature, etc. as well as
topics like addressing, multiplexing, connection establishment,
crash recovery and TCPIUDP Protocols.

Course Objectives

Certain objectives have been set out to ensure that the course achieves
its aims. Apart from the course objectives, every unit of this course has
set objectives. In the course of the study, you will need to confirm, at the
end of each unit, if you have met the objectives set at the beginning of
each unit. By the end of this course you should be able to:

i. describe the various components and data communication and

computer networking;
ii. differentiate between different types of computer networks;
iii. compare the different network topologies;
iv. describe the mechanism and techniques of encoding;
v. describe a wireless LAN and Data Link Layer switching, and
operations of bridges;
vi. explain the Routing concept;
vi. explain the basic principle of internetworking and its importance;
vii. describe the whole concept/idea behind network security as well
as the various network/data security algorithms

Working through this Course

In order to have a thorough understanding of the course units, you will

need to read and understand the contents, practise the steps by designing
and implementing a mini LAN for your department, and be committed
to learning and implementing your knowledge.

This course is designed to cover approximately eighteen weeks, and it

will require your devoted attention. You should do the exercises in the
Tutor-Marked Assignments and submit to your tutors.

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

Course Materials

These include:

1. Course Guide
2. Study Units
3. Recommended Texts
4. A file for your assignments and for records to monitor your
progress.

Study Units
There are sixteen study units in this course:

Module 1 Introduction to Data Communication and Computer

Network Concepts

Unit 1 Introduction to Computer Networks

Unit 2 Data Transmission
Unit 3 Data Encoding and Communication Technique
Unit 4 Multiplexing and Switching
Module 2 Media Access Control and Data Link Layer

Unit 1 Data Link Layer Fundamentals

Unit 2 Retransmission Strategies
Unit 3 Contention-Based Media Access Protocols
Unit 4 Wireless LAN and Datalink Layer Switching

Module 3 Network Layer

Unit 1 Introduction to Layer Functionality and Design Issues

Unit 2 Routing Algorithms
Unit 3 Congestion Control in Public Switched Network
Unit 4 Internetworking

Module 4 Transport Layer and Application Layer Services

Unit 1 Transport Services and Mechanism

Unit 2 TCPIUDP
Unit 3 Network Security I
Unit 4 Network Security II

Make use of the course materials, do the exercises to enhance your

learning.

Textbooks and References

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

Computer Networks, Andrew S. Tenenbaum, PHI, New Delhi.

Data and Computer Communication, William Stalling, PHI, New Delhi.

Computer Communications and Networking Technologies, by Michael

A. Gallo and William M. Hancock, Thomson Asia, Second
Reprint, 2002.

Introduction to Data Communications and Networking, by Behrouz

Forouzan, Tata McGraw-Hill, 1999.

Networks, Tirothy S. Ramteke, Second Edition, Pearson Education, New

Delhi.

Communications Networks, Leon Garcia, and Widjaja, Tata McGraw-

Hill, 1999.

Computer Networking, J. F. Kurose & K. W. Ross, A Top Down

Approach Featuring the Internet, Pearson Edition, 2003.

Computer Networks, Andrew S. Tanenbaum 4th Edition Prentice Hall of

India, New Delhi. 2003.

Communication Networks, Fundamental Concepts and Key

Architectures, Leon and Widjaja, 3rd Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill.

Data Network, Dmitri Berteskas and Robert Galleger, Second Edition,

Prentice Hall of India, 1997, New Delhi.

Network Security Essential -Application and Standard, William

Stallings, Pearson Education, New Delhi.

Assignments File

These are of two types: the self-assessment exercises and the Tutor-
Marked Assignments. The self-assessment exercises will enable you
monitor your performance by yourself, while the Tutor-Marked
Assignment is a supervised assignment. The assignments take a certain
percentage of your total score in this course. The Tutor-Marked
Assignments will be assessed by your tutor within a specified period.
The examination at the end of this course will aim at determining the
level of mastery of the subject matter. This course includes twelve
Tutor-Marked Assignments and each must be done and submitted
accordingly. Your best scores however, will be recorded for you. Be
sure to send these assignments to your tutor before the deadline to avoid
loss of marks. .

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

Presentation Schedule

The Presentation Schedule included in your course materials gives you

the important dates for the completion of tutor marked assignments and
attending tutorials. Remember, you are required to submit all your
assignments by the due date. You should guard against lagging behind
in your work.

Assessment

There are two aspects to the assessment of the course. First are the tutor
marked assignments; second, is a written examination.

In tackling the assignments, you are expected to apply information and

knowledge acquired during this course. The assignments must be
submitted to your tutor for formal assessment in accordance with the
deadlines stated in the Assignment File. The work you submit to your
tutor for assessment will count for 30% of your total course mark.

At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final three-hour
examination. This will also count for 70% of your total course mark.

Tutor Marked Assignment

There are sixteen tutor marked assignments in this course. You need to
submit all the assignments. The total marks for the best four (4)
assignments will be 30% of your total course mark.

Assignment questions for the units in this course are contained in the
Assignment File. You should be able to complete your assignments
from the information and materials contained in your set textbooks,
reading and study units. However, you may wish to use other references
to broaden your viewpoint and provide a deeper understanding of the
subject.

When you have completed each assignment, send it together with form
to your tutor. Make sure that each assignment reaches your tutor on or
before the deadline given. If, however, you cannot complete your work
on time, contact your tutor before the assignment is due to discuss the
possibility of an extension.

Final Examination and Grading

The final examination for the course will carry 70% percentage of the
total marks available for this course. The examination will cover every

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

aspect of the course, so you are advised to revise all your corrected
assignments before the examination.

This course endows you with the status of a teacher and that of a learner.
This means that you teach yourself and that you learn, as your learning
capabilities would allow. It also means that you are in a better position
to determine and to ascertain the what, the how, and the when of your
language learning. No teacher imposes any method of learning on you.

The course units are similarly designed with the introduction following
the table of contents, then a set of objectives and then the dialogue and
so on.

The objectives guide you as you go through the units to ascertain your
knowledge of the required terms and expressions.

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

Course Marking Scheme

This table shows the actual course marking is broken down.

Assessment Marks
Assignment 1-4 Four assignments, best three marks of the
four count at 30% of course marks
Final examination 70% of overall course marks
Total 100% of course marks

Table 1: Course Marking Scheme

Course Overview

Unit Title of Work Weeks Assignment

Activity (End of Unit)
Course Guide Week 1
Module 1
1 Introduction to computer Networks Week 1 Assignment 1
2 Data Transmission Week 2 Assignment 2
3 Data Encoding and Communication Week 3 Assignment 3
Technique
4 Multiplexing and Switching Week 4 Assignment 4
Module 2
1 Data Link Layer Fundamentals Week 5 Assignment 5
2 Retransmission Strategies Week 6 Assignment 6
3 Contention-Based Media Access Week 7 Assignment 7
Protocols
4 Wireless LAN and Datalink Layer Week 8 Assignment 8
Switching
Module 3
1 Introduction to Layer Functionality Week 9 Assignment 9
and Design Issues
2 Routing Algorithms Week 10 Assignment 10
3 Congestion Control in Public Week 11 Assignment 11
Switched Network
4 Internet work Week 12 Assignment 12
Module 4
1 Transport services and Mechanism Week 13 Assignment 13
2 TCP/UDP Week 14 Assignment 14
3 Network Security I Week 15 Assignment 15
4 Network Security II Week 16 Assignment 16
Revision Week 17
Examination Week 18
Total Week 18

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How to Get the Best from this Course

In distance learning the study units replace the university lecturer. This
is one of the great advantages of distance learning; you can read and
work through specially designed study materials at your own pace, and
at a time and place that suit you best. Think of it as reading the lecture
instead of listening to a lecturer. In the same way that a lecturer might
set you some reading to do, the study units tell you when to read your
set books or other material. Just as a lecturer might give you an in-class
exercise, your study units provide exercises for you to do at appropriate
points.

Each of the study units follows a common format. The first item is an
introduction to the subject matter of the unit and how a particular unit is
integrated with the other units and the course as a whole. Next is a set of
learning objectives. These objectives enable you know what you should
be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. You should use
these objectives to guide your study. When you have finished the units
you must go back and check whether you have achieved the objectives.
If you make a habit of doing this you will significantly improve your
chances of passing the course.

Remember that your tutor's job is to assist you. When you need help,
don't hesitate to call and ask your tutor to provide it.

1. Read this Course Guide thoroughly.

2. Organize a study schedule. Refer to the 'Course Overview' for

more details. Note the time you are expected to spend on each
unit and how the assignments relate to the units. Whatever
method you chose to use, you should decide on it and write in
your own dates for working on each unit.

3. Once you have created your own study schedule, do everything

you can to stick to it. The major reason that students fail is that
they lag behind in their course work.

4. Turn to Unit 1 and read the introduction and the objectives for the
unit.

5. Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need

for a unit is given in the 'Overview' at the beginning of each unit.
You will almost always need both the study unit you are working
on and one of your set of books on your desk at the same time.

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

6. Work through the unit. The content of the unit itself has been
arranged to provide a sequence for you to follow. As you work
through the unit you will be instructed to read sections from your
set books or other articles. Use the unit to guide your reading.

7. Review the objectives for each study unit to confirm that you
have achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the
objectives, review the study material or consult your tutor.

8. When you are confident that you have achieved a unit's

objectives, you can then start on the next unit. Proceed unit by
unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you
keep yourself on schedule.

9. When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for

marking, do not wait for its return before starting on the next unit.
Keep to your schedule. When the assignment is returned, pay
particular attention to your tutor's comments, both on the tutor-
marked assignment form and also written on the assignment.
Consult your tutor as soon as possible if you have any questions
or problems.

10. After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare
yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved
the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the
course objectives (listed in this Course Guide).

Facilitators/Tutors and Tutorials

There are 15 hours of tutorials provided in support of this course. You

will be notified of the dates, times and location of these tutorials,
together with the name and phone number of your tutor, as soon as you
are allocated a tutorial group.

Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close
watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter and
provide assistance to you during the course. You must mail or submit
your tutor-marked assignments to your tutor well before the due date (at
east two working days are required). They will be marked by your tutor
and returned to you as soon as possible.

Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, or e-mail if you need

help. The following might be circumstances in which you would find
help necessary. Contact your tutor if:

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you do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned
readings,
you have difficulty with the self-tests or exercises,
you have a question or problem with an assignment, with your tutor's
comments on an assignment or with the grading of an assignment.

You should try your best to attend the tutorials. This is the only chance
to have face to face contact with your tutor and to ask questions which
are answered instantly. You can raise any problem encountered in the
course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from course
tutorials, prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a
lot from participating in discussions actively.

Summary

This is course, Data communication and Networks exposes you to basic

know ledge and skills about data communication and computer
networking you need to acquire as an information technology
professional. The content of the course material was planned and written
to build upon whatever knows you have acquired at undergraduate or
post graduate diploma level and to ensure that you acquire the proper
knowledge and skills for the appropriate situations. Real-life situations
have been created to enable you identify with and create some of your
own. The essence is to get you to acquire the necessary knowledge and
competence, and by equipping you with the necessary tools, we hope to
have achieved that.

I wish you success with the course and hope that you will find it both
interesting and useful.

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

Course Code CIT 852

Course Title Data Communication and Network

Course Adapter Afolorunso, A. A.

National Open University of Nigeria

Course Coordinator Afolorunso, A. A.

National Open University of Nigeria

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

National Open University of Nigeria

Headquarters
14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way
Victoria Island
Lagos

Abuja Office
5, Dar Es Salaam Street
Off Aminu Kano Crescent
Wuse II, Abuja
Nigeria.

e-mail: [email protected]
URL: www.nou.edu.ng

Published by
National Open University of Nigeria

Printed 2008

ISBN: 978-058-378-5

All Rights Reserved

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

CONTENTS PAGE

Module 1 Introduction to Data Communication

and Computer Network Concepts…………. 1

Unit 1 Introduction to Computer Networks………….. 1

Unit 2 Data Transmission……………………………. 49
Unit 3 Data Encoding and Communication Technique 77
Unit 4 Multiplexing and Switching………………….. 97

Module 2 Media Access Control and Data Link Layer 118

Unit 1 Data Link Layer Fundamentals………………. 118

Unit 2 Retransmission Strategies……………………. 141
Unit 3 Contention-Based Media Access Protocols…. 152
Unit 4 Wireless LAN and Datalink Layer Switching.. 166

Module 3 Network Layer………………………………. 185

Unit 1 Introduction to Layer Functionality and Design

Issues………………………………………….. 185
Unit 2 Routing Algorithms…………………………… 207
Unit 3 Congestion Control in Public Switched Network 228
Unit 4 Internetworking……………………………….. 239

Module 4 Transport Layer and Application Layer

Services……………………………………….. 262

Unit 1 Transport Services and Mechanism…………… 262

Unit 2 TCP/UDP……………………………………… 279
Unit 3 Network Security I…………………………….. 302
Unit 4 Network Security II……………………………. 344

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MODULE 1 INTRODUCTION TO DATA

COMMUNICATION AND COMPUTER
NETWORK CONCEPTS

Unit 1 Introduction to Computer Networks

Unit 2 Data Transmission
Unit 3 Data Encoding and Communication Technique
Unit 4 Multiplexing and Switching

UNIT 1 INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTER NETWORKS

CONTENT

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 What is a Computer Network?
3.2 Network Goals and Motivations
3.3 Classification of Networks
3.3.1 Broadcast Networks
3.3.2 Point-to-Point or Switched Networks
3.4 work Topology
3.4.1 Bus Topology
3.4.2 Star Topology
3.4.3 Ring Topology
3.4.4 Tree Topology
3.4.5 Mesh Topology
3.4.6 Cellular Topology
3.5 Applications of Network
3.6 Networking Model
3.6.1 OSI Reference Model
3.6.2 TCP/IP Reference Model
3.7 Network Architecture
3.7.1 Client/Server Architecture
3.7.2 Peer-lo-Peer Architecture
3.8 Example Networks
3.8.1 Novell Netware
3.8.2 ARPANET
3.8.3 Internet
3.8.4 ATM Network
3.9 Types of Computer Networks
3.9.1 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)
3.9.2 Wide Area Network (WAN)
3.9.3 Comparison between LAN, MAN, WAN and GAN
3.10 Advantages of Networks
4.0 Conclusion

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

These days, practically every business, no matter how small uses

computers to handle various transactions and as business grows, they
often need several people to input and process data simultaneously and
in order to achieve this, the earlier model of a single computer serving
all the organisations computational needs has been replaced by a model
in which a number of separate but interconnected computers do the job
and this model is known as a Computer Netw9rk. By linking individual
computers over a network their productivity has been increased
enormously.

A most distinguishing characteristic of a general computer network is

that data can enter or leave at any point and can be processed at any
workstation. For example: A printer can be controlled from any word
processor at any computer on the network. This is an introductory unit
where, you will be learning about the basic concepts regarding
Computer Networks. Here, you will learn about Networks, different
types of Networks, their applications, Network topology, Network
protocols, OSI Reference Mode!, TCP/IP Reference Model. We shall
also examine some of the popular computer networks like Novell
network, ARPANET, Internet, and ATM networks.

Towards t4e end of this unit the concept of Delays in computer networks
is also discussed.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you should be able to:

understand the concept of computer networks

differentiate between different types of computer networks
understand the different application of networks
compare the different network topologies
signify the importance of network protocols
know the importance of using networked system
understand the layered organisation and structuring of computer
networks using OSI and TCPIIP reference model
have a broad idea about some of the popular networks like Novell
network, ARPANET, INTERNET, ATM etc., and
understand the concept of delays.
3.0 MAIN CONTENT

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3.1 What is a computer network?

Figure 1: A computer-networked environment

A Computer network consists of two or more autonomous computers

that are linked (connected) together in order to:

Share resources (files, printers, modems, fax machines).

Share Application software like MS Office.
Allow Electronic communication.
Increase productivity (makes it easier to share data amongst
users).

Figure 1 shows people working in a networked environment. The

Computers on a network may be linked through Cables, telephones
lines, radio waves, satellites etc.

A Computer network includes, the network operating system in the

client and server machines, the cables, which connect different
computers and all supporting hardware ill between such as bridges,
routers and switches. In wireless systems, antennas and towers are also
part of the network.

Computer networks are generally classified according to their structure

and the area they are localised in as:

Local Area Network (LAN): The network that spans a relatively

small area that is, in the single building or campus is known as
LAN.

Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): The type of computer

network that is, designed for a city or town is known as MAN.

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

Wide Area Network (WAN): A network that covers a large

geographical area and covers different cities, states and
sometimes even countries, is known as WAN.

The additional characteristics that are also used to categorise different

types of networks are:

Topology: Topology is the graphical arrangement of computer

systems in a network. Common topologies include a bus, star,
ring, and mesh.

Protocol: The protocol defines a common set of rules which are

used by computers on the network that communicate between
hardware and software entities. One of the most popular
protocols for LANs is the Ethernet. Another popular LAN
protocol for PCs is the token-ring network.

Architecture: Networks can be broadly classified as using either

a peer-to-peer or client/server architecture.

3.2 Network Goals and Motivations

Before designing a computer network we should see that the designed

network fulfils the basic goals. We have seen that a computer network
should satisfy a broad range of purposes and should meet various
requirements. One of the main goals of a computer network is to enable
its users to share resources, to provide low cost facilities and easy
addition of new processing services. The computer network thus, creates
a global environment for its users and computers.

Some of the basic goals that a Computer network should satisfy are:

Cost reduction by sharing hardware and software resources.

Provide high reliability by having multiple sources of supply.

Provide an efficient means of transport for large volumes of data

among various locations (High throughput).

Provide inter-process communication among users and

processors.

Reduction jn del!’y driving data transport.

Increase productivity by making it easier to share data amongst

users.

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

Repairs, upgrades, expansions, and changes to the network

should be performed with minimal impact on the majority of
network users.

Standards and protocols should be supported to allow many types

of equipment from different vendors to share the network
(Interoperatability).

Provide centralised/distributed management and allocation of

network resources like host processors, transmission facilities etc.

3.3 Classification of Networks

Depending on the transmission technology i.e., whether the network

contains switching elements or not, we have two types of networks:

Broadcast networks.

Point-to-point or Switched networks.

3.3.1 Broadcast Networks

Broadcast networks have a single communication channel that is shared

by all the machines on the network. In this type of network, short
messages sent by any machine are received by all the machines on the
network. The packet contains an address field, which specifies for whom
the packet is intended. All the machines, upon receiving a packet check
for the address field, if the packet is intended for itself, it processes it
and if not the packet is just ignored.

Using Broadcast networks, we can generally address a packet to all

destinations (machines) by using a special code in the address field.
Such packets are received and processed by all machines on the
network. This mode of operation is known as “Broadcasting”. Some
Broadcast networks also support transmission to a subset of machines
and this is known as “Multicasting”. One possible way to achieve
Multicasting is to reserve one bit to indicate multicasting and the
remaining (n-l) address bits contain group number. Each machine can
subscribe to any or all of the groups.

Broadcast networks are easily configured for geographically localised

networks. Broadcast networks may be Static or dynamic, depending on
how the channel is allocated.
In Static allocation, time is divided into discrete intervals and using
round robin method, each machine is allowed to broadcast only when its

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

time slot comes up. This method is inefficient because the channel
capacity is wasted when a machine has nothing to broadcast during its
allocated slot.

Dynamic allocation may be centralised or decentralised. In centralised

allocation method, there is a single entity, for example, a bus arbitration
unit which determines who goes next and this is achieved by using some
internal algorithm. In Decentralised channel allocation method, there is
no central entity, here, each machine decides for itself whether or not to
transmit.

The different types of Broadcast networks are:

1) Packet Radio Networks.

2) Satellite Networks.

3) Local Area Networks.

Packet Radio broadcasting differs from satellite network broadcasting

in several ways. In particular stations have limited range introducing the
need for radio repeaters, which in turn affects the routing, and
acknowledges schemes. Also the propagation delay is much less than for
satellite broadcasting.

LAN (Local Area Network)

Local Area Network is a computer network that spans over a relatively

small area. Most LANs are confined to a single building or group of
buildings within a campus. However, one LAN can be connected to
other LANs over any distance via telephone lines and radio waves. A
system of LANs connected in this way is called a wide-area network
(WAN).

Most LANs connect workstations and personal computers. Each node

(individual computer) in a LAN has its own CPU with which it executes
programs, but it is also able to access data and devices anywhere on the
LAN. This means that many users can share data as well as expensive
devices, such as laser printers, fax machines etc. Users can also use the
LAN to communicate with each other, by sending e-mail or engaging in
chat sessions. There are many different types of LANs, Ethernets being
the most common for PCs.

The following characteristics differentiate one LAN from another:

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

Topology

The geometric arrangement of devices on the network. For example,

devices can be arranged in a ring or in a straight line.

Protocols

The rules and encoding specifications for sending data. The protocols
also determine whether the network uses peer-to-peer or client/server
architecture.

Media

Devices can be connected by twisted-pair wire, coaxial cables, or fiber

optic cables. Some networks communicate via radio waves hence, do
not use any connecting media.

LANs are capable of transmitting data at very fast rates, much faster
than data can be transmitted over a telephone line; but the distances are
limited, and there is also a limit on the number of computers that can be
attached to a single LAN.

The typical characteristics of a LAN are:

Confined to small areas i.e., it connects several devices over a

distance of5to 10km.

High speed.

Most inexpensive equipment.

Low error rates.

Data and hardware sharing between users owned by the user.

Operates at speeds ranging from 10Mbps to 100Mbps. Nowadays

1000 Mbps are available.

3.3.2 Point-to-Point or Switched Networks

Point-to-point or switched, networks are those in which there are many

connections between individual pairs of machines. In these networks,
when a packet travels from source to destination it may have to first visit
one or more intermediate machines. Routing algorithms play an
important role in Point-to-point or Switched networks because often
multiple routes of different lengths are available.

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

An example of switched network is the international dial-up telephone

system.

The different types of Point- to-point or Switched networks are:

Circuit Switched Networks.

Packet Switched Networks.

In Switched network, the temporary connection is established from one

point to another for either the duration of the session (circuit switching)
or for the transmission of one or more packets of data (packet
switching).

Circuit Switched Networks

Circuit Switched networks use a networking technology that provides a

temporary, but dedicated connection between two stations no matter
how many switching devices are used in the data transfer route. Circuit
switching was originally developed for the analog based telephone
system in order to guarantee steady and consistent service for two
people engaged in a phone conversation. Analog circuit switching has
given way to digital circuit switching, and the digital counterpart still
maintains the connection until broken (one side hangs up). This means
bandwidth is continuously reserved and “silence is transmitted” just the
same as digital audio in voice conversation.

Packet Switched Networks

Packet switched Networks use a networking technology that breaks up a

message into smaller packets for transmission and switches them to their
required destination. Unlike circuit switching, which requires a constant
point-to-point circuit to be established, each packet in a packet-
switched network contains a destination address. Thus, all packets in a
single message do not have to travel the same path. They can be
dynamically routed over the network as lines become available or
unavailable. The destination computer reassembles the packets back into
their proper sequence.

Packet switching efficiently handles messages of different lengths and

priorities. By accounting for packets sent, a public network can charge
customers for only the data they transmit. Packet switching has been
widely used for data, but not for real-time voice and video. However,
this is beginning to change. IP and ATM technologies are expected to
enable packet switching to be used for everything.

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The first international standard for wide area packet switching networks
was X.25, which was defined when all circuits were digited and
susceptible to noise. Subsequent technologies, such as frame relay and
SMDS were designed for today’s almost-error-free digital lines.

ATM uses a cell-switching technology that provides the bandwidth

sharing efficiency of packet switching with the guaranteed bandwidth of
circuit switching.

Higher-level protocols, such as TCPIIP, IPX/SPX and NetBIOS, are

also packet based and are designed to ride over packet-switched
topologies.

Public packet switching networks may provide value added services,

such as protocol conversion and electronic mail.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1) Explain the difference between Client/Server and Peer-to-peer

architecture?
2) List the important aspects that should be kept in mind while
designing a network?
3) Write briefly about the areas where networks are used?
4) Differentiate between Broadcast and point-to-point networks..

3.4 Network Topology

Topology refers to the shape of a network, or the network’s layout. How

different nodes in a network are connected to each other and how they
communicate with each other is determined by the network’s topology.
Topologies are either physical or logical.

Some of the most common network topologies are:

Bus topology
Star topology
Ring topology
Tree topology
Mesh topology
Cellular topology.

The parameters that are to be considered while selecting a physical

topology are:

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Ease of installation. Ease

of reconfiguration. Ease
of troubleshooting.

3.4.1 Bus Topology

Figure 2: Bus topology

In Bus topology, all devices are connected to a central cable, called the
bus or backbone. The bus topology connects workstations using a single
cable. Each workstation is connected to the next workstation in a point-
to-point fashion. All workstations connect to the same cable. Figure 2
shows computers connected using Bus Topology.

In this type of topology, if one workstation goes faulty all workstations

may be affected as all workstations share the same cable for the sending
and receiving of information. The cabling cost of bus systems is the
least of all the different topologies. Each end of the cable is terminated
using a special terminator.

The common implementation of this topology is Ethernet. Here,

message transmitted by one workstation is heard by all the other
workstations.

Advantages of Bus Topology

Installation is easy and cheap when compared to other topologies

Connections are simple and this topology is easy to use.

Less cabling is required.

Disadvantages of Bus Topology

Used only in comparatively small networks.

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As all computers share the same bus, the performance of the

network deteriorates when we increase the number of computers
beyond a certain limit.

Fault identification is difficult.

A single fault in the cable stops all transmission.

3.4.2 Star Topology

Figure 3: Star topology

Start topology uses a central hub through which, all components are
connected. In a Star topology, the central hub is the host computer, and
at the end of each connection is a terminal as shown in Figure 3.

Nodes communicate across the network by passing data through the

hub. A star network uses a significant amount of cable as each terminal
is wired back to the central hub, even if two terminals are side by side
but several hundred meters away from the host. The central hub makes
all routing decisions, and all other workstations can be simple.

An advantage of the star topology is, that failure, in one of the terminals
does not affect any other terminal; however, failure of the central hub
affects all terminals. This type of topology is frequently used to connect
terminals to a large time-sharing host computer.

Advantages of Star Topology

Installation and configuration of network is easy.

Less expensive when compared to mesh topology.

Faults in the network can be easily traced.

Expansion and modification of star network is easy.

Single computer failure does not affect the network.

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Supports multiple cable types like shielded twisted pair cable,

unshielded twisted pair cable, ordinary telephone cable etc.

Disadvantages of Star Topology

Failure in the central hub brings the entire network to a halt.

More cabling is required in comparison to tree or bus topology

because each node is connected to the central hub.

3.4.3 Ring Topology

Figure 4: Ring Topology

In Ring Topology all devices are connected to one another in the shape
of a closed loop, so that each device is connected directly to two other
devices, one on either side of it, i.e., the ring topology connects
workstations in a closed loop, which is depicted in Figure 4 Each
terminal is connected to two other terminals (the next and the previous),
with the last terminal being connected to the first. Data is transmitted
around the ring in one direction only; each station passing on the data to
the next station till it reaches its destination.

Information travels around the ring from one workstation to the next.
Each packet of data sent on the ring is prefixed by the address of the
station to which it is being sent. When a packet of data arrives, the
workstation checks to see if the packet address is the same as its own, if
it is, it grabs the data in the packet. If the packet does not belong to it, it
sends the packet to the next workstation in the ring.

Faulty workstations can be isolated from the ring. When the workstation
is powered on, it connects itself to the ring. When power is off, it
disconnects itself from the ring and allows the information to bypass the
workstation.
The common implementation of this topology is token ring. A break in
the ring causes the entire network to fail. Individual workstations can be
isolated from the ring.

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Advantages of Ring Topology

Easy to install and modify the network.

Fault isolation is simplified.

Unlike Bus topology, there is no signal loss in Ring topology

because the tokens are data packets that are re-generated at each
node.

Disadvantages of Ring Topology

Adding or removing computers disrupts the entire network.

A break in the ring can stop the transmission in the entire

network.

Finding fault is difficult.

Expensive when compared to other topologies.

3.4.4 Tree Topology

Figure 5: Tree Topology

Tree topology is a LAN topology in which only one route exists

between any two nodes on the network. The pattern of connection
resembles a tree in which all branches spring from one root. Figure 5
shows computers connected using Tree Topology.

Tree topology is a hybrid topology, it is similar to the star topology but

the nodes are connected to the secondary hub, which in turn is
connected to the central hub. In this topology groups of star-configured
networks are connected to a linear bus backbone.

Advantages of Tree Topology

Installation and configuration of network is easy.

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Less expensive when compared to mesh topology.

Faults in the network can be detected traced.

The addition of the secondary hub allows more devices to be

attached to the central hub.

Supports multiple cable types like shielded twisted pair cable,

unshielded twisted pair cable, ordinary telephone cable etc.

Disadvantages of Tree Topology

Failure in the central hub brings the entire network to a halt.

More cabling is required when compared to bus topology because
each node is connected to the central hub.

3.4.5 Mesh Topology

Figure 6: Mesh Topology

Devices are connected with many redundant interconnections between

network nodes. In a well-connected topology, every node has a
connection to every other node in the network. The cable requirements
are high, but there are redundant paths built in. Failure in one of the
computers does not cause the network to break down, as they have
alternative paths to other computers.

Mesh topologies are used in critical connection of host computers

(typically telephone exchanges). Alternate paths allow each computer to
balance the load to other computer systems in the network by using
more than one of the connection paths available. A fully connected mesh
network therefore has n (n-1)/2 physical channels to link n devices. To
accommodate these, every device on the network must have (n-l)
input/output ports.
Advantages of Mesh Topology

Use of dedicated links eliminates traffic problems.

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Failure in one of the computers does not affect the entire

network.

Point-to-point link makes fault isolation easy.

It is robust.

Privacy between computers is maintained as messages travel

along dedicated path.

Disadvantages of Mesh Topology

The amount of cabling required is high.

A large number of I/O (input/output) ports are required.

3.4.6 Cellular Topology

Figure 7: Cellular Topology

Cellular topology, divides the area being serviced into cells. In wireless
media each point transmits in a certain geographical area called a cell,
each cell represents a portion of the total network area. Figure 7 shows
computers using Cellular Topology. Devices that are present within the
cell, communicate through a central hub. Hubs in different cells are
interconnected and hubs are responsible for routing data across the
network. They provide a complete network infrastructure. Cellular
topology is applicable only incase of wireless media that does not
require cable connection.

Advantages of Cellular Topology

If the hubs maintain a point-to-point link with devices, trouble

shooting is easy.

Hub-to-hub fault tracking is more complicated, but allows simple

fault isolation.
Disadvantages of Cellular Topology

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When a hub fails, all devices serviced by the hub lose service (are
affected).

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1) List the importance of using computer networks in Airline and

Railway reservation systems?

2) What are the various types of networks??

3) Compare Tree topology with Star topology.

4) Suppose we have~ to add new nodes to the network, then which

is the best suited topology and why?

3.5 Applications of Network

Computer networks are used as a highly reliable medium for exchange

of information. Using a computer network we can do virtually
everything that a Mainframe or a Minicomputer can do, but at a much
lower cost.

There are numerous applications of computer networks some of them

are:

Share resources and information.

Access to remote information.

Person-to-person communication.

Interactive entertainment.

Share Resources and Information

Using a Computer network we can share expensive resources such as

laser printers, CD-ROM Drives, Fax machines etc. We can share
information and many persons can work together on projects and tasks
that require co-ordination and communication, even though these users
may not be physically close.

Access to Remote Information

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Access to remote information involves interaction between a person and

a remote database. Financial Institutions allow access to their
information so that people can pay their bills, handle their investments
and manage their bank accounts electronically. Online shopping also
allows people, access to product information before purchasing the
product.

These days, many newspapers and digital libraries are available online
and allow users to access news and information which is of interest to
them. Another application is the World Wide Web, which contains
information about a wide variety of subjects like health, sports, science,
recreation, history, government etc.

Person-to-person Communication

Person-to-person communication is mostly carried out using e-mail

(Electronic mail) Electronic mail is a simple, yet potent facility. E-mail
is more valuable and useful than the telephone because by using e-mail
we can convey information that is difficult or impossible to read over
the telephone, like reports, tables, charts, images etc. Using a computer
network, it is also possible to organise virtual meeting among people
who are far away from each other and this is called video conferencing.
Virtual meetings have other applications such as in Distance education,
getting medical opinions from distant specialists (remote diagnosis) etc.
Multimedia communication can also be used for tele training.

