GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION

SYSTEM
ASSIGNMENT OF UNIT-3: SPTIAL DATA INPUT
SUBMITTED BY : KHUSBOO
TO
MR. RAKESH
1.DIFFERENT METHODS OF DATA
CAPTURE?
1. Digitization: digitization is the process of converting the analogue data into digital format through digitizers. A
digitizer table has an in- built electronic mesh, which can sense the position of the cursor. The cursor may be a
stylus or a digitizing tablet.
1. Point Mode Digitization: in point mode the operator identifies the point to be captured explicitly by pressing a button. The operator begins
digitizing each line segment with a start node, records each change in the direction of the line with a digitized point and finishes the
segment with an end node. The major disadvantage of this mode is that no two operatiors will digitize a feature in the same way.
2. Stream Mode: the points are captured at a set time intervals or on a movement of the cursor by a fixed amount. The major disadvantage of
stream mode is that it generates large amount of redundant points. After digitization, the digitizer units are converted into real world
coordinates through the procedure of transformation.

2. On screen digitization: on screen digitization is a process in which the analogue special data which is generally
available in map is scanned and stored into the computer. Because of scanning the analogue map which is in fact a
vector map is being converted to raster. Since the attributes can not be attached to the raster map therefore the
scanned image is reconverted in vector foam through the process of digitization, properly known as on- screen
digitization.

3. GPS data collection: Using Global Positioning System (GPS) technology to capture spatial data with precise
coordinates and attributes for direct GIS input.
 2. EXPLAIN THE SHAPE OF THE EARTH?
• Earth surface is not flat over last distance is commonly, and not even locally. The notion that the earth is vertical in shape
was developed by the ancient Greeks in the second century B.C. Eratosthenes.
• He estimated the distance between Alexandria and Syene at 5000 stadia and determined that the circumference of the
earth was 50 times of 5000 or250000 stadia.
• Given modern estimates of the length of stadia, this is remarkably close to the earth's Equatorial circumference of 40075
km.
• In the 17th century, Isaac Newton deducted from theoretical consideration that the earth was slightly flattened at the
poles and bulged slightly at the equator, due to the Earth's rotation on its axis.
• It means it is an oblate ellipsoid in which the radius to the polar region are slightly less than that to its Equatorial belt.
• The earth's Equatorial radius is approximately 21 kilometre longer than its polar radius. The flattening of the ellipse for
the earth is only about one part in 300; but it is sufficient to become a necessary part of calculation in plotting accurate
maps at scale of 1: 50000 scale maps, affecting plotted shape by up to2/3 percent.
• The irregular shape of the earth makes it impossible to transform the geometric relations perfectly.
• the ellipsoid geoid model is usually applied for representing the shape of the earth.
• The ellipsoid is the reference surface for horizontal position where is the geoid is the reference surface for elevation.
• When high accuracy of large area is needed, it is necessary to use a more accurate and reliable model of the earth such as
an ellipsoid or geoid.
• Ellipsoid of revolution is uniquely defined by specifying 2 dimensions. Geodesists, by conversion, use the semi major axis
and flattening.
• The shape of the ellipsoid is given by the flattening f, which indicate how closely and ellipsoid approach is a spherical
• The difference between the ellipsoid of revolution representing the earth and sphere is very small.

𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 − 𝑠𝑒𝑚𝑖 𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

• Flattening (f) =
𝑚𝑎𝑗𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

• Dilip episode is mathematically defined regular surface with specific dimensions. The separation of ellipsoid and
geoidal surface are referred to as geoid undulations, geoid heights or geoid separations.
 3. EXPLAIN DATUM?

1. A curved earth reference model of the world is referred to as a geodetic datum. It has
been defined as any numerical or geometrical quantity or set of such quantities, which
serve as a reference or base for other quantities.
2. The datum is the initial reference point for specific geodetic surveys and triangulation
networks. It assumes that the gravity potential of the earth is constant everywhere.
3. A datum is a model, which explains the position, direction and scale relationship of a
reference surface to position on the earth.
4. In geodesy two types of datum are considered: a horizontal datum which forms the basis
for the computations of horizontal control surveys in which the curvature of the earth is
considered, and a vertical datum to which elevations are referred.
5. A Local Geodetic Datum is that which best approximates the size and the shape of a
particular part of the earth’s sea level. Until very recently, most country’s spatial
information systems were based on local geodetic datum. NAD 27 is a local geodetic
datum.
6. A Geocentric Datum is one which best approximates the size and shape of the earth as a
whole. The center of its spheroid coincides with the Earth’s center of mass. WGS 84 is
the standard geocentric datum and widely used in GPS.
4. DEFINE MAP PROJECTION?
• Map projections are systematic transformation that allow the orderly representation of the
earth’s spherical graticule on a flat map.
• Mathematically speaking, map projections are transformations of geographic co-ordinates
(latitude, longitude) into the Cartesian ( x, y) coordinate space of the map.
• The method for taking the curved surface of the earth and displaying it on something flat, like a
computer screen or a piece of paper.
5. EXPLAIN UTM PROJECTION IN DETAIL.
• UNIVERSAL TRANSVERSE MERCATOR:
1. The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) is a global map projection. The UTM coordintes extend
around the world from 84˚North of the equator to 80˚ South.
2. It extended to an extra 4˚in the north to cover the northernmost land on Earth. This bounded coverage is
because the UTM projection distorts exceedingly near the north and south poles.
 3. The UTM coordinate system is set upon a zoned grid, which divides the
earth into 60 equal zones that are all 6˚ wide in longitude (east- west).
4. The UTM zones are numbered 1 through 60, starting at the international
date line (zone at 180˚ west longitude), processing east past the prime
meridian, and back to the international date line (zone 60 at 180˚ east
longitude).
5. The distortion increases for regions that cover more than one UTM zone.
The scale is constant on the central meridian with a scale factor of 0.9996
to minimize the lateral distortions within each zone.
6. Most appropriate for regions with north-south expanse. Many countries
use the local UTM zones based on the official geographic coordinate
system.
7. Survey of India (SOI) has also released the Open Series Maps (OSM) in UTM
coordinate system.

