UNIT 5 EARTH PRESSURE AND

RETAINING STRUCTURES
Structure
5.1 Introduction
Objectives
5.2 Effect of Wall Movement on Earth Pressure
5.3 Earth Pressure at Rest
5.4 Rankine Active and Passive States
5.5 Active Pressure on Retaining Walls
5.5.1 Cohesionless Backfill
5.5.2 Cohesiye Backfill
5.6 Passive Pressure on Retaining Walls
5.6.1 Cohesionless Soil
5.6.2 Cohesive Soil
5.7 Limitations of Rankine's Theory
5.8 Coulomb's Theory of Earth Pressure
5.8.1 Cohesionless Backfill
5.8.2 Cohesive Backfill
5.8.3 Stratified Backfill
5.9 Choice of Method for Prediction of Active Pressure
5.10 Design Parameters for Different Soil Types
5.11 Choice of Backfill Material
5.12 Backfill Drainage
5.13 Types of Earth Retaining Structures
5.13.1 Gravity Walls
5.13.2 Cantilever Walls
5.13.3 Counterfort Wall
5.13.4 Crib Wall
5.13.5 Gahion Wall
5.13.6 Sheet Pile Walls
5.13.7 Diaphragm Walls
5.13.8 Reinforced Earth Walls
5.14 Causes of Failure in Earth Retaining Structures
5.14.1 Bearing Pressure on Soil
5.14.2 Factor of Safety for Passive Resistance
5.14.3 Sliding Resistance of Base
5.15 Summary
5.17 Answers to SAQs

5.1 INTRODUCTION
This unit seeks to introduce you to the evaluation of lateral earthforces acting on retaining
structures and to determine the stability of such structures. You know that structures which
are constructed to hold back a soil mass are called retaining structures. Retaining walls,
sheet pile bulkheads, braced excavations and basement walls are examples of retaining
structures (Figure 5.1). A retaining wall helps in maintaining the surface of the ground at
different elevations on either side of the structure. If the retaining wall was not there, the
soil at higher elevation would tend to move down till it acquires its natural, stable
configuration (Figure 5.2). Consequently the soil that is now retained at a slope steeper
than it can sustain by virtue of its shear strength exerts a force on the retaining wall. The
force is called earth pressure. The gravity retaining wall is'the simplest type of retaining
wall and the other common type is the cantilever retaining wall.
I Foundativn ~ngineering-I1 It should be clear to you that a retaining wall is constructed whenever space requirements

(a retaining walls (b)

sheet Dile walls

Figure 5.1: Types of Retaining Structure

do not allow the natural slope to be formed for an excavation. Such conditions may arise
when a roadway or storage area is needed immediately adjacent to an excavation and the
retaining wall forms a permanent wall of the excavation. Let us see how a wall is
constructed. A temporary slope is formed at the edge of excavation and the wall is built
(Figure 5.2). Then the backfill is dumped into the space between the wall and the
temporary slope. For gravity walls, masonry or concrete is used. Reinforced concrete is
used for cantilever and counterfort retaining walls. Reinforced earth walls are now widely
used in developed countries.

Figure 5.2: Construction of a Retaining Wall

Figure 5.3 shows in a general way the forces that act on a gravity retaining wall. m e
bearing force resists the weight of the walls plus the vertical components of the other
forces. The active thrust is developed due to the placement of the backfill and any
surcharge on its surface and tends to push the wall outward. The outward motion is
resisted by sliding resistance along the base of the wall and by the passive resistance of the
soil lying above the toe of the wall. The overturning is resisted by the weight of the wall,
weight of the soil and the vertical component of the active thrust. The weight of the wall
and the soil resists overturning and causes sliding resistance at the base of the wall. In
gravity retaining wall the weight of the wall is the major component of resistance while in
cantilever wall, the weight of soil is the major component.
A retaining wall together with the backfill the wall retains and the soil that supports the
wall is a highly indeterminate system. The magnitudes of the forces that act upon a wall
are difficult to determine. Hence the design is based on the analysis of fdrces that would
exist if the wall started to fail (i.e) to overturn or to slide outward.
 Earth Pressure &
Retaining Structures