Interactive Entertainment

Computer Networks such as Internet offer a wide variety of

entertainment, there are many companies online, which offer video-on-
demand. A large variety of multi-person real-time simulation games,
like hide-and seek in a virtual dungeon and flight simulators with the
players in one team trying to shoot down the players in the opposite
team and many such games are available on-line.

3.6 Networking Model

Most of the networks today are organised as a series of stacked layers

with each layer stacked over another layer below it. This is done in order
to divide the workload and to simplify the systems design. The
architecture is considered scalable if it is able to accommodate a number
of layers in either large or small scales. For example, a computer that
runs an Internet application may require all of the layers that were
defined for the architectural model. Similarly, a computer that acts as a
router may not need all these layers. Systems design is furthermore
simplified because with a layered architecture, the design has to only

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concern the layer in question and not worry about the architecture in a
macro sense.

The depth and functionality of this stack differs from network to

network. However, regardless of the differences among all networks, the
purpose of each layer is to provide certain services (job responsibilities)
to the layer above it, shielding the upper layers from the intricate details
of how the services offered are implemented.

Every computer in a network possesses within it a generic stack. A

logical communication may exist between any two computers through
the layers of the same “level”. Layer-n on one computer may converse
with layer-n on another computer. There are rules and conventions used
in the communication at any given layers, which are known collectively
as the layer-n protocol for the nth layer.

Figure 8: Layered network architecture

Data are not directly transferred from layer-n on one computer to layer-n
on another computer. Rather, each layer passes data and control
information to the layer directly below until the lowest layer is reached.
Below layer-1 (the bottom layer), is the physical medium (the hardware)
through which the actual transaction takes place. In Figure 8 logical
communication is shown by a broken-line arrow and physical
communication by a solid-line arrow.

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Between every pair of adjacent layers is an interface. The interface is a

specification that determines how the data should be passed between the
layers. ]t defines what primitive operations and services the lower layer
should offer to the upper layer. One of the most important
considerations when designing a network is to design clean-cut
interfaces between the layers. To create such an interface between the
layers would require each layer to perform a specific collection of well-
understood functions. A clean-cut interface makes it easier to replace the
implementation of one layer with another implementation because all
that is required of the new implementation is that, it offers, exactly the
same set of services to its neighbouring layer above as the old
implementation did.

3.6.1 OSI References Model

Figure 9: Layers or OSI reference model

The Open System Interconnection (OSI) model is a set of protocols that

attempt to define and standardise the data communications process; we
can say that it is a concept that describes how data communications
should take place.

The OSI model was set by the International Standards Organisation

(ISO) in 1984, and it is now considered the primary architectural model
for inter-computer communications. The OSI model has the support of
most major computer and network vendors, many large customers, and
most governments in different countries.

The Open Systems Interconnection (OS1) reference model describes

how information from a software application in one computer moves
through a network medium to a software application in another
computer. The OSI reference model is a conceptual model composed of
seven layers as shown in Figure 9 each specifying particular network
functions and into these layers are fitted the protocol standards

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developed by the ISO and other standards bodies. The OSI model
divides the tasks involved with moving information between networked
computers into seven smaller, more manageable task groups. A task or
group of tasks is then assigned to each of the seven OSI layers. Each
layer is reasonably self-contained so that the tasks assigned to each layer
can be implemented independently. This enables the solutions offered
by one layer to be updated without affecting the other layers.

The OSI model is modular. Each successive layer of the OSI model
works with the one above and below it.

Although, each layer of the OSI model provides its own set of functions,
it is possible to group the layers into two distinct categories. The first
four layers i.e., physical, data link, network, and transport layer provide
the end-to-end services necessary for the transfer of data between two
systems. These layers pr9.f1de the protocols associated with the
communications network used to link two computers together. Together,
these are communication oriented.

The top three layers i.e., the application, presentation, and session layers
provide the application services required for the exchange of
information. That is, they allow two applications, each running on a
different node of the network to interact with each other through the
services provided by their respective operating systems. Together, these
are data processing oriented.

The following are the seven layers of the Open System Interconnection
(OSI) reference model:

Layer 7 -Application layer

Layer 6 -Presentation layer

Layer 5 -Session layer

Layer 4 -Transport layer

Layer 3 -Network layer

Layer 2 -Data Link layer

Layer I -Physical layer

Application Layer (Layer 7)

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The Application layer is probably the most easily misunderstood layer

of the model. This top layer defines the language and syntax that
programs use to communicate with other programs. The application
layer represents the purpose of communicating in the first place. For
example, a program in a client workstation uses commands to request
data from a program in the server. Common functions at this layer are
opening, closing, reading and writing files, transferring files and e-mail
messages, executing remote jobs and obtaining directory information
about network resources etc.

Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

The Presentation layer performs code conversion and data reformatting

(syntax translation). It is the translator of the network; it makes sure the
data is in the correct form for the receiving application.

When data are transmitted between different types of computer systems,

the presentation layer negotiates and manages the way data are
represented and encoded. For example, it provides a common
denominator between ASCII and EBCDIC machines as well as between
different floating point and binary formats. Sun’s XDR and OSI’s ASN.
1 are two protocols used for this purpose. This layer is also used for
encryption and decryption. It also provides security features through
encryption and decryption.

Session Layer (Layer 5)

The Session layer decides when to turn communication on and off

between two computers. It provides the mechanism that controls the
data-exchange process and coordinates the interaction (communication)
between them in ail orderly manner.

It sets up and clears communication channels between two

communicating components. It determines one-way or two-way
communications and manages the dialogue between both parties; for
example, making sure that the previous request has been fulfilled before
the next one is sent. It also marks significant parts of the transmitted
data with checkpoints to allow for fast recovery in the event of a
connection failure.

Transport Layer (Layer 4)

The transport layer is responsible for overall end-to-end validity and

integrity of the transmission i.e., it ensures that data is successfully sent
and received between two computers. The lower data link layer (layer 2)
is only responsible for delivering packets from one node to another.

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Thus, if a packet gets lost in a router somewhere in the enterprise

Internet, the transport layer will detect that. It ensures that if a 12MB file
is sent, the full 12MB is received.

If data is sent incorrectly, this layer has the responsibility of asking for
retransmission of the data. Specifically, it provides a network-
independent, reliable message-independent, reliable message-
interchange service to the top three application-oriented layers. This
layer acts as an interface between the bottom and top three layers. By
providing the session layer (layer 5) with a reliable message transfer
service, it hides the detailed operation of the underlying network from
the session layer.

Network Layer (Layer 3)

The network layer establishes the route between the sending and
receiving stations. The unit of data at the network layer is called a
packet. It provides network routing and flow and congestion functions
across computer-network interface.

It makes a decision as to where to route the packet based on information

and calculations from other routers, or according to static entries in the
routing table. It examines network addresses in the data instead of
physical addresses seen in the Data Link layer.

The Network layer establishes, maintains, and terminates logical and/or

physical connections.

The network layer is responsible for translating logical addresses, or

names, into physical addresses.

The main device found at the Network layer is a router.

Data link Layer (Layer 2)

The data link layer groups the bits that we see on the Physical layer into
Frames. It is primarily responsible for error-free delivery of data on a
hop. The Data link layer is split into two sub-layers i.e., the Logical
Link Control (LLC) and Media Access Control (MAC).

The Data-Link layer handles the physical transfer, framing (the

assembly of data into a single unit or block), flow control and error-
Control functions (and retransmission in the event of an error) over a
single transmission link; it is responsible for getting the data packaged
and onto the network cable. The data link layer provides the network
layer (layer 3) reliable information-transfer capabilities.

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The main network device found at the Datalink layer is a bridge. This
device works at a higher layer than the repeater and therefore is a more
complex device. It has some understanding of the data it receives and
can make a decision based on the frames it receives as to whether it
needs to let the information pass, or can remove the information from
the network. This means that the amount of traffic on the medium can be
reduced and therefore, the usable bandwidth can be increased.

Physical Layer (Layer 1)

The data units on this layer are called bits. This layer defines the
mechanical and electrical definition of the network medium (cable) and
network hardware. This includes how data is impressed onto the cable
and retrieved from it.

The physical layer is responsible for passing bits onto and receiving
them from the connecting medium. This layer gives the data-link layer
(layer 2) its ability to transport a stream of serial data bits between two
communicating systems; it conveys the bits that moves along the cable.
It is responsible for ensuring that the raw bits get from one place to
another, no matter what shape they are in, and deals with the mechanical
and electrical characteristics of the cable.

This layer has no understanding 01 the meaning of the bits, but deals
with the electrical and mechanical characteristics of the signals and
signalling methods.

The main network device found the Physical layer is a repeater. The
purpose of a repeater (as the name suggests) is simply to receive the
digital signal, reform it, and retransmit the signal. This has the effect of
increasing the maximum length of a network, which would not be
possible due to signal deterioration if, a repeater were not available. The
repeater, simply regenerates cleaner digital signal so it doesn’t have to
understand anything about the information it is transmitting, and
processing on the repeater is non-existent.

An example of the Physical layer is RS-232.

Each layer, with the exception of the physical layer, adds information to
the data as it travels from the Application layer down to the physical
layer. This extra information is called a header. The physical layer does
not append a header to information because it is concerned with sending
and receiving information on the individual bit level.
We see that the data for each layer consists of the header and data of the
next higher layer. Because the data format is different at each layer,

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different terms are commonly used to name the data package at each
level. Figure 10 summarises these terms layer by layer.

Figure 10: Data package names in the OSI reference model

OSI Protocols

The OSI model provides a conceptual framework for communication

between computers, but the model itself is not a method of
communication. Actual communication is made possible by using
communication protocols. In the context of data networking, a protocol
is a formal set of rules and conventions that governs how computers
exchange information over a network medium. A protocol implements
the functions of one or more of the OSI layers. A wide variety of
communication protocols exist, but all tend to fall into one of the
following groups: LAN protocols, WAN protocols, network protocols,
and routing protocols. LAN protocols operate at the network and data
link layers of the OSI model and define communication over the various
LAN media. WAN protocols operate at the lowest three layers of the
OSI model and define communication over the various wide-area media.
Routing protocols are network-layer protocols that are responsible for
path determination and traffic switching. Finally, network protocols are
the various upper-layer protocols that exist in a given protocol suite.

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Figure 11: Working of OSI Reference Model

Information being transferred from a software application in one

computer system to software application in another must pass through
each of the OSI layers. Each layer communicates with three other OSI
layers i.e., the layer directly above it, the layer directly below it, and its
peer layer ill other networked systems. If, for example, in Figure 10, a
software application in System A has information to transmit to a
software application in System B, the application program in System A
will pass its information to the application layer (Layer 7) of System A.
The application layer then passes the information to the presentation
layer (Layer 6); the presentation layer reformats the data if required such
that B can understand it. The formatted data is passed to the session
layer (Layer 5), which in turn requests for connection establishment
between session layers of A and B, it then passes the data to the
transport layer. The transport layer breaks the data into smaller units
called segments and sends them to the Network layer. The Network
layer selects the route for transmission and if, required breaks the data
packets further. These data packets are then sent to the Data link layer
that is responsible for encapsulating the data packets into data frames.
The Data link layer also adds source and destination addresses with
error checks to each frame, for the hop.

The data frames are finally transmitted to the physical layer. In the
physical layer, the data is in the fond of a stream of bits and this is
placed on the physical network medium and is sent across the medium
to System B.

B receives the bits at its physical layer and passes them on to the Data
link layer, which verifies that no error has occurred. The Network layer
ensures that the route selected for transmission is reliable, and passes the

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data to the Transport layer. The function of the Transport layer is to

reassemble the data packets into the file being transferred and then, pass
it on to the session layer. The session layer confirms that the transfer is
complete, and if so, the session is terminated.

The data is then passed to the Presentation layer, which mayor may not
reformat it to suit the environment of B and sends it to the Application
layer. Finally the Application layer of System B passes the information
to the recipient Application program to complete the communication
process.

Interaction between different layers of OSI model

A given layer in the OSI layers generally communicates with three other
OSI layers: the layer directly above it, the layer directly below it, and its
Peer layer in another networked computer system. The data link layer in
System A, for example, communicates with the network layer of System
A, the physical layer of System A, and the data link layer in System B.

Services provided by OSI layers

One OSI layer communicates with another layer to make use of the
services provided by the second layer. The services provided by
adjacent layers help a given OSI layer communicate with its peer layer
in other computer systems. Three basic elements are involved inlayer
services: the service user, the service provider, and the service access
point (SAP).
In this context, the service user is the OSI layer .that requests services
from an adjacent OSI layer. The service provider is the OSI layer that
provides services to service users. OSI layers can provide services to
multiple service users. The SAP is a conceptual location at which one
OSI layer can request the services of another OSI layer.

OSI Model Layers and Information Exchange

The seven OSI layers use various forms of control information to

communicate with their peer layers in other computer systems. This
control information consists of specific requests and instructions that are
exchanged between peer OSI layers.

Control information typically takes one of two forms: headers and

trailers. Headers are prepended to data that has been passed down from
upper layers. Trailers are appended to data that has been passed down
from upper layers.

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Headers, trailers, and data are relative concepts, depending on the layer
that analyses the information unit. At the network layer, an information
unit, for example, consists of a Layer 3 header and data. At the data link
layer, however, all the information passed down by the network layer
(the Layer 3 header and the data) is treated as data. In other words, the
data portion of an information unit at a given OSI layer potentially can
contain headers, trailers, and data from all the higher layers. This is
known as encapsulation.

3.6.2 TCP/IP Reference Model

APPLCIATION LAYER

TRANSPORT LAYER

NETWORK LAYER

LINK/PHYSICAL LAYER

Figure 12: Layers of TCP/IP reference model

TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol I Internet Protocol. It

is a protocol suite used by most communications software. TCP/IP is a
robust and proven technology that was first tested in the early I 980s on
ARPA Net, the U.S. military’s Advanced Research Projects Agency
network, and the world’s first packet-switched network. TCP/IP was
designed as an open protocol that would enable all types of computers to
transmit data to each other via a common communications language.

TCP/IP is a layered protocol similar to the ones used in all the other
major networking architectures, including IBM’s SNA, Windows’
NetBIOS, Apple’s AppleTalk, Novell’s NetWare and Digital’s DECnet.
The different layers of the TCP/IP reference model are shown in Figure
13. Layering means that after an application initiates the
communications, the message (data) to be transmitted is passed through
a number of stages or layers until it actually moves out onto the wire.
The data are packaged with a different header at each layer. At the
receiving end, the corresponding programs at each protocol layer unpack
the data, moving it “back up the stack” to the receiving application.

TCP/IP is composed of two major parts: TCP (Transmission Control

Protocol) at the transport layer and IP (Internet Protocol) at the network
layer. TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that passes its data to IP,
which is a connectionless one. TCP sets up a connection at both ends
and guarantees reliable delivery of the full message sent. TCP tests for
errors and requests retransmission if necessary, because IP does not.

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An alternative protocol to TCP within the TCP/IP suite is UDP (User

Datagram Protocol), which does not guarantee delivery. Like IP, it is
also connectionless, but very useful for real-time voice and video, where
it doesn’t matter if a few packets get lost.

Layers of TCP/IP reference model

Application Layer (Layer 4)

The top layer of the protocol stack is the application layer. It refers to
the programs that initiate communication in the first place. TCP/IP
includes several application layer protocols for mail, file transfer, remote
access, authentication and name resolution. These protocols are
embodied in programs that operate at the top layer just as any custom-
made or packaged client/server application would.

There are many Application Layer protocols and new protocols are
always being developed.

The most widely known Application Layer protocols are those used for
the exchange of user information, some of them are:

The HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used to transfer

files that make up the Web pages of the World Wide Web.

The File Transfer Protocol (FTP) is used for interactive file

transfer.

The Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) is used for the

transfer of mail messages and attachments.

Telnet, is a terminal emulation protocol, and, is used for remote

login to network hosts.

Other Application Layer protocols that help in the management of

TCP/IP networks are:

The Domain Name System (DNS), which, is used to resolve a

host name to an IP address.

The Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP) which is

used between network management consoles and network
devices (routers, bridges, and intelligent hubs) to collect and
exchange network management information.

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

Examples of Application Layer interfaces for TCP/IP applications are

Windows Sockets and NetBIOS. Windows Sockets provides a standard
application-programming interface (API) under the Microsoft Windows
operating system. NetBIOS is an industry standard interface for
accessing protocol services such as sessions, datagrams, and name
resolution.

Transport Layer (Layer 3)

The Transport Layer (also known as the Host-to-Host Transport Layer)

is responsible for providing the Application Layer with session and
datagram communication services.