20XX presentation title 8

6. EXPLAIN EDITING IN VECTOR FILES?
o VECTOR DATA:
• Vector data provide a way to represent real world features within the GIS environment. A feature is anything
you can see on the landscape.
• Imagine you are standing on the top of a hill. Looking down you can see houses, roads, trees, rivers and so
on.
• Each one of these things would be a feature when we present them in a GIS application. Vector features have
attributes, which consists of text or numerical information that describe the features.
o EDITING IN VECTOR FILES:
• Points features in details:
• Point features has an X ,Y and optional Z values. The X & Y values will depend on the coordinate reference system being
used. If you have a small scale map, it may make sense to represent
7. EXPLAIN ERROR IN GIS?
1. Dangling Nodes: a common node error called the dangling node, can be defined as a single node connected to a single line
entity. Dangling nodes can result from three possible mistakes: failure to close a polygon, failture to connect the nodes to the
object it was supposed to be connected to called an underhoot , or going beyond the entity you were supposed to connect to
called an overshoot. Another type of common digitising error occurs when the adjacent lines between polygons are required to
digitise more than once is known as sliver Polygon.
2. Label Error: while polygons are digitized, a point inside each Polygon act as a locator for reliable displaying text information
about the Polygon. There is need for only one label point per Polygon. Two types of error can occur relating to label point in
Polygon: missing labels and too many levels. Both these errors are most often caused by a failure to keep track of the digitising
process.
3. Weird Polygon: weird polygons are defined as polygons with missing nodes. In this case the Polygon is a graphic artifact that
appears to be a true Polygon but is missing one or more nodes. Generally this occurs when two or more lines crossover,
producing the semblance of a Polygon.
4. Edge Matching: is the term given to the process that attempts to create a seamless join across two or more maps. There may be
instances where a large map sheet may have to be prtitioned or cut up into individual manageable sized sheets in order to lay
on a digitization tablet.
5. Rubber Sheeting: rubber sheet is a non uniform adjustment of a data set based on the movement of known control points to
new locations. For exmples, data collected by aerial survey may be inaccurate because of flight alignment and camera
inaccuracies.
8.EXPLAIN LINKING OF SPATIAL AND NON-
SPATIAL DATA?
• SPATIAL DATA:
• Spatial data refers to information that has a geographic or spatial component, often represented as coordinates
(Latitude, longitude and elevation).
• Examples: maps, satellite imagery, GIS layer and location- based data.
• NON- SPATIAL DATA:
• Non- Spatial data consists of information that is not inherently tied to a specific location. It include attributes like
names, dates, numerical values etc.
• Examples: population figures, economic data, temperature readings.

• DATA LINKING:
• PROCESS: Spatial data linking involves connecting spatial features or locations with corresponding non- spatial attributes. This is
typically achieved using a unique identifier that both datasets share, like a common key or code.
• Example: Associating population data with specific regions on a map using a shared identifier, such as a region code.
METHODS OF DATA LINKING:
• GEOCODING:
converting non- spatial data (addresses, place names) into spatial data (coordinates) to link with geographic features.
• JOINING:
combining spatial and non- spatial datsets based on a common attribute, such as a shared ID or name.
• OVERLAY:
superimposing different layers of spatial data to identify relationships and associations.
9.EXPLAIN DIGITIZATION AND ITS TYPES?
1. Digitization: digitization is the process of converting the analogue data into digital format through digitizers. A
digitizer table has an in- built electronic mesh, which can sense the position of the cursor. The cursor may be a
stylus or a digitizing tablet.
1. Point Mode Digitization: in point mode the operator identifies the point to be captured explicitly by pressing a button. The operator begins
digitizing each line segment with a start node, records each change in the direction of the line with a digitized point and finishes the
segment with an end node. The major disadvantage of this mode is that no two operatiors will digitize a feature in the same way.
2. Stream Mode: the points are captured at a set time intervals or on a movement of the cursor by a fixed amount. The major disadvantage of
stream mode is that it generates large amount of redundant points. After digitization, the digitizer units are converted into real world
coordinates through the procedure of transformation.

2. On screen digitization: on screen digitization is a process in which the analogue special data which is generally
available in map is scanned and stored into the computer. Because of scanning the analogue map which is in fact a
vector map is being converted to raster. Since the attributes can not be attached to the raster map therefore the
scanned image is reconverted in vector foam through the process of digitization, properly known as on- screen
digitization
10. EXPLAIN VARIOUS SOURCE OF ERROR IN GIS WHILE DATA COLLECTION, DATA INPUT, DATA STORAGE
AND DATA MANIPULATION?

STAGE SOURCES OF ERROR

DATA COLLECTION • Errors in field data collection

• Errors in existing maps used as source data.
• Errors in the analysis of remotely sensed data.

DATA INPUT • Inaccuracies in digitizing caused by operator and equipment.

• Inaccuracies inherent in the geographic features.

DATA STORAGE • Insufficient numerical precision.

• Insufficient spatial precision.

DATA MANIPULATION • Inappropriate class intervals.

• boundary errors.
• Slivers caused by problems in polygon overlay procedures.