weight
wall W

toe I

Figure 5.3: Forces Acting on a qravity Retaining wall

Ike first step in the analysis is to envision the pattern of deformation that would
lccompany such a failure. In the case of failure of gravity retaining wall it has been
.Axserved that the soil moved toward the wall and downward within the soil. These
motions indicated that the shear failure occurred throughout the active zone and the full
frictional resistance was mobilized throughout the zone. A second zone of shear failure
(the passive zone) developed at the toe of the wall when the wall was pushing against the
soil.
The approach to the design of retaining walls can be started as follows:
i) Select a trial dimension of the wall
ii) Determine the active thrust against the wall
iii) Determine the sliding resistance at the base of the wall due to the weight of the wall
and the soil
iv) Determine the passive resistance at the toe of the wall
v) Check whether the resistance exceeds the active thrust whether the resisting moment
exceeds the overturning moment, and whether tension is created in any horizontal
section of the wall. Adopt suitable factors of safety.
Objectives
After studying this unit you should be able to:
identify the field situations where Active, Passive and at rest earth pressures
development,
calculate the lateral earth thrusts by Rankine and Coulomb methods for
cohesionless and cohesive soils, and
to check the stability of gravity and cantilever retaining walls against sliding
bearing capacity and overturning failures.
Now let us consider the methods for determining the active thrust and passive resistance.

5.2 EFFECT OF WALL MOVEMENT ON EARTH

PRESSURE
About fifty years ago Terzaghi conducted a series of tests on large scale model retaining
walls to ascertain the variation of magnitude of earth pressures with the movement of the
walls. When the wall is rigid and unyielding, there are no deformations and the soil mass
is in a state called earth pressure at rest. This is represented by the point A in
(Figures 5.4(a)). When the wail rotates about its toe, moving away from the soil
(Figure 5.4(b)), the soil mass expands, resulting in a decrease of earth pressure. Any
element of soil will then behave just like a specimen in a triaxial test in which the
Foundation Engineering-11 confining pressure is decreased while the axial stress remains constant. When the
horizontal stress is decreased to a certain magnitude. the full shear strength of the soil will
be mobilised. No further decrease in the horizontal stress is possible even with further
movement of the wall. This is called active earth force. This is represented by point B in
the (Figure 5.4(a)).
If the wall is pushed towards the wall (Figure 5.4(c)) the soil is compressed and thc soil
offers resistance to this movement by shearing resist'mce. Any element of the soil can now
be considered to be in the condition of a triaxial specimen being failed by illcreasing rhc
confining pressure while holding the vertical stress conqtant. The horizontal $tress cannol
be increased b'eyond a magnitude called passive stress. At this stress failure occurs arid the
passive earth force is denoted by the point C in (Figure 5.4(a)).
Active and Passive earth pressures develop corresponding to two limiting slates of
equilibrium. The soil mass is said to be in a state of plastic equilibrium ill these lwo
stages. A small increase in stress at this stage will cause the plastic flow condition-a
contii~uousincrease in the corresponding strain.

passive p r w u r e

(b)

-t- - - - -
active e a r t h pressure
pressure
1

away from backfill towards backfill

wall movement
(a)

Figure 5.4 : Wall Movement and Development of Active and Passive Prc~sure

It is to be noted that for s'mds very little horizontal strain, less than 0.5% is required to
reach the active state while little horizontal compression, about 0.5% is required to reach
one-half the maximum passive resistance. However about 2% of horizontal compression
is needed to reach the full maximum passive resistance in dense sands while m loose sands
horizontal compression needed to reach full passive resistance may be a$ lnrge as 15%.