TCP/IP does not contain Presentation and Session layers, the services
are performed if required, but they are not part of the formal TCP/IP
stack. For example, Layer 6 (Presentation Layer) is where data
conversion (ASCII to EBCDIC, floating point to binary, etc,) and
encryption/decryption is performed, Layer 5 is the Session Layer, which
is performed in layer 4 in TCP/IP, Thus, we jump from layer 7 of OS I
down to layer 4 of TCP/IP.

From Application to Transport Layer, the application delivers its data to

the communications system by passing a Stream of data bytes to the
transport layer along with the socket of the destination machine.

The core protocols of the Transport Layer are TCP and the User
Datagram Protocol (UDP).

TCP: TCP provides a one-to-one, connection-oriented, reliable

communications service. TCP is responsible for the establishment
of a TCP connection, the sequencing and acknowledgment of
packets sent, and the recovery of packets lost during
transmission.

UDP: UDP provides a one-to-one or one-to-many,

connectionless, unreliable communications service. UDP is used
when the amount of data to be transferred is small (such as the
data that would fit into a single packet), when the overhead of
establishing a TCP connection is not desired, or when the
applications or upper layer protocols provide reliable delivery.

The transport Layer encompasses the responsibilities of the OSI

Transport Layer and some of the responsibilities of the OSI Session
Layer.

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

Internet Layer (Layer 2)

The internet layer handles the transfer of information across multiple

networks through the use of gateways and routers. The internet layer
corresponds to the part of the ORI network layer that is concerned with
the transfer of packets between machines that are connected to different
networks. It deals with the routing of packets across these networks as
well as with the control of congestion. A key aspect of the internet layer
is the definition of globally unique addresses for machines that are
attached to the Internet.

The Internet layer provides a single service namely, best-effort

connectionless packet transfer. IP packets are exchanged between
routers without a connection setup; the packets are ‘touted
independently and so they may traverse different paths. For this reason,
IP packets are also called datagrams. The connectionless approach
makes the system robust; that is, if failures occur in the network, the
packets are routed around the points of failure; hence, there is no need to
set up connections, The gateways that interconnect the intermediate
networks may discard packets when congestion occurs. The
responsibility for recovery from these losses is I>assed on to the
Transport Layer, The core protocols of the Internet Layer are IP. ARP,
ICMP, and IGMP.

The Internet Protocol (IP) is a routable protocol responsible for

IP addressing and the fragmentation and reassembly of packets.

The Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is responsible for the

resolution of the Internet Layer address to the Network Interface
Layer address, such as a hardware address.

The Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) is responsible

for providing diagnostic functions and reporting errors or
conditions regarding the delivery of IP packets.

The Internet Group Management Protocol (IGMP) is

responsible for the management of IP multicast groups.

The Internet Layer is analogous to the Network layer of the OSI model.

Link/Physical Layer (Layer I)

The Link/Physical Layer (also called the Network Access Layer) is

responsible for placing TCP/IP packets on the network medium and
receiving TCP/IP packets of the network medium. TCP/IP was designed
to be independent of the network access method, frame format, and

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

medium. In this way, TCP/IP can be used to connect differing network

types. This includes LAN technologies such as Ethernet or Token Ring
and WAN technologies such as X.25 or Frame Relay. Independence
from any specific network technology gives TCP/IP the ability to be
adapted to new technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode
(ATM).

The Network Interface Layer encompasses the Data Link and Physical
layers of the OSI Model. Note, that the Internet Layer does not take
advantage of sequencing and acknowledgement services that may be
present in the Data Link Layer. An unreliable Network Interface Layer
is assumed, and reliable communications through session establishment
and the sequencing and acknowledgement of packets is the
responsibility of the Transport Layer.

Comparison between OSI and TCP/IP reference model

Both OSI and TCP/IP reference models are based on the concept of a
stack of protocols. The functionality of the layers is almost similar. In
both models the layers are there to provide an end-to-end network-
independent transport service to processes wishing to communicate with
each other.

The Two models have many differences. An obvious difference between

the two models is the number of layers: the OSI model has seven layers
and the TCP/IP has .four layers. Both have (inter) network, transport,
and application layers, but the other layers are different. OSI uses strict
layering, resulting in vertical layers whereas TCP/IP uses loose layering
resulting in horizontal layers. The OSI model supports both connection

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less and connection-oriented communication in the network layer, but

only connection-oriented communication at the transport layer. The
TCP/IP model has only one mode in network layer (connectionless), but
supports both modes in the transport layer. With the TCP/IP model,
replacing IP by a substantially different protocol would be virtually
impossible, thus, defeating one of the main purposes of having layered
protocols in the first place.

The OSI reference model was devised before the OSI protocols were
designed. The OSI model was not biased toward one particular set of
protocols, which made it quite general. The drawback of this ordering is
that the designers did not have much experience with the subject, and
did not have a good idea of the type of functionality to put in a layer.
With TCP/IP the reverse was true: the protocols carne first and the
model was really just a description of the existing protocols. There was
no problem with the protocols fitting the model. The only drawback was
that the model did not fit any other protocol stacks.

Figure 14 summarises the basic differences between OSI and TCP/IP

reference models.

Some of the drawbacks of OS I reference model are:

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

All layers are not roughly, of equal size and complexity. In

practise, the session layer and presentation layer are absent from
many existing architectures.

Some functions like addressing, flow control, retransmission are

duplicated at each layer, resulting in deteriorated performance.

The initial specification of the OSI model ignored the

connectionless model, thus, leaving much of the LANs behind.

Some of the drawbacks of TCP/IP model are:

TCP/IP model does not clearly distinguish between the concepts

of service, interface, and protocol.

TCP/IP model is not a general model and therefore it cannot be

used to describe any protocol other than TCP/IP.

TCP/IP model does not distinguish or even mention the Physical

or the Data link layer. A proper model should include both these
layers as separate.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 3

1) Give two reasons for using layered protocols.

2) Explain the OSI reference model in detail.
3) Explain the TCP/IP reference mode! in detail.
4) Bring out the differences between TCP and UDP.

3.7 Network Architecture

Depending on the architecture used Networks can be classified as

Client/Server or Peer-to-Peer Networks.

1.8.1 Client/Server Architecture

Figure 15: Client/Server Architecture

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

Client/Server Architecture is one in which the client (personal computer

or workstation) is the requesting machine and the server is the supplying
machine, both of which are connected via a local area network (LAN) or
wide area network (WAN). Since the early 1990s, client/server has been
the buzzword for building applications on LANs in contrast to
centralised minis and mainframes with dedicated terminals. A
client/server network is called Centralised or Server based network.
Figure 15 shows the arrangement of computers in the client/server
environment.

The client contains the user interface and may perform some or all of the
application processing. Servers can be high-speed microcomputers,
minicomputers or even mainframes. A database server maintains the
databases and processes requests from the client to extract data from or
update the database. An application server provides additional business
processing for the clients.

The term client/server is sometimes used to contrast a peer-to-peer

network, in which any client can also act as a server. In that case, a
client/server entails having a dedicated server.
However, client/server architecture means more than dedicated servers.
Simply downloading files from or sharing programs and databases on a
server is not true client/server either. True client/server implies that the
application was originally designed to run on a network and that the
network infrastructure provides the same quality of service as traditional
mini and mainframe information systems. Figure 15 shows the
arrangement of computers in the Client/Server system.

The network operating system (NOS) together with the database

management system (DBMS) and transaction monitor (TP monitor) are
responsible for integrity and security of these types of networks. Some
of these products have gone through many client/server versions by now
and have finally reached industrial strength.

Non-client/server

In non-client/server architecture, the server is nothing more than a

remote disk drive. The user’s machine does all the processing. If, many
users routinely perform lengthy searches, this can bog down the
network, because each client has to pass the entire database over the net.
At 1,000 bytes per record, a 10,000 record database requires 10MB of
data be transmitted.

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

Two-tier client/server

Two-tier client/server is really the foundation of client/server. The

database processing is done in the server. An SQL request is generated
in the client and transmitted to the server. The DBMS searches locally
and returns only matching records. If 50 records met the criteria only
50K would be transmitted. This reduces traffic in the LAN.

Three-tier client/server

Many applications lend themselves to centralised processing. If, they

contain proprietary algorithms, security is improved. Upgrading is also
simpler. Sometimes, programs are just too demanding to be placed into
every client PC. In three-tier client/server, application processing is
performed in one or more servers.

3.7.2 Peer-to-Peer Architecture

Figure 16: Peer-to-peer architecture

A type of network in which each workstation h$ equal capabilities and

responsibilities is called peer-to-peer network. Figure 16 shows the
arrangement of computers in a peer-to-peer environment. Here etch
workstation acts as both a client and a server. There is no central
repository for information and there is no central server to maintain.
Data and resources are distributed throughout the network, and each
user is responsible for sharing data and resources connected to their
system. This differs from client/server architectures, in which some
computers are dedicated to serving the others. Peer-to-peer networks are
genenlly simpler and less expensive, but they usually do not offer the
same performance under heavy loads. A peer-to-peer network is also
known as a Distributed network.

3.8 Example Networks

Nowadays, as computers are extensively used in almost every field, we

have many different types of networks. Some of them are public
networks, research networks, and co-operative networks, commercial or
corporate networks. We can distinguish between different networks on
the basis of their history, administration, facilities offered, technical

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

design and the people who use them user communities). Here we shall
discuss some of the popular networks, such as, Novell NetWare,
ARPANET, Internet, ATM network etc.

3.8.1 Novell Netware

Novell NetWare is the most popular network system in the PC world.

Novell NetWare contains the protocols that are necessary to allow
communication between different types of PC’s and devices. There are
several versions of NetWare. The earlier versions NetWare 286 version
2.X was written to run on 286 machines. NetWare 386 versions 3.X
were written to run on 386 and 486 machines. The most recent version
NetWare 4.X can probably run on almost any type of machine.

Novell Networks are based on the client/server model in which at least

one computer functions as a network file server, which runs all of the
NetWare protocols and maintains the networks shared data on one or
more disk drives. File servers generally allow users on other PC’s to
access application software or data files i.e., it provides services to other
network computers called clients.

There are two types of file servers:

Dedicated file servers.

Non-dedicated file servers.

Dedicated File Servers

Dedicated file server runs only NetWare and do not run any other
software, such as Windows application. Dedicated file servers are
mostly used in large networks, because, in large networks, one extra
client is less significant and a dedicated server can handle a larger
number of requests more efficiently. In large networks security is one of
the major concerns 3J1d providing a clear distinction between client and
server hardware provides greater security.
Non-dedicated File Server

Non-dedicated file server can run both applications and NetWare. It is

useful in small networks because it allows the server to also act as a
client and thus, increase the number of clients in the network by one.

There are many other servers within a Novell NetWare such as, Print
server, Message server, Database server etc.

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

Print server

The job of the Print server is to allow users to access shared printers. A
Print server manages both requests and printers.

Message server: The job of the Message server is to transfer email

messages between a client’s PC and a user’s mailbox.

Database server: A database server manages database files i.e., it adds,

deletes and modifies records in the database; queries the database and
generates the result required by the client; and transmits the results back
to the client.

Figure 17: The Novell NetWare reference model

NetWare uses a proprietary protocol stack as shown in Figure 17. This

model is based on the old Xerox Network System, XNSTM but with a
lot of modifications.

The Physical and Data link layers CI m be chosen from various

standards that are available, such as, the Ethernet, IBM Token ring,
ARCnet.

The Network layer runs an unreliable connectionless internet work

protocol called Internet Packet eXchange (IPX). The IPX passes packets
transparently from the source to the destination, even if the source and
destination are on different networks. The functioning of IPX is similar
to IP, except that IPX usesl2 byte addresses instead of 4 byte addresses.

The Transport layer contains a connection oriented transport protocol

called NCP (Network Core Protocol). NCP is the heart of Net Ware and
provides various other services besides user data transport. It defines the
type of requests that can be made and how the server responds to the
request it eventually receives. The other protocol that is available in the
transport layer is SPX (Sequenced Packet eXchange); which provides
only transport. TCP is another option. Applications can choose anyone
of them, for example, Lotus notes use SPX and File systems uses NCP.

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

Here, the Session and Presentation layers do not exist. The Application
layer contains various application protocols like SAP, File server etc.

3.8.2 Arpanet

ARPANET stands for Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA)

Network. The network was developed in 1969 by ARPA and funded by
the Department of Defence (000). In the mid-1960s at the height of the
cold war, the DoD wanted a command and control network, which could
survive the nuclear war. The traditional circuit switched telephone
networks were considered too vulnerable, since the loss of one line
would certainly terminate all conversations using them and might even
partition the network.

The network (ARPANET) was chiefly experimental, and was used to

research, develop and test networking technologies. The original
network connected four host computers at four separate universities
throughout the United States, enabling users to share resources and
information. By 1972, there were 37 host computers connected to
ARPANET. Also in that year, ARPA’s name was changed to DARPA
(Defence Advanced Research Projects Agency). In 1973, ARPANET
went beyond the boundaries of the United States by making its first
international connection to England and Norway. One goal of
ARPANET was to devise a network that would still be operational, even
if, part of the network failed. The research in this area resulted in a set of
networking rules or protocols, called TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol).

TCP/IP is a set of protocols that govern how data is transmitted across

networks. It also enables different types of computer operating systems
such as DOS and UNIX to share data across a network.

ARPANET functioned as a “backbone” network allowing smaller local

networks to connect to the backbone.

Once these smaller networks were connected to the backbone, they were
in effect connected to each other.

In 1983, DARPA decided that TCP/IP would be the standard set of

protocols used by computers connecting to ARPANET. This meant that
any smaller networks (for example, a university network) that wanted to
connect to ARPANET also had to use TCP/IP. TCP/IP was available for
free and was increasingly used by networks. The spread of TCP/IP
helped create the Internet, as we know it today, which is the network of
networks that either use the TCP/IP protocols, or can interact with
TCP/IP networks.

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ARPANET continued to grow, encompassing many networks from

universities and government institutions. To help manage this rapidly
growing “network of networks”, ARPANET was split into two networks
in 1983:

ARPANET continued to be a research and development network.

MILNET an unclassified network reserved only for military sites.

MILNET continues to serve this function.

In 1986, a faster backbone network called the NSFNET (National

Science Foundation Network) was created. By 1989, there were over
10,000 host computers connected to the Internet.

Because of the success of the NSFNET, plans were made to phase out
ARPANET. Many of the sites connected to ARPANET were absorbed
by the NSFNE’t and in 1990 ARPANET was officially dissolved.

3.8.3 Internet

When ARPANET and NSFNET were interconnected the number of

networks, machines and users grew exponentially, many regional
networks joined up and connections were made across many countries.

The internet is said to have been “officially” born around 1982 when the
different networks (BITNET, EARN, etc.) agreed on using the TCP/IP
protocol as a standard for their interconnections making it a network of
networks and overcoming some of the previous cacophony of standards,
protocols and increasing its coverage.

The word Internet was coined from the words “interconnection” and
“network”, Now Internet is the world’s largest computer network. It is
considered to be the network of networks, and is scattered allover the
world. The computers connected to the Internet may communicate with
each other using fiber optic cables, telephone lines, satellite links and
other media.

The development of Internet is coordinated by a non-profit organisation

called the Internet Society (ISOC). Its aim is to spread the use of
Internet, keep statistics of its use, helpless developed countries in
building their infrastructure and Internet-technology. The Internet
Architecture Board (lAB), plans long term trends and keeps a record of
the RFC (Request for Comments) documents on various technical
solutions and protocols used in Internet. The development is also steered
by the IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force), which has several sub-
groups for handling various problems and planning new standards etc.

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

The rapid growth of Internet may also be due to several important

factors:

1) Easy-to-use software -graphical browsers

2) Improved telecommunications connections
3) Rapid spread of automatic data processing, including electronic
mail, bank transfers, etc.
4) The Information Superhighway projects.

The Internet Society maintains a list of Internet service providers

providing connections allover the world. There is one “universal” aspect
of all computers connect to the Internet i.e., they all run the TCP/IP
family of protocols.

The Internet Protocol (IP) gives the physical 32-bit address, which
uniquely identifies an individual computer connected to the Internet,
while Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented
protocol, which takes care of the delivery and order of the packages.
TCP also provides the port numbers for individual services within a
computer.

The major information services provided by the Internet are (with the
protocol in parentheses): electronic mail (SMTP), remote file copying
(FTP), remote login, terminal connections (TELNET), menu-based file
access (GOPHER), wide area information servers (W AIS, Z39.50), the
World Wide Web (HlTP), and the Packet Internet Groper (PING).

There are three major ways to connect your computer to the Internet:

dial up modem access to a computer connected to Internet,

dial-up networking, and
leased lines (usually from a local telephone company).

Switched Dial-Up Lines

The most common circuit provided by public communication carriers

are dial-up telephone circuits. Subscribers send routing information i.e.,
the dialled number to the network, which connects them to the receiver,
then follow this with the information (speech).

Switched circuits are not permanent. They exist only for the duration of
the connection and are switched by the public network (it connects the
circuits). Switched dial-up lines are not generally suited to data
transmission, but are used heavily for some types of services (e.g.,
Bulletin Boards). Using a modem, a user can use their phone line to dial
up a network provider via the phone line and connect to the Internet. At
present speeds upto 56Kbps are possible over standard dial up telephone
circuits.

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Leased Lines

A leased line is a permanent non-switched end-to-end connection. Data

is sent from one end to the other. It is not required to send routing
information along with the data. Leased lines provide an instant
guaranteed method of delivery. They are suited to high volume, high
speed data requirements. The cost of the line (which is leased per
month), is offset against that of toll or other rental charges. In addition,
the leased line offers a significantly higher data transmission rate than
the datel circuit.
Very high speeds can be achieved on leased lines. The cost varies, and
goes up according to the capacity (speed in bits per second) that the
customer requires.

Working of the Web

Figure 18: Working of internet

The Web physically consists of your personal computer, web browser

software, a connection to an Internet service provider, computers called
servers that host digital data and routers and switches to direct the flow
of information.

The Web is known as a client-server system. Here, the Users computer

is the client, and the remote computer that stores electronic files is the
server.

The working of the Web can be explained by the following example:

Let’s say you want to pay a visit to the IGNOU’s website. First, you
enter the address or URL of the website in your web browser (more
about this in a while). Then your browser requests the web page from
the web server. The IGNOU’s server sends the data over the Internet to
your computer. Your web browser interprets the data and displays it on
your computer screen.

The glue that holds the Web together is called hypertext and hyperlinks.
This feature allows electronic files on the Web to be linked so that you
can easily jump between them. On the Web you can navigate through

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pages of information based on what interests you at that particular

moment. This is commonly known as browsing or surfing the Net.

To access the Web you need software such as Netscape Navigator or

Microsoft Internet Explorer. These are known as web browsers. Web
pages are written in a computer language called HTML, which stands
for Hypertext Markup Language.

3.8.4 ATM Network

Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is a network technology adopted

by the telecommunication sector. It is a high-performance, cell-oriented
switching and multiplexing technology that utilises fixed-length packets
to carry different types of traffic. The data transfer takes place in the
form of cells or packets of a fixed size (53 bytes). The cell used with
ATM is relatively small compared to units used with older technologies.
The small constant cell size allows ATM equipment to transmit video,
audio, and computer data over the same network, and assures that no
single type of data hogs the line.

ATM technology is used for both local and wide area networks (LANs
and WANs) that support real-time voice and video as well as data. The
topology uses switches that establish a logical circuit from end to end,
which guarantees quality of service (QoS). However, unlike telephone
switches that dedicate circuits end-to-end, unused bandwidth in ATM’s
logical circuits can be utilised when needed. For example, idle
bandwidth in a videoconference circuit can be used to transfer data.

ATM is widely used as a backbone technology in carrier networks and

large enterprises, but never became popular as a local network (LAN)
topology. A TM is highly scalable and supports transmission speeds of
1.5, 25, 100, 155, 622, 2488 and 9953 Mbps. ATM is also running as
slow as 9.6 Kbps between ships at sea. An ATM switch can be added
into the middle of a switch fabric to enhance total capacity, and the new
switch is automatically updated using ATM’s PNNI routing protocol.

One of the important features of ATM is its ability to specify Quality of

Service (QoS), allowing video and voice to be transmitted smoothly. It
provides the following levels of service:

Constant Bit Rate (CBR) guarantees bandwidth for realtime voice

and video.
Realtime variable Bit Rate (rt-VBR) supports interactive
multimedia that requires minimal delays.
Non-realtime variable bit rate (nrt- VBR) is used for bursty
transaction traffic.

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Available Bit Rate (ABR) adjusts bandwidth according to

congestion levels for LAN traffic.
Unspecified Bit Rate (UBR) provides the best effort for non-
critical data such as file transfers.

Advantages of ATM

Flexible bandwidth allocation.

Simple routing due to connection oriented technology.
High bandwidth utilisation due to statistical multiplexing.
Potential QOS (Quality Of Service) guarantees.

Disadvantages of ATM

Overhead of cell header (5 bytes per cell).

Complex mechanisms for achieving Quality of Service.
Congestion may cause cell losses.
It is costly compared to IP.

3.9 Types of Computer Networks

Computer Networks are mostly classified on the basis of the

geographical area that the network covers, the topology used, the
transmission media used and the computing model used.

Based on the geographical area covered the networks may be LAN,

MAN, WAN.

1.9.1 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

Figure 19: Metropolitan .re. network

MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)

Metropolitan Area Network is a Computer network designed for a town

or city as shown in Figure /9. In terms of geographic area MAN’s are

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CIT 852 DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORK

larger than local-area networks (LANs), but smaller than wide-area

networks (WANs). MAN’s are usually characterised by very high-speed
connections using fiber optical cable or other digital media.

The Typical Characteristics of a MAN are:

Confined to a larger area than a LAN and can range from 10km
to a few 100km in length.
Slower than a LAN but faster than a WAN.
Operates at a speed of 1.5 to 150 Mbps.
Expensive equipment.
Moderate error rates.

3.9.2 Wide Area Network (WAN)

Figure 20: Wide area network

WAN (Wide Area Network)

Wide Area Network is a computer network that spans a relatively large

geographical area. Typically, a WAN consists of two or more local-area
networks (LANs), which are depicted, in Figure 20. They can connect
networks across cities, states or even countries.

Computers connected to a wide-area network are often connected

through public networks, such as the telephone system. They can also be
connected through leased lines or satellites.

The Typical characteristics of a WAN are:

A WAN can range from 100krn to 1000krn and the speed

between cities can vary forml.5 Mbps to 2.4 Gbps.

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WAN supports large number of computers and multiple host

machines.
Various segments of network are interconnected using
sophisticated support devices like routers and gateways.
Usually the speed is much slower than LAN speed.
Highest possible error rate compared to LAN & MAN.

3.9.3 Comparison between LAN, MAN, WAN and GAN

NETWORK SIZE TRANSMISSION MAXIMUM

MEDIA DISTANCE
Local Area Confined to Cable used Covers up to
Network building or 10km
campus
Metropolitan Network Different hardware Covers the area
Area Network confined to & transmission of a city or
city or town media are used town
Wide Area Larger than Telephone lines, Covers a
Network MAN radio waves, number of
leased lines or cities or
satellites. countries

Figure 21: Comparison between different types of networks.

3.10 Advantages of Networks

Computers in a networked environment provide numerous advantages

when compared to computers in a stand alone environment. The
immense benefits that the computer networks provide are in the form of
excellent sharing of computational resources, computational load,
increased level of reliability, economy and efficient person-to-person
communication.

Following are some of the major advantages of using computer

networks.

Resource Sharing

The main aim of a computer network is to make all programs,

equipment, and data available to anyone on the network without regard
to the physical location of the resource and the user. Users need to share
resources other than files, as well. A common example being printers.
Printers are utilised only a small percentage of the time; therefore,
companies don’t want to invest in a printer for each computer. Networks
can be used in this situation to allow all the users to have access to any
of the available printers.

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High Reliability

Computer networks provide high reliability by having alternative

sources of supply. For example, all files could be replicated on two or
three machines, so, if one of them is unavailable (due to hardware
failure), the other copies could be used. In addition, the presence of
multiple CPUs means that if one goes down, the others may be able to
take over its work, although at reduced performance. For military,
banking, air traffic control, nuclear reactor safety, and many other
applications, the ability to continue operating in the face of hardware
problems is of utmost importance.

Saving Money

Small computers have a much better price/performance ratio than larger

ones. Mainframes are roughly a factor of ton faster than personal
computers but they cost much more. This imbalance has caused many
systems designers to build systems consisting of personal computers,
one per user, with data kept on one or more shared file server machines.
In this model, the users are called clients, and the whole arrangement is
called the client-server model.

Scalability

The ability to increase the system performance gradually as the

workload grows just by adding more processors. With centralised
mainframes, when a system is full, it must be replaced by a larger one,
usually at great expense and even greater disruption to the users. With
client-server model, new clients and new servers can be added when
needed.

Communication Medium

A computer network can provide a powerful communication medium

among widely separated users. Using a computer network it is easy for
two pr more people who are working on the same project and who live
far apart to write a report together. When one worker, makes a change to
an on-line document, the others can see the change immediately, instead
of waiting several days for a letter. Such a speedup makes cooperation
among far-flung groups of people easy whereas previously it was
impossible.

Increased Productivity

Networks increase productivity as several people can enter data at the

same time, but they can also evaluate and process the shared data. So,

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one person can handle accounts receivable, and someone else processes
the profit-and-loss statements.

1) Briefly describe about NCP and IPX of Novell NetWare

reference model.
2) List the basic components (equipments) in order to connect a
computer to the Internet. I
3) What are advantages of having~ma11 fixed size cells in A TM?

4.0 CONCLUSION

In this introductory unit, you have learnt about the basic concepts of
Computer Networks. You have not only learnt about Networks, but also
about the different types of Networks, their applications, Network
Topology Network protocols, OST reference mode and the TCP/IP
reference model which is the most commonly used on the Internet today.
Also, the importance of the network protocols and the importance of
using networked system have been extensively discussed.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit we have learnt about the basic concepts of Networking. Here
we discussed the different types of networks and the difference between
them. Computer networks are basically classified as LAN, MAN, WAN
depending on the geographical distance covered and depending on the
various ways of interconnecting computers in a network (network
topology) like Star, Bus, Ring, Tree, Mesh and cellular topologies.

We have seen the immense benefits that the computer networks provide
in the form of excellent sharing of computational resources,
computational load, increased level of reliability, economy and efficient
person-to-person communication. Here we have briefly explained some
of the network protocols which define a common set of rules and signals
that computers on the network use to communicate with each other.

Standard network architecture is required for meaningful

communication between end systems. We have discussed the two most
widely used reference models i.e., the OSI reference model and the
TCP/IP reference model. Nowadays, we come across different types of
networks like Public networks, Research networks, Co-operative
networks, Commercial networks etc. and we have learnt about some of
the popular networks such as Novell NetWare, ARPANET, Internet,
ATM network. Towards the end of this unit the concept of delays was
also introduced.

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6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1) Briefly describe about NCP and IPX of Novell NetWare

reference model.
2) List the basic components (equipments) in order to connect a
computer to the Internet.
3) What are advantages of having small fixed size cells in ATM?

7.0 REFERENCE/FURTHER READINGS

Andrew S. Tenenbaum, Computer Networks, PHI, New Delhi.

William Stalling, Data and Computer Communication, PHI, New Delhi

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UNIT 2 DATA TRANSMISSION

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Data Communication Terminology
3.1.1 Channel
3.1.2 Baud
3.1.3 Bandwidth
3.1.4 Frequency
3.2 Modes of Data Transmission
3.2.1 Serial and Parallel Communication
3.2.2 Synchronous, Asynchronous and Isochronous
Communication
3.2.3 Simplex, Half Duplex and Full Duplex
Communication
3.3 Analog and Digital Data Transmission
3.4 Transmission Impairments
3.4.1 Attenuation
3.4.2 Delay Distortion
3.4.3 Noise
3.4.4 Concept of Delays
3.5 Transmission Media and its Characteristics
3.5.1 Magnetic media
3.5.2 Twisted Pair
3.5.3 Baseband Coaxial Cable
3.5.4 Broadband Coaxial Cable
3.5.5 Optical Fiber
3.5.6 Comparison between Optical Fiber and Copper
wire
3.6 Wireless Transmission
3.6.2 Microwave Transmission
3.6.2 Radio Transmission
3.6.3 Infrared and Millimeter Waves
3.7 Wireless LAN
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

Communication from a source to a destination, that is, from one

computer to another or from one device to another, involves the transfer

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of information from the sender to the receiver. The transfer of data from
one machine to another machine such that, the sender and the receiver
both interpret the data correctly is known as Data Communication.

All communication between devices requires that the devices agree on

the format of the data. The set of rules defining a format is known as a
protocol. At the very least, a communications protocol must define the
following:

1. Transmission media used.

2. Rate of transmission (in baud or bps).
3. Whether transmission is to be synchronous or asynchronous.
4. Whether data is to be transmitted in half-duplex or full-duplex mode.

In order to understand this we need to learn about some of the basic

concepts and terminologies related to data transmission, which we will
be doing in this unit.

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you should be able to:

understand the concept of Transmission terminology

differentiate between Serial and Parallel communication
differentiate between Analog and Digital Data Transmission
have a broad idea about the different Transmission Impairments
compare the different Transmission Media and their characteristics
understand Wireless Transmission and realise its importance.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Data Communication Terminology

The transfer of data from one machine to another machine such that, the
sender and the receiver both interpret the data correctly is known as
Data Communication.

3.1.1 Channel

In communications, the term channel refers to a path of communications

between two computers or devices. A communication channel provides
everything that is needed for the transfer of electronic information from
one location to another. It may refer to the physical medium, such as
coaxial cable, or to a specific carrier frequency (sub-channel) within a
larger channel or a wireless medium.

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The channel capacity of a transmission system is the maximum rate at

which information can be transferred reliably over a given period of
time. Two basic types of channels that are used in voice and data
communication are Analog and Digital.

The Analog type of channel transmits signals generally using sinusoidal

waves as shown in Figure 6. Non-sinusoidal waves can also be used for
transmission. The commercial radio station and Public telephone system
are examples of this type. The Digital type of channel transmits pulsed
wave signals, such as, those shown in Figure 7.

3.1.2 Baud

Pronounced bawd, Baud is the number of signaling elements that occur

each second. The term is named after J.M.E. Baudot, the inventor of
the Baudot telegraph code.

At slow speeds, only one bit of information (signaling element) is

encoded in each electrical change. The baud, therefore, indicates the
number of bits per second that are transmitted. For example, 300 baud
means that 300 bits are transmitted each second (abbreviated 300 bps).
Assuming asynchronous communication, which requires 10 bits per
character, this translates in to 30 characters per second (cps). For slow
rates (below 1,200 baud), you can divide the baud by 10 to see how
many characters per second are sent.

At higher speeds, it is possible to encode more than one bit in each

electrical change. 4,800 baud may allow 9,600 bits to be sent each
second. At high data transfer speeds; therefore, data transmission rates
are usually expressed in bits per second (bps) rather than baud. For
example, a 9,600 bps modem may operate at only 2,400 baud.

3.1.3 Bandwidth

The amount of data or signals that the transmission media can carry in a
fixed amount of time is called Bandwidth. The Bandwidth depends upon
the length, media and signaling technique used. A high bandwidth
allows increased throughput and better performance. A medium that has
a high capacity has a high bandwidth. A medium that has limited
capacity has a low bandwidth. It is calculated using the difference
between the highest and the lowest frequencies that the medium can
carry. For digital devices, the bandwidth is usually expressed in bits per
second (bps) or bytes per second. For analog devices, the bandwidth is
expressed in cycles per second, or Hertz (Hz).

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Bandwidth is particularly important for 1/0 devices. For example, a fast

disk drive can be hampered by a bus with a low bandwidth.

3.1.4 Frequency

Frequency is the number of cycles or periods a signal completes within

one second. The unit of measuring frequency is called Hertz named after
a German mathematician Heinrich Hertz. One Hz is one cycle/second.
We use one Kilohertz or one kHz to mean 1000Hz and one Mega hertz
or one MHz to mean 1000 kHz or 1000000Hz.

3.2 Modes of Data Transmission

Data can be transmitted from Source to Destination in a number of

ways. The different modes of data transmission will be outlined as
follows:

Parallel and Serial Communication.

Asynchronous, Synchronous and Isochronous Communication.
Simplex, Half duplex and Full duplex Communication.

3.2.1 Serial and Parallel Communication

There is always a need to exchange commands, data and other control

information between two communicating devices. There are mainly two
options for transmitting data, commands and other control information
from the sender to the receiver. These are:

Serial communication.
Parallel communication.