5.3 EARTH PRESSURE AT REST

You have seen that the active pressure is the minimum lateral pressure while the passive
pressure is the maximum lateral pressure. Active pressure is associated with the
expansion of the soil and the passive pressure with the compression of soil. In both the
conditions the soil mass is in a state of incipient failure. The soil in its natural state at a
depth z below the ground level is not subjected to any strain. The element is in a condition
lu~lownas the "at rest" condition. The corresponding lateral pressure, called the earth
pressure at rest is expressed in the form

Where, KOis called the coefficient of earth pressure at rest. 0,is the effective vertical stress
at depth z. At rest condition it also termed as KOcondition.
If the soil mass is considered to be semi-infinite, homogeneous, elastic and isotropic
material, the magnitude of can be shown to be
where. p is the Poisson's ratio of the material Earth Pressure &
Retdr~ingStructures
For sands and llormally consolidated clays, lhe magnitude of can be related to the 0 value
as tollow

Typical values of k, are shown in Table.5.1. The earth pressure at rest condition exists in
the case of basements and abutments where the wall earth system is rigid.
Table 5.1: Typical Values of K ,
r ~1.~0. Soil K,
I
1) Dense sand 0.40 - 0.45
2) Loose sand
3 Compacted sand 0.80 - 1 .SO
Normally consolidated clay 0.50 - 0.60
Over consolidated clay 1.0- 4.0

SAQ 1
I) Sketch of wall movement you expect in Cantilever sheet pile walls and
anchored sheet pile walls
ii) Derive the relation K = A
1-P
iii) Estimate the value of KOfor water.

5.4 RANKINE ACTIVE AND PASSIVE STATES

Rankiile theory considers the condition when shear failure is imminent at every point
&thin Ule soil mass and it is in a state of plastic equilibrium. Let us now analyse a
semi-infinite inass of soil bounded by a horizontal surface and a vertical boundary formed
by the vertical smooth wall surface (Figure 5.5). The soil mass is assumed to be
homogeneous dry and cohesionless. Please note that the theory has been extended to
include cohesive and submerged soils also.

a c t i-
ve -
,passive

smooth
wail
,
r

active passive
8=45*@/2 ( b ) 8 = 45+@/2 (c)
Figure 5.5: Active Rankine and Passive Rankine States

hi Figure 5.5, a soil element at depth z is subjected to a vertical stress oxand a horizontal
stress G,~.Since a semi-infinite mass of soil is considered, there are no shear stresses on the
vertical and horizontal plm1>i.So o, and oxare the principal stresses. The Mohr's circle
represenling the at rest cond,n.,n is shown in Figure 5.6. When the wall moves away from
the backfill, the soil element expands and the value of o, decreases. The value of o,
decreases lo a minimum when the expansion is large enough developing a state of plastic
equilibrium. In Figure 5.6, this condition is obtained when the Mohr circle representing the
stressed slate touches the failure envelope for the soil. In this case the horizontal stress o,
is the minor principal stress and the vertical stress o, is the major principal stress. At this
stage the sand is said to bc in active Rankinc state.
The vertical stress o, (or o, ) on the soil element is the weight of sand above the plane, y, .
The minimum value of o,, (or a, ) when the state of plastic equilibrium is reached can be
determined as follows:
exPanslOn - CICtlve COmpression-~assi~e

ate

elastic equilibrium
l

Figure 5.6: Mohr Circles for Active and Pmsive Condition

(0, - o,)/2 01 - 0,
sin @ = - ... (5.4)
( 0 , + 0,112 0 , + 0,

I+sin@- - -
01
1 - sin @ o,

The minimum value of o, is defined as the active earth pressure, Pa . Hence P, can be
written as
1 - sin @
P~ = Z' 1 + sin @

1 - sin $
Where, K, =
1 + sin @ - tan2 i.5-:)
K, is termed as coefficient of active Rankine pressure.
When the soil mass is in the active Rankine state two sets of failure planes develop each
inclined at an angle 45 + @/2to the horizontal which is the direction of major principal
plane as seen in Figure 5.5.
Let us now consider the case when the wall moves towards the backfill. There will be
uniform compression in the horizontal direction. This leads to an increase m the value of
ohwhile the value of o, remains constant. As the deformation increases, o , goes on
increasing. When on = o, the Mohr's circle is a point. Then the horizontal stress becomes
greater than vertical stress. The maximum value of onis reached when the diameter of the
Mohr's circle touches the failure envelope (Figure 5.6). At this point a state of plastic
equilibrium is reached and the soil is then said to be in the passive Rankine state. The
corresponding horizontal stress is defined as the passive earth pressure, P, . Then we can
write
 Earth Pressure &
Retaining Structures

K, is defined as the coefficient of passive pressure.