Serial Communication

In Serial data transmission, bits are transmitted serially, one after the
other, as shown in Figure J. The least significant bit (LSB) is usually
transmitted first. While sending data serially, characters or bytes have to

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be separated and sent bit by bit. Thus, some hardware is required to

convert the data from parallel to serial. At the destination, all the bits are
collected, measured and put together as bytes in the memory of the
destination. This requires conversion from serial to parallel.

As compared to parallel transmission, serial transmission requires only

one circuit interconnecting the two devices. Therefore, serial
transmission is suitable for transmission over long distances.

Parallel Communication

Figure 2: Parallel Data Transmission

In Parallel transmission, all the bits of a byte are transmitted

simultaneously on separate wires as shown in the Figure 2. Here,
multiple connections between the two devices are therefore, required.
This is a very fast method of transmitting data from one place to
another.

The disadvantage of Parallel transmission is that it is very expensive, as

it requires several wires for both sending, as well as receiving
equipment. Secondly, it demands extraordinary accuracy that cannot be
guaranteed over long distances.

3.2.2 Asynchronous, Synchronous and Isochronous

Communication

One of the major difficulties in data transmission is that of

synchronising the receiver (destination) with the sender (source). This is
the main problem with serial communication. The receiver must be able
to detect the beginning of each new character in the bit stream that is
being presented to it and if it is not able to achieve this, it will not be
able to interpret the incoming bit stream correctly.

The three mechanisms used for synchronisation are:

Asynchronous Communication

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Synchronous Communication
Isochronous Communication

Asynchronous Communication

Asynchronous communication sends individual characters one at a time

framed by a start bit and I or 2 stop bits. Each frame begins with a start
bit that enables the receiving device to adjust to the timing of the
transmitted signal. The message can begin at any time. Here, messages
are kept as short as possible because, the sending and receiving devices
should not draft out of synchronisation, when the message is being
transferred. Asynchronous communication is most frequently used to
transmit character data and is ideally suited for characters that are
transmitted at irregular intervals, such as, when users are typing in
character data from the keyboard.

A typical frame used to transmit a character data has four components:

1) A start bit: Signals the starting a frame and enables the receiving
device to synchronise itself with the message.

2) Data Bits: Consists of 7 or 8 bits when character data is being

transmitted.

3) Parity Bits: Optionally used as a crude method for detecting

transmission errors.

4) A stop bit or bits: Signals the end of the data frame.

Error detection in asynchronous transmission makes use of the parity bit

Parity techniques can detect errors that affect only one bit and if two or
more bits are affected by errors, the parity techniques may not be able to
detect them.

Advantages of Asynchronous Communication

Asynchronous transmission is simple, inexpensive and is ideally

suited for transmitting small frames at irregular intervals (e.g.,
Data entry from a keyboard).

As each individual character is complete in itself, if a character is

corrupted during transmission, its successor and predecessor will
not be affected.
Disadvantages of Asynchronous Communication

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As start, stop and parity bits must be added to each character that
is to be transmitted, this adds a high overhead to transmission.
This wastes the bandwidth; as a result, asynchronous
transmission is undesirable for transmitting large amounts of
data.

Successful transmission inevitably depends on the recognition of

the start bits, hence, as these bits can be easily missed or
occasionally spurious, as start bits can be generated by line
interference, the transmission may be unsuccessful.

Due to the effects of distortion the speed of asynchronous

transmission is limited.

Synchronous Communication

In synchronous communication the whole block of data bits is

transferred at once, instead of one character at a time. Here, transmission
begins at a predetermined regular time instant. A sync signal is used to
tell the receiving station that a new frame is arriving and to synchronise
the receiving station.

Sync signals, generally utilise a bit pattern that cannot appear elsewhere
in the messages, ensuring that they will always be distinct and easy for
the receiver to recognise. As the transmitter and receiver remain in
synchronisation for the duration of the transmission, frames can be of
longer length.

As frames are longer the parity method of error detection is not suitable
because, if multiple bits are affected, then, the parity technique will not
report error accurately. Hence, the technique used with synchronous
transmission is the Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC).

The transmitter uses an algorithm to calculate a CRC value that

summarises the entire value of data bits. This CRC value is appended to
the data frame. The receiver uses the same algorithm, recalculates the
CRC and compares the CRC in the frame to the value that it has
calculated. If these values match then, it is sure that the frame was
transmitted without error.

An end bit pattern indicates the end of the frame. Like sync the bit
pattern for end is such that, it will not appear elsewhere in the messages,
ensuring that they will always be distinct and easy for the receiver to
recognise at the end of the frame.

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Serial synchronous transmission is used for high-speed communication

between computers. It is used when high volull1es of data are to be
transmitted.

Advantages of Synchronous Communication

Synchronous transmission is more efficient because, only 4

additional bytes (for start and end frames).are required to transmit
up to 64 k bits.
Synchronous transmission is not really prone to distortion, as a
result, it can be used at high- speeds.

Disadvantages of Synchronous Communication

Synchronous transmission is expensive as complex circuitry is

required and it is difficult to implement.
If an error occurs during transmission, rather than just a single
character the whole block of data is lost.
The sender cannot transmit characters simply, as they occur, but
has to store them until it has built up a block. Thus, this is not
suitable where characters are generated at irregular intervals.

Isochronous Communication

This method combines the approaches of asynchronous and synchronous

cornrnunications. As in the asynchronous method, each character has
both the start and stop bits. The idle period (where no transmission takes
place) between the two characters is not random but an exact multiple of
one character time interval. If, the time to transmit a character (Including
its parity, start, stop bits) is t, the time interval between characters
cannot be random as in the asynchronous method. It is also not 0 as in
the synchronous method. It has to be t, 2t, 3t……….nt where n is any
positive integer. Here, the signal is expected to be received within
certain delay bounds say Tmin to Tmax.

Advantages of Isochronous Communication

Isochronous transmission guarantees transmission rates, and it is

almost deterministic.
It has low overheads.
It has high speed.

Disadvantages of Isochronous Communication

In isochronous transmission its necessary to ensure that the

clocking device is fault tolerant.

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3.2.3 Simplex, Half Duplex and Full Duplex Communication

This classification of data transmission is based on the question of,

communication can send data and at what point of time.

The three basic ways in which this can be done are:

Simplex.
Half Duplex
Full Duplex, sometimes called Duplex.

Simplex

Figure 3: Simplex connection

The simplest signal flow technique is the simplex configuration. In

Simplex transmission, one of the communicating devices can only send
data, whereas the other can only receive it. Here, communication is only
in one direction (unidirectional) where one party is the transmitter and
the other is the receiver as shown in the Figure 3. Examples of simplex
communication are the simple radio, and Public broadcast television
where, you can receive data from stations but can’t transmit data back.
The television station sends out electromagnetic signals. The station
does not expect and does not monitor for a return signal from the
television set. This type of channel design is easy and inexpensive to set
up.

Half Duplex

Figure 4: Half duplex connection

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Half duplex refers to two-way communication where, only one party can
transmit data at a time. Unlike, the Simplex mode here, both devices can
transmit data though, not at the same time, that is Half duplex provides
Simplex communication in both directions in a single channel as shown
in Figure 4. When one device is sending data, the other device must
only receive it and vice versa. Thus, both sides take turns at sending
data. This requires a definite turn around time during which, the device
changes from the receiving mode to the transmitting mode. Due to this
delay, half duplex communication is slower than simplex
communication. However, it is more convenient than simplex
communication as both the devices can send and receive data.

Note, the difference between simplex and half-duplex. Half-duplex

refers to two-way communication where, only one party can transmit
data at a time. Simplex refers to one-way communication where, one
party is the transmitter and the other is the receiver For example, a
walkie-talkie is a half-duplex device because only one party can talk at a
time.

Most modems contain a switch that lets you select between half-duplex
and full-duplex modes. The correct choice depends on which program
you are using to transmit data through the modem.

Full Duplex

Figure 5: Full duplex connection

Full duplex refers to the transmission of data in two directions

simultaneously. Here, both the devices are capable of sending as well as
receiving data at the same time as shown in Figure 5. As you can see
from Figure 5, that simultaneously bi-directional communication is
possible, as a result, this configuration requires full and independent
transmitting and receiving capabilities at both ends of the
communication channel. Sharing the same channel and moving signals
in both directions increases the channel throughput without increasing
its bandwidth. For example, a telephone is a full-duplex device because
both parties can talk to each other simultaneously. In contrast, a walkie-
talkie is a half-duplex device because only one party can transmit at a
time.

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Most modems have a switch that lets you choose between full-duplex
and half-duplex modes. The choice depends on which communications
program you are running.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 1

1) What is Data Communication?

2) Explain the term bandwidth. Why is bandwidth useful?
3) If, a sine wave complex one cycle in 3 seconds, what is its
frequency?
4) Compare Parallel and Serial transmission methods and mention
the situation where Parallel transmission is a better choice as
compared to serial transmission.
5) Give reasons as to why Full duplex is more challenging the’1
simplex and half duplex transmission.
6) Bring out the difference between Synchronous, Asynchronous
and Isochronous transmission.

3.3 Analog and Digital Data Transmission

We know that the two major types of signals are Analog and Digital.
The manner in which these two types of signals can be transmitted from
source to destination is of the same two types that is:

Analog data transmission.

Digital data transmission.

Analog Signal

Figure 6: Analog signal

Analog signals vary constantly in one or more values; these changes in

values can be used to represent data. An analog signal is continuous and
can be represented by using sine waves. Human voice, video and music
are all examples of analog signals, which vary in amplitude (volume)
and frequency (pitch). Human voice generates an analog (continuously
varying) signal containing multiple frequencies that is transmitted as an
analog signal over the medium. Amplifiers are used to overcome the

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attenuation that the signal suffers on its way. The drawback is that
amplifiers amplify noise along with the original signal and hence, if the
signal gets distorted, it cannot be reconstructed and it is a permanent
loss. Due to this reason, this type of transmission is not used where a
high level of accuracy is needed. This is used in telephony where a
slight distortion in human communication does not matter.

The ability to capture the subtle nature of the real world is the single
advantage of analog techniques. However, once captured, modern
electronic equipment, no matter how advanced, cannot copy analog
signals perfectly. Third and fourth generations of audio and video
recordings show marked deterioration.

By converting analog signals into digital, the original audio or video

data can be preserved indefinitely within the specified error bounds and
copied over and over without deterioration. Once continuously varying
analog signals are measured and converted into digital form, they can be
stored and transmitted without loss of integrity due to the accuracy of
digital methods.
Digital Data Transmission

Figure 7: Digital Data Transmission

Digital data transmission describes any system based on discontinuous

data or events. Computers are digital machines because at their most
basic level they can distinguish between just two values, 0 and 1, or off
and on. There is no simple way to represent all the values in between,
such as 0.25. All data that a computer processes must be encoded
digitally, as a series of zeroes and ones.

Information coming out of the computer is in the form of digital signals.

The bandwidth of a digital signal is infinite as compared to any medium,
which has a limited bandwidth. Therefore, as the signal is generated and
enters the medium, at that point of entry, only limited frequencies are
permissible on the medium and this depends upon the bandwidth. As the
signal traverses over the medium it gets distorted and beyond a certain
distance, the signal becomes unrecognisable from the original one. A
hardware device called Repeater is used to regenerate the digital signal.

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The repeater measures the signal values at regular intervals to recognise

the 0’s and l’s in the signal and regenerates them. Hence, there is no loss
of information. The number of repeaters to be used depends on the
distance between the source and the destination. Any line with repeaters
placed at appropriate distance is called a digital line.

When information, music, voice and video are turned into binary digital
form, they can be electronically manipulated, preserved and regenerated
perfectly at high speed. The millionth copy of a computer file is exactly
the same as the original. This is, nevertheless, a major advantage of
digital processing.

3.4 Transmission Impairments

When data is transmitted from a transmitter to receiver, there is scope

for transmission errors. If, transmission media were perfect, the receiver
would receive exactly the same signal that the transmitter sent.
Unfortunately, media are not perfect, so the received signal may
sometimes not be the same as the transmitted signal.
Transmission lines suffer from three major problems:

Attenuation.
Delay distortion.
Noise.

3.4.1 Attenuation

Attenuation is the loss of energy as the signal propagates outwards. On

guided media (e.g., wires and optical fibers), the signal falls off
logarithmically with the distance. Attenuation is very small at short
distances; therefore, the original signal can be recognised without too
much distortion. Attenuation increases with distance as, some of the
signal energy is absorbed by the medium. The loss is expressed in
decibels per kilometer (db/km). The amount of energy lost depends on
the frequency. Attenuation is also higher at higher frequencies.

If the attenuation is high, the receiver may not be able to detect the
signal at all, or the signal may fall below the noise level. In many cases,
the attenuation properties of a medium are known, so amplifiers can be
put in place to try to compensate for the frequency-dependent
attenuation. This approach helps but can never restore the signal exactly
back to its original shape.

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3.4.2 Delay Distortion

Delay distortion is caused by the fact that the signals of varying

frequencies travel at different speeds along the medium. Any complex
signal can be decomposed into different sinusoidal signals of different
frequencies, resulting, in a frequency bandwidth for every signal.

One property of signal propagation is that the speed of travel of the

frequency is the highest at the center of this bandwidth, and lowest at
both ends. Therefore, at the receiving end, signals with different
frequencies in a given bandwidth will arrive at different times. If, the
signals received are measured at a specific time, they will not be exactly
like the original signal resulting in its misinterpretation.
For digital data, fast components from one bit may catch up and
overtake low components from the bit ahead, mixing the two bits and
increasing the probability of incorrect reception.

3.4.3 Noise

Noise is unwanted energy from sources other than the transmitter.

Thermal noise is caused by the random motion of the electrons in a wire
and is unavoidable. Cross talk is caused by inductive coupling between
two wires that are close to each other. Sometimes when talking on the
telephone, you can hear another conversation in the background. That is
crosstalk. Finally, there is impulse noise, caused by spikes on the power
line or other causes. For digital data, impulse noise can wipe out one or
more bits.

3.4.3 Concept of Delays

The average delay required to deliver a packet from source (origin) to

destination has a large impact on the performance of a data network.
Delay considerations strongly influence the choice and performance of
network algorithms, such as routing and flow control. Because of these
reasons, it is very important to understand the nature and mechanism of
network delay, and the manner in which it depends on the characteristics
of the network.

A large delay is disastrous for data transfer. The total delay can be
categorised into two types. The first type is fixed delay. This is the total
delay which is always present due to buffering, link capacity etc. The
second type is variable delay. This is the delay component which is
caused by packets queuing in the routers, congestions etc. Among the
different types of delays, here, we shall discuss Transmission delay and
Propagation delay.

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Transmission delay

Transmission delay is the delay, which is present due to link capacities.

When resource reservation methods are supported in routers,
transmission delays can probably be kept low enough to satisfy the
overall delay constraint of 200 ms.

When data is transmitted, there is always a minimal amount ‘of delay,

due to the capacity of the links along which the data travels. But the
most significant part of the delay of transmission is usually due to
queuing of packets inside routers. This delay is highly variable and
depends both on the number of routers along the path and the load of the
routers.
Propagation delay
Satellite microwave systems can reach remote places on the earth and
can also communicate with mobile devices. As the signal travels a long
distance (around 36,000 km), there is a delay of about 5 kms between,
the transmission and the reception of the signal. This delay is known as
the propagation delay. Such delays occur in all communication
channels, however, small they may be.

Propagation delay is the time between the last bit transmitted at the head
node of the link and the time the last bit is received at the tail node. This
is proportional to the physical distance between the transmitter and the
receiver; it can be relatively substantial, particularly for a satellite link or
a very high-speed link.

The propagation delay depends on the physical characteristics of the link

and is independent of the traffic carried by the link.

3.5 Transmission Media and its Characteristics

Various physical media can be used for the actual transmission of

information from one place to another. Each one has its own niche in
terms of bandwidth, delay, cost, and ease of installation and
maintenance. Transmission media are roughly grouped into guided
media, such as copper wire and fiber optics, and unguided media, such
as radio and lasers.

3.5.1 Magnetic Media

One of the most common ways to transport data from one computer to
another is to write them onto magnetic tape or floppy disks, physically
transport the tape or disks to the destination machine, and read them
back in again. While, this method is not as sophisticated as using a

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geosynchronous communication satellite, it is often much more cost

effective, especially for applications in which high bandwidth or cost
per bit transported is the key factor.