In the passive state two sets of failure planes make an angle of 45 - with the horizontal
2
which is the direction of minor principal plane as shown in Figure 5.5.

SAQ 2
1) Show that
1 - sin 41
2) Estimate the value K, , K, and KOfor a cohesionless soil whose angle of
shear resistance is 30' .
3) Estimate the values of K, and K,, for water and soft clays.

5.5 ACTIVE PRESSURE ON RETAINING WALLS

5.5.1 Cohesionless Backfill
-
i) Dry Backfill No Surcharge
Figure 5.7 shows a retaining wall with a smooth vertical back. The backfill is dry and
cohesionless. There is no surcharge. At any depth z, the lateral pressure Pa,can be written
'IS

Figure 5.7: Active Pressure Distribution

Pa Z = KzyZ ... (5.13)

where, y is the dry unit weight of the soil. At the base of the wall, where z= H,

P, = Kzy H ... (5.14)

The total active thrust P, is given by the area of the active pressure distribution diagram.
It acts through the centre of gravity of the area at a height HI3 above the base of the wall.

Example 5.1
A retaining wall with a smooth vertical back retains dry sand backfill for a depth of
3 m. The backfill has a level surface and has the following properties.
 :[
Foundation Engineering-I1
c = 0: $ = 3 0 " ; y = 1 6 k ~ / m "
Calculate the magnitude of the total active earth thrust against the wall assumng
the wall is free to move and its point of application.
I
I

h 4 k N l m
I

k l 6 k ~ a l

Figure 5.8

Solution
Since the wall is free to move, assume active condition.
I
1 - sin 30 0.5
Coefficient of active earth pressure K O = - = 0.33
I 1 + sin 30 1.5
P, = K , y H = 0.33 x 16 x 3 = 16kN/m2

Total thrust per metre length of wall (Figure 5.8)

1
P, = - K, y H2 = 24 kN/m3
I 2
I

This acts at a height of 1m above base

I

Example 5.2
In example 5.1 assume the wall is restrained against yielding and determine the
active lateral thrust.
Solution
I

Since the wall is not free to move, assume earth pressure at rest condition.
, Coefficient of earth pressure at rest KO = 1 - sin $
= 1 - sin 30 = 0.5

Po = 0.5 x 16 x 3 = 24 k W m 2 (Figure 5.9)

3m ~ y k N l m

24kPa
Figure 5.9

Total lateral thrust per metre length = 1/2 KO y H~

 -*.

= 1/2 x 0.5 x 16 x 3 x 3 = 36 kN/m (Figure 5.9) Earth Pressure 8;

Retaining Structures
-
2) Dry Back Fill Uniform Surcharge
If a uniforinly distributed surcharge load of intensity q per unit area is acting over the
surface of the backfill, the effective vertical pressure at any depth is increased by q. The
increase in active pressure is uniform throughout the depth and is equal to K, q
(Figure 5.10). The total active thrust can be written as

!' Figure 5.10: Effect of Surcharge

Example 5.3
In Example 5.1, a surcharge load of 30 kN/m2 is acting on the backfill. Determine
the total lateral force and its line of action.
Solution
The active earth force = 24 k ~ / m *
and it acts at a height of 1.0 m above the base
The lateral force due to surcharge = K , q.H.

Total lateral force = 54 N/m

The line of action of the force can be determined by taking moments about the base.
5 4 x y = 2 4 x 1 + 3 0 x1.5

Note that the thrust due to surcharge acts at a height H /2 above the base (Figure 5.1 1).