3.5.2 Twisted Pair

Figure 8: Twisted pair cable

Although, the bandwidth characteristics of magnetic tape are excellent,

the delay characteristics are poor. Transmission time is measured in
minutes or hours, not milliseconds. For many applications an on-line
connection is needed. The oldest and still most common transmission
medium is the twisted pair. A twisted pair consists of two insulated
copper wires, typically about 1 mm thick. The purpose of twisting the
wires is to reduce electrical interference from similar pairs that may be
close by.

The most common application of the twisted pair is in the telephone

system. Nearly all telephones are connected to the telephone company
office by a twisted pair. Twisted pairs can run several kilometers
without amplification, but for longer distances, repeaters are needed.
When many twisted pairs run in parallels for a substantial distance, such
as, all the wires coming from an apartment building to the telephone
company office, they are bundled together and encased in a protective
sheath. The pairs in these bundles would interfere with one another if, it
were not twisted.

Twisted pairs can be used for either analog or digital transmission. The
bandwidth depends on the thickness of the wire and the distance
travelled, but several megabits/sec can be achieved for a few kilometers
in many cases.

Twisted pair cable has the following advantages:

Adequate performance and lowest cost per meter as compared to other

cable types as these are inexpensive to install, makes twisted pairs
popular and hence, they are widely used and are likely to remain so for
years to come.

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3.5.3 Baseband Coaxial Cable

Another common transmission medium is the coaxial cable (also known

as “coax”). It has better shielding than twisted pairs, so it can span
longer distances at higher speeds. A coaxial cable consists of a stiff
copper wire as the core, surrounded by an insulating material. The
insulator is encased by a cylindrical conductor, often, as a closely woven
braided mesh. The outer conductor is covered with a protective plastic
sheath. A cutaway view of a coaxial cable is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9 Coaxial cable

The construction and shielding of the coaxial cable gives it a good

combination of high bandwidth and excellent noise immunity. The
bandwidth possible depends on the cable length. For I-kin cables, a data
rate of 1 to 2 Gbps is feasible. Longer cables can also be used, but only
at lower data rates or with periodic amplifiers. Coaxial cables used to be
widely used within the telephone system but, have now largely been
replaced by fiber optics on long-haul routes. Coax is still widely used
for cable television and some local area networks.

3.5.4 Broadband Coaxial Cable

The other kind of coaxial cable system uses analog transmission on

standard cable television cabling. It is called broadband. Although the
term “broadband” comes from the telephone world, where it refers to
anything wider than 1 MHz, in the computer networking world
“broadband cable” means any cable network using analog transmission.

Since, broadband networks use standard cable television technology, the

cables can be used up to 300 MHz (and often up to 450 MHz) and can
run for nearly 100 kin due to the analog signaling, which is much less
critical than digital signaling. To transmit digital signals on an analog
network, each interface must contain electronics to, convert the outgoing

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bit stream to an analog signal, and the incoming analog signal to a bit
stream. Depending on the type of electronics, 1 bps may occupy
roughly, 1 Hz of bandwidth. At higher frequencies, many bits per Hz are
possible using advanced modulation techniques.

3.5.5 Optical Fiber

Figure 10: Optical fiber

Fiber optic cable is made of fine strands of silicon glass fiber (thinner
than a human hair), and is coated with a refractive surface. The signals
are converted to light pulses before being sent. When light (provided by
a laser or LED) is show into the strand, it travels along the fiber strand
(the refractive layer prevents it from escaping). Each fiber optic strand
can support thousands of speech channels and multiple TV channels
simultaneously. It is used for long haul telecommunications links, for
providing high-speed data communications links for computers, and
information services to homes (e.g., PAY TV).

Advantages of Fiber optic cable are:

high capacity (laser bandwidth),

immune to interference (electromagnetic), and
can go long distances (low attenuation).

Its disadvantages are:

costly,
difficult to join, and
expensive to install and greater skill is required.

An Optical fiber transmission system has three components: the light

source, the transmission medium, and the detector. Conventionally, a
pulse of light indicates a 1 bit and the absence of light indicates a zero
bit. The transmission medium is an ultra-thin fiber of glass. The detector

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is a photo-divider that generates an electrical pulse when light falls on it.

By attaching a light source to one end of an optical fiber and a detector
to the other, we have a unidirectional data transmission system that
accepts an electrical signal, converts and transmits it by light pulses, and
then reconverts the output to an electrical signal at the receiving end.
Fibers can be connected in three different ways. First, they can terminate
in connectors and be plugged into fiber sockets. Connectors lose about
10 to 20 percent of the light, but they make it easy to reconfigure
systems.

Second, they can be spliced mechanically. Mechanical splices just place

the two carefully cut ends next to each other in a special sleeve and
clamp them together. The alignment can be improved by passing light
through the junction and then making small adjustments to maximise the
signal. Trained personnel can do mechanical splicing in 5 minutes, and
show result in a 10 percent light loss.

Third, two pieces of fiber can be fused (melted) to form a solid

connection. A fusion splice is almost as good as a single drawn fiber,
but even here, a small amount of attenuation occurs. For all three kinds
of splices, reflections can occur at the point of the splice, and the
reflected energy can interfere with the signal.

3.5.6 Comparison between Optical Fiber and Copper Wire

Optical fiber has many advantages over copper wire. The advantages
are:

Optical fiber can handle much higher bandwidths than copper wire. Due
to the low attenuation, repeaters are needed only about every 30 km on
long lines, whereas, copper wires require repeaters every 5 km, which, is
substantial sayings in cost. Optical fiber also has the advantage of not
being affected by power surges, electromagnetic interference, or power
failures. Neither, is it affected by corrosive chemicals in the air, making
it ideal for harsh factory environments.

Optical fiber is lighter than copper. One thousand twisted pairs 1 km

long weigh 8000 kg. Two fibers have more capacity and weigh only 100
kg, which greatly reduces the need for expensive mechanical support
systems that must be maintained. For new routes, the installation cost of
optical fiber is much lower than that for copper wire.

Finally, optical fibers do not leak light and are quite difficult to tap. This
gives them excellent security against potential wire trappers.

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The reason that optical fiber is better than copper wire is inherent in
underlying physics. When electrons move in a wire, they affect one
another and are themselves affected by electrons outside the wire.
Photons in a fiber do not affect one another (they have no electric
charge) and are not affected by stray photons outside the fiber.

The disadvantages of optical fiber are:

It is a complex technology requiring skills that most engineers do not

possess. Since optical transmission is inherently unidirectional, two-way
communication requires either two fibers or two frequency bands on one
fiber. Fiber interfaces cost more than electrical interfaces.

SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE 2

1) What is Analog data transmission?

2) Explain the use of repeaters with respect to data transmission.
3) Describe the three categories of distortion.
4) List out the significance of delays in data transmission.

3.6 Wireless Transmission

Figure 11: Frequency spectrum for Wireless Transmission

Wireless transmission is also called unbounded media. Here, there are

no physical connectors between the two communicating devices.
Usually the transmission is sent through the atmosphere, but sometimes
it can be just across a room. Wireless media is used when a physical
obstruction or distance blocks the use of normal cable media.

The three main types of Wireless Media are:

Radio wave,
Microwave, and
Infrared.

However, wireless also has advantages for fixed devices in some

circumstances. For example, if running a fiber to a building is difficult
due to the terrain (mountains, jungles, swamps, etc.) wireless may be

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preferable. It is noteworthy that modem wireless digital communication

began in the Hawaiian Islands, where large chunks of Pacific Ocean
separated the users and the telephone system was inadequate.

3.6.1 Microwave Transmission

Figure 12: Microwave transmission station

Microwave is a radio system, which uses very high frequencies to send

and receive data. Because of the high frequencies involved, microwave
stations are located about 30 kilometers apart and in line of sight (visible
to each other).

Microwave systems have sufficient bandwidth capacity to support a

large number of voice channels and one or two TV channels.

Above 100 MHz, the waves travel in straight lines and can therefore, be
narrowly focused upon. Concentrating all the energy into a small beam,
using a parabolic antenna (like the familiar satellite TV dish) gives a
much higher signal to noise ratio, but the transmitting and receiving
antennas must be accurately aligned with each other. In addition, this
directionality allows, multiple transmitters lined up in a row to
communicate with multiple receivers in a row without interference.
Before fiber optics, microwaves formed the heart of long distance
telephone transmission system.

Since, microwaves travel in straight lines, if, the towers are too far apart,
the earth will get in the way. Consequently, repeaters are needed
periodically. The higher the towers are, the further apart they can be.
The distance between repeaters increases roughly, with the square root
of the tower height. For 100-m high towers, repeaters can be spaced 80
km apart.

Unlike, radio waves at lower frequencies, microwaves do not pass

through buildings well. In addition, even though the beam may be well

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focused at the transmitter, there is still some divergence in space. Some

waves may be refracted off low-lying atmospheric layers and may take
slightly longer to arrive than, direct waves. The delayed waves may
arrive out of phase with the direct wave and thus cancel the signal. This
effect is called multipath fading and is often a serious problem. It is
weather and frequency dependent. Some operators keep 10 percent of
their channels idle as spares to switch on to when, multi path fading
affects some frequency band temporarily.

In summary, microwave communication is so widely used for long-

distance telephone communication, cellular telephones, television
distribution, and other uses, that a severe shortage of spectrum has
developed.

Microwave systems have the advantage of:

medium capacity,
medium cost, and
can go long distances.

Its disadvantages are:

noise interference,
geographical problems due to line of sight requirements, and
becoming outdated.

Comparison between Microwave and Optical Fiber

The microwave has several significant advantages over optical fiber

cable. The main one is that no right of way is needed, and by buying a
small plot of ground every 50 km and putting a microwave tower on it,
one can bypass the telephone system and communicate directly.

Microwave is also relatively inexpensive. Putting up two simple towers

(maybe just big p6les with four guy wires) and putting antennas on each
one may be cheaper than burying 50 km of fiber through a congested
urban area or up over a mountain, and it may also be cheaper than
leasing optical fiber from a telephone company.

Terrestrial Microwave

Terrestrial Microwave employs Earth-based transmitters and receivers.

The frequencies used are in the low-gigahertz range, hence, limiting all
communication to line of sight.

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Microwave transmissions are carried out using a parabolic antenna that

produces a “arrow, highly directional signal. At the receiving site a
similar antenna, which is sensitive to signals, only within a narrow
focus, is placed. As both the transmitter and receiver are highly focused,
they must be carefully adjusted so that, the transmitted signal is aligned
with the receiver.

Microwave is frequently used as a means of transmitting signals where

it would be impractical to run cables.

Terrestrial microwave systems operate in the low-giga hertz range,

typically at 2-6GHz and 21-23GHz

Attenuation characteristics are determined by transmitter power,

frequency and antenna size. Properly designed systems are not affected
by attenuation under normal operational conditions. Rain and fog,
however, can cause attenuation at higher frequencies.

Microwave systems might be vulnerable to electronic eavesdropping

and signals transmitted through microwave are frequently encrypted.

Satellite Microwave

Satellite Microwave systems relay transmission through communication

satellites that operate in geosynchronous orbits (36,000 -40,000 kIn)
above the Earth.

In order to communicate with satellites, the Earth stations use parabolic

antennas. Satellites can retransmit signals in broad or in narrow beams
depending on the locations that are to receive the signals. When the
destination is on the opposite side of the earth, the first satellite must
relay the signal through another satellite, as it cannot directly transmit to
the receiver.

Satellite Microwave communication is possible with most remote sites

and with mobile devices as no cables are required. Ships at sea and
motor vehicles also use Satellite Microwave communication.

As all signals must travel 36,000 miles to the satellite and 36,000 miles
when returning to the receiver, the time required to transmit a signal is
independent of the distance. The time required for the signal to arrive at
its destination is called propagation delay. The delay encountered with
satellite transmissions is about 0.5 seconds.

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Satellite Microwave communication is extremely expensive, as a result

of which, organisations share the cost or they purchase services from a
commercial provider.

Satellite links operate in the low-giga hertz range, typically at 4-6 GHz.
Attenuation depends on transmitter power, frequency and atmospheric
conditions. Rain and atmospheric conditions may cause attenuation at
higher frequencies.

Signals transmitted through Satellite Microwave are usually encrypted.

3.6.2 Radio Transmission

The radio portion of the electromagnetic spectrum extends from 10KHz

to I GHz. Within this range there are numerous bands or ranges of
frequencies that are designated for specific purposes.. Some of the
familiar frequency bands are:

Short wave,
VHF (Very High Frequency) used for television and FM radio,
and
UHF (Ultra High Frequency) used for television.

Radio waves are easy to generate, can travel long distances, and
penetrate buildings easily, so they are widely used for communication,
both indoors and outdoors. Radio waves also are omni directional,
meaning that they travel in all directions from the source, so that the
transmitter and receiver do not have to be carefully aligned physically
and that the signal can be received by all the radios within the broadcast
area.

The properties of radio waves are frequency dependent. At low

frequencies, radio waves pass through obstacles well, but the power falls
off sharply with distance from the source, roughly as 1/r3 in air. At high
frequencies, radio waves tend to travel in straight lines and bounce off
obstacles. They are also absorbed by rain. At all frequencies, radio
waves are subject to interference from motors and other electrical-
equipment.

3.6.3 Infrared and Millimeter Waves

Unguided infrared and millimeter waves are widely used for short-range
communication. The remote controls used on televisions, VCR’s, and
stereos all use infrared communication. The remote control transmits
pulses of infrared light that carry coded instructions to the receiver on
the TV. They are relatively directional, cheap, and easy to build, but

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they have a major drawback, that is, they do not pass through solid
objects (try standing between your remote control and your television
and see if it still works). In general, as we go from long-wave radio
toward visible light, the waves behave more and more like light and less
and less like radio.

Infrared waves do not pass through solid walls well, as a result of which,
an Infrared system in one room of a building, will not interfere with a
similar system in adjacent rooms, which is a great advantage. Due to this
nature, security of infrared systems against eavesdropping is better than
that of radio systems. Because of these reasons, no government license
is needed to operate an infrared system, in contrast to radio systems,
which must be licensed.

These properties have made infrared suitable for indoor wireless LANS.
For example, the computers and offices in a building can be equipped
with relatively unfocused (i.e., somewhat omni directional), infrared
transmitters and receivers. In this way, portable computers with infrared
capability can be on the local LAN without having to physically connect
to it. During a meeting where several people use their portables, they
can just sit down in the conference room and be fully connected, without
having to plug in. Infrared communication cannot be used outdoors
because the sun shines as brightly in the infrared as in the visible
spectrum.

Two methods of infrared networking that are in use are:

Point-to-point and Broadcast Infrared

Point-to-point

The Point-to-point networks operate by relaying infrared signals from

one device to the next. Hence, transmissions are focused on a narrow
beam, and the transmitter and receiver must be aligned carefully. Point-
to point infrared is not suitable for use with devices that move frequently
because, here, the devices must be carefully aligned and setup.

High power laser transmitters can be used in order to transmit data for
several thousand yards when the line of sight communication is
possible.

The cost of Point-to-point infrared equipment is higher than the cost for
a comparable cabled network. When systems use transmitters that are
based on LED technology and hardware cost is moderate, but, when
long distance systems use high powered laser transmitters then the cost
is very high.

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Infrared devices are insensitive to radio frequency interference, but, the

reception can be degraded by bright light. As the transmitters are tightly
focused, they are fairly immune to electronic eavesdropping.

Broadcast Infrared

Broadcast infrared disperses transmissions so that, they are visible to

several receivers. The two possible approaches to broadcast infrared
networking are:

The active transmitter can be located at a high point so that, it can

transmit to all devices.

A reflective material can be placed on the ceiling. Devices

transmit toward the ceiling, from where, the light signals are
dispersed to other devices in the room.

Installation is simple as device alignment is not critical. Hence, it is

essential that each device has clear transmission and reception pathways.
As all devices are sensitive to light interference, during installation, the
control of ambient light is very important.

3.7 Wireless LAN

Wireless LAN’s are a system of portable computers that communicate

using radio transmission. Wireless LAN’s make use of the omni
directional wireless communication.

The main objective of wireless LAN is to provide high-speed

communication among computers that are located in relatively close
proximity.

Wireless LAN’s are usually configured in an office building with the

base stations strategically placed around the building. Optical fiber cable
can be used to cable all base stations together. If the transmission power
of the base stations and portables is adjusted to a range of 3 or 4 meters,
then, each room acts as a single cell, and the entire building acts as a
large cellular system. Here unlike the cellular telephone system, each
cell has only one channel that covers the entire bandwidth, which is
available. Typically its bandwidth is 1 to 2 Mbps.