Figure 5.11
Foundation Engineering-11 3) Sloping Backfill
In the case of an inclined backfill at an angle P to the horizontal, the lateral earth pressure
is assumed to act parallel to the backfill surface (Figure 5.12). It is also assumed that the
vertical stress and the lateral pressure acting on the soil element are conjugate stresses,
(i.e.) the direction of one is parallel to the plane on which the other acts. In this case the
vertical stress and the lateral pressure are not principal stresses. The relation between them
can be obtained by means of a Mohr diagram.

Figure 5.12: Backfil Wall Sloping Surface

The active earth pressure at a depth z acting parallel to the slope is given by

Where, K, = ...

The total active thrust P, is given by

Example 5.4
In Example 5.1 assume that the backfill is inclined at an angle of 20' to the
horizontal. Estimate the total lateral earth thrust.
Solution
The coefficient of active pressure for inclined backfill, K,

Active earth thrust = 1/2 x 16 x 0.4144 x 9

= 29.84 N
4) Inclined Back of Wall
A modified procedure which includes the weight of backfill on the retaining wall can be
used to determine the active earth thrust for the walls with a batter. Figure 5.13 shows a

Figure 5.13: Active Pressure Level Backfm

v .
horizontal backfill with an inclined back. The suggested procedure for calculating the Earth Pressure &
active earth pressure is Retaining Structures

i) Draw a vertical line through the base of the wall to intersect the backfill surface at B.
ii) Calculate the total active thrust, Pa on the vertical plane AB.
iii) Determine the weight of soil, W included in the triangular wedge ABC.
iv) The lateral thrust on the wall P is the vector sum of Pa and W.

Similar procedure can be adopted for determining the total active thrust in the case of
inclined backfill for a retaining, wall with a batter (Figure 5.14).

\w ~nclirtedback

Figure 5.14: Active Pressure inclined Backfill

5) Completely Submerged Backfill

Figure 5.15 shows the case of completely submerged backfill. For the submerged portion
of the backfill by the presence of natural water table, submerged unit weight of the soil y is
to be used for computing the active thrust. The total lateral thrust will be equal to the sum
of active thrust and the hydrostatic pressure. Then lateral thrust P

Figure 5.15: Fully Submerged Backfill

Example 5.5
In example 5.1, assume that water table is at the top of the wall and there is no
drainage. The saturated unit weight of sand is 20 k ~ l mDetermine
~. the total lateral
force acting on the wall and its line of action.
Assume active lateral earth pressure. ,
Solution
Since the sand is submerged, submerged unit weight have to be used in calculating
earth pressure. However there will be no reduction in angle of shearing resistance
due to submergence.
1%oundation Engineering-I1

Figure 5.16

K = 0.33
Active lateral earth pressure = K, y ,,,H
= 0.33 x ( 19 - 9.8 ) x 3 = 10.2 kpa

Actlve lateral earth force = 1/2 x 10.2 x 3

= 15.3 N/m
Lateral force due to water = 112 .(,H~
= 1/2 x 9.8 x 9 = 44.1N/m
Total lateral force = 59.4 N/m
Both the forces act at a height of 1.0 m above base. Hence the resultant force also
acts at 0 height ot 1.0 m above base (Figure 5.16).
6) Partly Submerged Backfill
In the case of backfill submerged partially. the moist or dry unit weight of soil IS to be
taken for the portion above the water table and the submerged unlt welght below the water
table. The total lateral thrust will be equal to the sum of the active thrust due to soil and the
hydrostatic pressure. The lateral pressure on the base of the wall P can be written as
(Figure 5.17).
= KuYHl+KuYsu~ (H-H~)+Ya(H-H~) ... (5.22)

Figure 5.17: Partly Submerged Backfill

7) Stratified Backfill
Rankine's theory can also be used to calculate the lateral thrust due to stratified backfills.
For the top layer Rankine's earth thrust is calculated as indicated in earlier sectioris. For
determining the thrust due to bottom layers, the weight of the layers above them is treated
as surcharge and earth thrust calculated. You can get a clear Idea about the procedure in
example 5.6.
Example 5.6
A retaining wall with a smooth vertlcal back retain a two layer dry coheslonless
backfill with the following properties.
I

0 - 4 m depth c = 0, @ = 30' : P = 17 k ~ l n i ' Earth Pressure di

Retaining Structures

Determine the total lateral earth force acting on the wall and its line of action.
Solution
When there are two layers, lateral earth pressure for the bottom layer P, , is
calculated assuming that the top layer is a surcharge force (Figure 5.18).