The disadvantages of using Radio transmitters are:

When the receiver is within the range of two active transmitters, the
resulting signal will usually be grab led and hence, useless.

In indoor wireless LAN’s, the presence of walls between the stations

have great impact on the effective range of each station.

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4.0 CONCLUSION

In this unit you have learn about the concept of transmission

terminology as well as the different types of data transmission. Also,
you have learnt about the various types of transmission media and their
particular characteristics. Is believe they by how you should be able to
choose a suitable transmission media for your particular network.

5.0 SUMMARY

In this unit, we have studied, the basic concepts of Data Transmission.

To start with, we discussed the basic terms that are frequently used in
Data transmission like Bandwidth, frequency, channel, baud etc.
Bandwidth is the amount of data or signals that a transmission media
can carry in a fixed amount of time and its unit of measurement is bits
per second (bps) for digital signal and Hertz (Hz) for analog signals.
Frequency is the number of cycles or periods that a signal completes
within one second and its unit of measurement is Hertz (Hz). Channel
refers to the communication path between the source and destination.

As it is essential to know how data can be transmitted from the source to

the destination, the different modes of data transmission were outlined
as follows:

Parallel and Serial communication.

Asynchronous, Synchronous and Isochronous communication.
Simplex, Half duplex and Full duplex communication.

We also discussed the two major types of signals that is Analog and
Digital and, the manner in which these two types of signals can be
transmitted from the source to the destination.

When, data is transmitted from the source to the destination, there is,
always a scope for transmission errors and the data may not reach in
exactly the same form as it was sent. We have seen that these
transmission errors are classified into three main categories that is Delay
distortion, Attenuation and Noise. Delay distortion is caused because,
signals at different frequencies, travel at different speeds along the
transmission medium. As the signal travels along the transmission
medium, its strength decreases over distance, this is known as
Attenuation. Usually, some unwanted electromagnetic energy gets
inserted during the course of transmission and this is called Noise. The
concept of Delays and how to reduce them were also discussed.

We have seen that transmission media can be classified in to two

categories, that are, guided media and unguided media. The guided

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media uses physical cable for data transmission. Twisted pair, co-axial
cable and optical fiber are the three main types of guided media; they
differ in their physical characteristics as well as transmission capacities.
In case of unguided media, the transmission medium is air. Unguided
media can be Radio, Microwave or Infrared. Security is a major concern
when using unguided media for transmission.

Towards the end, Wifeless LAN’s were also discussed. Here, we saw
that Wireless LAN’s make use of Radio transmission and their main
objective is to provide high speed communication among computers that
are located in relatively close proximity. In the next unit, we will be
studying, the different Data encoding and communication techniques.

6.0 TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

1) Discuss the twisted pair cable.

2) Describe co-axial cable and its uses.
3) Describe the structure of optical fiber and mention its advantages
and disadvantages.
4) Explain how Radio communication differs from Satellite
communication.
5) Explain the working of Wireless LAN’s.

7.0 REFERENCES/FURTHER READINGS

Andrew. S. Tannenbaum, Computer Networks, PHI, New Delhi.

William Stalling, Data and Computer Communication, PHI, New Delhi.

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UNIT 3 DATA ENCODING AND COMMUNICATION

TECHNIQUE

CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction
2.0 Objectives
3.0 Main Content
3.1 Encoding
3.2 Analog to Analog Modulation
3.3 Analog to Digital Modulation
3.4 Digital to Analog Modulation
3.5 Digital to Digital Encoding
4.0 Conclusion
5.0 Summary
6.0 Tutor-Marked Assignment
7.0 References/Further Readings

1.0 INTRODUCTION

You might be aware from the description in the previous blocks, how
data is transmitted through a channel (wired or wireless) in the form of
an analog or digital signal. In this unit, we will elaborate on the
techniques to produce these types of signals from analog or digital data.
We will look at, in brief, on the following encoding techniques
[Figure1]:

Figure 1: Encoding/Conversion Techniques

Analog data as an analog signal

Analog data as a digital signal
Digital data as an analog signal
Digital data as a digital signal

We will confine ourselves to, a treatment of the most useful and

common techniques only, and will skip over the many other kinds of
encoding of data that can be performed.

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2.0 OBJECTIVES

After going through this unit, you should be able to describe:

what encoding means

why encoding is needed
some different types of encoding
mechanisms and techniques used for encoding
when each type of encoding is used with examples.

There are several other types of encoding as well as encoding techniques

that will not be discussed in this unit.

3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Encoding

Sleekly, we cannot lend a signal containing information directly over a

transmission medium, at least not for long distances. For example, the
sound of our voice can only travel a few hundred meters. If we want to
send our voice to the next city, we have to be able to transform our
voice, to, aft electrical signal that can then, be sent that long distance.
Then, we would also need to perform the reverse conversion at the other
end.

So, we see that, to send a signal over a physical medium, we need to

encode or transform the signal in some way so that the transmission
medium can transmit it. The sender and the receiver must agree on what
kind of transformation has been done so that it can be reversed at the
other end and the actual signal or information can be recovered. The
information content in a signal is based upon having some changes in it.
For example, if we just send a pure sine wave, where the voltage varies
with time as a sine function, then, we cannot convey much information
apart from the fact that there is some entity at the other end that Is doing
the transmitting.

The information content of a signal is dependent on the variation in the

signal. After sending one cycle of a sine wave there is no point in
sending another cycle because we will not be able to convey anything
more than what we have already done. What is needed is to modify the
sine wave in some way to carry the information we want to convey. This
is called modulation.

You know that there are two kinds of signals: analog and digital.
Likewise, there are two types of information that we may want to
transmit, again analog and digital. So, we get four basic combinations of

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encoding that we may need to perform, depending on the signal type as

well as the information type. We shall look at each of these four types
briefly in this unit and will also study the ways in which the actual
encoding can be done.

3.2 Analog- To-Analog Modulation

Let us first look at a situation where our signal and information are both
of the analog type. The act of charging or encoding the information in
the signal is known as modulation. A good example of such encoding is
radio broadcasting. Here we primarily want to send sound in some form
over the atmosphere to the receiving radio gets. The sound is converted
into an analog electrical signal at the source and is used to encode the
signal which is the base frequency at which the transmission is being
done. The reverse process is performed at the radio set to recover the
information in electrical form, which is then converted back to sound so
that, we hear what was being said at the radio station.

Let us, formulate another definition of modulation. When a low

frequency information signal is encoded over a higher frequency signal,
it is called modulation [Ref.3]. The encoding can be done by varying
amplitude (strength of a signal), period (amount of time, in seconds, a
signal needs to complete a cycle) and frequency (number of cycles per
second) and phase (position of waveform relative to zero).

Notice the simulations of the word modulation to the word modifying.

For instance, an audio signal (one that is audible to human ear) can be
used to modify an RF (Radio Frequency) carrier, when the amplitude of
the RF is varied according to the changes in the amplitude of the audio,
it is called amplitude modulation (AM), and when the frequency is
varied, it is called FM (frequency modulation).

Although, it can be dangerous to use analogies as they can be carried too

far, we can understand this process with an example. Suppose we want
to send a piece of paper with something written on it to a person a
hundred meters away. We will not be able to throw the paper that far.
So, we can wrap it around a small stone and then throw the stone
towards the person. He can then unwrap the paper and read the message.
Here, the stone is the signal and the piece of paper is the information
that is used to change the stone. Just as sending the stone alone would
not have conveyed much to our friend, similarly sending only the base
signal (also called carrier signal) will not convey much information to
the recipient.

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Therefore, there are three different ways in which this encoding of the
analog signal with analog information is performed. These methods are:

Amplitude modulation (AM), where the amplitude of the signal

is changed depending on the information to be sent (Figure 2 (a).

Frequency modulation, where the frequency of the signal is

changed depending on the information to be sent (Figure 2 (b)).

Phase modulation, where it is the phase of the signal that is

changed according to the information to be sent.

Amplitude Modulation

Now, let us go into the details. In this type of modulation the frequency
and phase of the carrier or base signal are not altered. Only the
amplitude changes and we can see that the information is contained in
the envelope of the carrier signal. It can be proud/demonstrated that, the
bandwidth of the composite signal is twice that of the highest frequency
in the information signal that modulates the carrier.

By international agreement, for radio transmission using AM, 9 KHz is

allowed as the bandwidth. So, if a radio station transmits at 618 KHz,
the next station can only transmit at 609 or at 627 KHz. It will be clear
that the highest audio frequency that can be carried over AM radio is
thus 4.5 KHz, which is sufficient for most voice and musical pieces.
Actually, the modulating signal is centred around the carrier frequency
and extends the composite signal both ways in equal measure. Each of
these is called a sideband and therefore, AM radio transmission is dual
sideband. This is actually wasteful because the spectrum is
unnecessarily used up, but the cost and complexity associated with
eliminating one sideband, and performing single sideband AM
modulation, have led to the technique not being used widely.

AM radio transmission has been assigned the frequency range of 530 to

1700 KHz. The quality of AM transmission is not very good as noise in
the channel (the atmosphere, here) can easily creep into the signal and
alter its amplitude. So, the receiving end will likely find a fair amount of
noise in the signal, particularly at higher, short wave frequencies. That is
why you often get 1\ lot of static in short wave or even medium wave
broadcasts.

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AM Bandwidth

Figure 2 (a): Amplitude modulation

Frequency Modulation

In contrast to Amplitude Modulation, here it is the frequency of the base

signal that is altered depending on the information that is to be sent. The
amplitude and phase of the carrier signal are not changed at all. It can be
shown that this results in a bandwidth requirement of 10 times the
modulating signal, centred on the carrier frequency.

This method is the less susceptible to noise and gives the best
performance of all data encoding types as far as the quality of the
transmitted signal is concerned. Although digital encoding methods may
give better performance over multiple hops (because in their case, the
original signal can be accurately reconstructed at each hop), Frequency
Modulation (PM) is the best as far as single hop transmission goes.

FM radio transmission has been allocated the spectrum range 88 MHz to

108 MHz. As a good stereo sound signal needs 15 KHz of bandwidth,
this means that PM transmission has a bandwidth of 150 KHz. To be
safe from interference from neighbouring stations, 200 KHz is the
minimum separation needed. As a further safety measure, in any given
area, only alternate stations are allowed and the neighbouring
frequencies are kept empty. This is practical because PM transmission is
line of sight (because of the carrier frequency) and so, beyond a range of
about 100 Km or so, the signal cannot be received directly (this distance
depends on various factors). We can therefore, have the most 50 FM
stereo radio stations in a given geographical area.

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As in the case of AM transmission (having 2 subbands), PM also has

multiple sidebands maybe two or more, which is really wasteful but is
tolerated in the interests of simplicity and cost of the equipment.

In television transmission the bandwidth needed is 4.5 MHz in each

sideband. The video signal is sent using amplitude modulation. The
audio signal goes at a frequency that is 5.5 MHz over the video signal
and is sent as a frequency modulated signal. To reduce the bandwidth
requirement, the video signal is sent using a method called vestigial
sideband that needs only 6 MHz, instead of the 9 MHz that would have
been needed for dual sideband transmission, though, it is more than the
4.5 MHz that a pure single sideband transmission would have needed.

Figure 2 (b): Frequency modulation

Phase Modulation

As you would have guessed by now, in Phase Modulation (PM) the

modulating signal leaves the frequency and amplitude of the carrier
signal unchanged but alters its phase. The characteristics of this
encoding technique are similar to FM, but the advantage is that of
reduced complexity of equipment However, this method is not used in
commercial broadcasting.

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SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

1) Why do we need modulation? Would it be right to simply send

the information as the signal itself?
2) Why is it at there are at most 50 FM radio stations in a particular
geographical area? Justify with calculations.
3) Why is AM the most susceptible to noise, of the three types of
modulation?

3.3 Analog to Digital Modulation

Natural phenomena are analog in nature and can take on any of the
potentially infinite number of values. For example, the actual
frequencies contained in a sound made by a human is an analog signal,
as is the amplitude or loudness of the sound. One example of coding
analog data in digital form is when, we want to record sound on digital
media such as a DVD or in other forms such as MP3 or as a “.wav” file.
Here, the analog signal, that is, the musical composition or the human
voice is encoded in digital form. This is an example of analog to digital
encoding.

While, in the case of analog to analog encoding, the motivation was to

be able to transmit the signal for long distances, here, the main reason is
to be able to change the information itself to digital form. That digital
signal can then be transmitted, if necessary, by any suitable method.

One method of encoding is what is called Pulse Code Modulation

(PCM). This gives very good quality and when used in conjunction with
error correction techniques, can be regenerated at every hop on the way
to its final destination. This is the big advantage of digital signals. At
every hop, errors can be removed and the original signal reconstructed
almost exactly, barring the few errors that could not be corrected.

The first step in PCM is, to convert the analog signal into a series of
pulses (Figure 3). This is called Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM).
To do this the analog signal is sampled at fixed intervals and the
amplitude at each sample decides the amplitude of that pulse. You can
see that at this step, the resulting signal is still actually an analog signal
because the pulse can have any amplitude, equal to the amplitude of the
original signal at the time the sample was taken. In PAM, the sampled
value is held for a small time so that the pulse has a finite width. In the
original signal the value occurs only for the instant at which it was
sampled.

One question that arises here is, how many samples do we have to take?
We would not want to take too many samples as that would be wasteful.

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At the same time, if, we take too few samples, we may not be able to
reconstruct the original signal properly. The answer comes from
Nyqist’s theorem, which states that, to be able to get back the original
signal, we must sample at a rate, that is, at least twice that of the highest
frequency contained in the original signal.

Let us do some calculations to see what this means in practice. In the

next unit, you will see that a voice conversation over a telephone has a
range of frequencies from 300 Hz to 3300 Hz. Because the highest
frequency is 3300 Hz, we need at least 6600 samples a second to digitise
the voice to be sent over a phone line. For safety we take 8000 samples
per second, corresponding to a sampling interval of 125 microseconds.

The next stage in the digitization of the signal is quantisation. In this

process, the analog values of the sampled pulses are quantised, that is,
converted into discrete values. For example, if the original analog signal
had an amplitude ranging from +5v to -5v, the result of PAM might be
to produce pulses of the following amplitudes (each sample is taken at
say, intervals of 125 microseconds)

+4.32, +1.78, -3.]9, -4.07, -2.56, +0.08 and so on.

In quantisation, we may decide to give the amplitude 256 discrete

values. So, they will range from -127 to +128. The actual amplitude of
+5v to -5v has to be represented in this range, which means each value
is of39 mV nearly. By this token, the first value of +4.32v lies between
110 and II I, and we can decide that such a value will be taken as 11O.
This is quantisation. The analog values now become the following
quantised values:

110, 45, -81, -104, -65, 2 and so on.

The above discrete value~ are now represented as 8 binary digits with, I
bit giving the sign while the other 7 bits represent the value of the
sample.

In the final stage of the encoding, the binary digits are then transformed
into a digital signal using any of the digital to digital encoding
mechanisms discussed later in this unit. This digital signal is now the
representation of the original analog signal.

PCM is commonly used to transmit voice signals over a telephone line.

It gives good voice quality but, is a fairly complex method of encoding
the signal. There is a simpler method that can be used, but we have to
pay the price in tends of the lower quality of the encoded signal. This is
called Delta modulation. Here, samples are taken as described above,

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but instead of quantising them into 256 or more levels, only the
direction of change is retained. If the sample is larger in value than the
previous one, it is considered a 1 while otherwise it is considered a o bit.
So the sequence above would be encoded as:

1,0,0,0,1,1 and so on.

Figure 3: Pulse code modulation

3.4 Digital to Analog Modulation

So far, we have looked at the codification of analog data, where the

source information could take up any value. We also have need for the
reverse type of encoding, where binary digital values have to be encoded
into an analog signal. This may seem simple because after all, we only
have to give two distinct values to the analog signal, but here you need
to realise that, we have to be able to distinguish between successive
digital values that are the same, say three 1 ‘s in succession or two 0’s in
succession. These should not get interpreted as a single I or a single 0!
This sort of problem did not exist in the case of analog to analog
encoding.

One example where such encoding is needed is, when we need to

transmit between computers over a telephone line. The computers
generate digital data, but the telephone system is analog. So, this
situation is a bit different from the transmission of voice over the
telephone, where the source signal is also analog.

In this kind of encoding, one important factor of interest is the rate at

which we can transfer bits. Clearly, there will be some kind of limit to

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