Figure 5.18

1 - sin 30
K , l'or thc top layer = = 0.33
1 + sin 30
1 - sin 34
K, for the bottom layer = = 0.283
1 + sin 34
For the top layer
(PL,,),,,, = 0.33 x 4 x 17 = 22.67 kN/m2
For the bottom layer
(P, ), ,= 0.283 x 4x 17 = 19.24 kN/m2
(P, ), ,= 0.283 x 4 x 17 + 4x x 20 = 41.88 kN/m2
The active pressure diagram is shown in Figure 5.18.
Note that there is a break in the pressure distribution diagram at the inter face.
The total lateral earth force
= 1/2 x 22.67 x 4 + 19.24 x 4 + 1/2 (41.88 - 22.64) x 4
= 45.34 + 76.96 + 45.28 = 167.58 k ~ l r n '
The line of action of the resultant can be calculated by taking moments about the
base.
167.58 x v = 45.34 (4 + 413) + 76.96 x 2 + 45.28 x 413

The resultant acts at a height of 2.78 m above base.

5.5.2 Cohesive Backfill

The Rankine theory has been extended to the case of soils having both friction and
cohesion. For a soil having both friction and cohesion, the relation between major
principal stress o, and minor principal stress 0,at failure can be expressed in the form
(Figure 5.19).
 Figure 5.19 :Failure Envelop for Cohesive Soil

.\j-
. I = ~ (
l+sin@
9 - sin $ ] + 2C
,-sin@ ...

3' = b $11 -sin4

+ sin
+ 2C-,/FGj-
1 + sin @
...

In the case of a retaining wall of height H with a smooth vertical back retaining cohesive
backfill, at any depth z (Figure 5.20).

Figure 5.20 :Active Pressure Cohesive Soil

1-sin4
= y z (1+ sin $1 - 2C.\jTxGjr
1 + sin @

From Equation 5.27 at z = 0, Pa = -2C ... (5.28)

The distribution of active earth pressure is shown in Figure 5.21. The negative pressure
exists upto a depth z, where the active pressure becomes zero. The soil is in a state of
tension in the zone between the ground and depth zo. In practice this tension cannot be
taken to act on the wall. Tension cracks develop in the soil within the tension zone and the
soil may not remain adhering to the wall. Hence in calculating the total active thrust on the
wall, the tension zone is usually ignored and only the area of the pressure diagram between
depth z, and H is considered. The active thrust on the wall is,
 Earth Pressure &
Retaining Structures

Figure 5.21 :Active Pressure Distribution for 2- @ Soil Backfile

You can observe Ulat the net active thrust is zero for a depth equal to 22,. It is implied that
in a cohesive soil, a vertical cut can be made upto a depth 22, without any lateral support.
The critical depth of a vertical cut H, in a cohesive soil is given by

However. the failure conditions in a cut differ fromthose in a retaining wall and the actual
unsupported depthof a cut is likely to be smaller than what is given by the equation.
Example 5.7
A retaining wall 6 m high retains a clay backfill with c = 20 k ~ l m ' , $ = 15" and
y =18 ~ l m Assuine
? that the wall is smooth and the back vertical. It is expected
that tension cracks may develop to the full theoretical depth. Calculate the total
active earth force a acting on the wall.
Solution

2c 2 x 20
The depth of tension rack = --

The lateral pressure diagram is shown in Figure 5.22. It is recommended that the
tensile stress upto the depth of 2.9 m is to be ignored. Hence the total active thrust is

l----l32.9kPa
Figure 5.22
Fuund;ttion Engineering-11 Example 5.8
An excavation is to be made in a clay having a cohesive strength of 24 kN/m2. The
unit weight of clay is 20 kN/mZ.What is the depth of vertical cut that can be made
without any support?
Solution

YOUknow that the depth of tension crack is 1C and the dcpth of vertical cut is
YE

Let US assume @, = 0
Then K, = 1
4 x 24
So critical depth = -- 4.8 m
20

5.6 PASSIVE PRESSURE OF RETAINING WALLS

The passive earth pressure is mobilized when the soil is compressed. This can occur in the
field in front of the toe of a retaining wall which is being pushed by a backfill. In some
cases passive pressure will be mobilized to a partial extent only.
5.6.1 Cohesionless Soil
In the case of dry cohesionless level backfill the passive pressure at a dcpth ,- is given by

p p ~= Kl,~z ... (5.32)

where, K,, =
1-sm@
tan2 b 5 + $1 ...

The total passive resistance P, for the full height of the retaining wall is

1
2 K '1 y H 2
P,, = - ... (5.34)

If a uniform surcharge load of q is applied over the surface, the passive earth pressure is
increased by kp q a1 every depth. The total, passive resistance can then be written as

If the backfill is inclined at an angle p to the horizontal, the passive pressure P, at a depth
z is given by

cos P + dcos2 p - cos2 qi

where K , = cos p ...
cos p - .Icos2 p - cos2 $
The total passive resistance P p of the wall of height H can be written as

The force acts parallel to the slope of the fill.

Example 5.9
A retaining wall 5 m high is pushed against a cohesionless backfill. The surface is
horizontal. The angle of shearing resistance of the soil is 30" and its unit weight is
17 kN/m3. Calculate the total Rankine passive resistance ?
Solution

Coefficient of pasgive earth pressure = l += 3.0

1 - sin @
 255kPa
Figure 5.23
'
Passive earth pressure = kp y H = 3 x 17 x 5 = 255 kN1m (Figure 5.23)
Passive thrust = 112 x 255 x 5 = 637.5 kN/m
5.6.2 Cohesive Soil
You have already seen that the relation between the major principal stress o,,and the
minor principal stress o, for a cohesive soil can be written as

For the case of passive earth pressure,

The total pressure earth resistance P, for the full height H of the retaining wall is given by
(Figure 5.24).

Figure 5.24 :Passive Pressure Distribution for c-4 Soil Backfill

The two components of act Pp at heights of Hn and HI2 respectively from the base of the
wall.
Example 5.10
A retaining wall 5 m high is pushed against a cohesive back fill. The uniform
surcharge on the level backfill is 40 kN/m2. The cohesive strength of soil 30 kWm2
and angle of shearing resistance is 20'. The unit weight of soil is 20 k ~ l m ~ .
Determine the total Rankine passive thrust and its point of application.
 1+ sin 20 - 1 - 0.3420 -
- -1.342
. - 2.M
-
KP =
1 - sin 20 1 + 0.3420 0.658
At any depth z, passive earth pressure
'

P p = K,yz + Kpq + 2 c 5

The passive earth pressure diagram is shown in Figure 5.25.

40 kPa 81.6 kPa 57.13kPa

Figure 5.25

The total passive thrust is

P,= 1/2 x 204 x 5 + 81.6 x 5 + 57.13 x 5 = 510 + 408 + 285.7 = 1203.65 kN/m2
The point of application can be determined by taking moments about the base
1203.65 x y = 510 x 5/3 + 408 x 5/2 + 285.7 x 5/2
= 850 + 1620 + 714.25 = 2584.25

The resultant acts horizontally at a height of 2.15 m from the base Figure 5.25.

5.7 LIMITATIONS OF RANKINE'S THEORY

Generally the movement of the retaining wall by the rotation of the wall about its base will ,.
not be able to produce the state of plastic equilibrium in the entire backfill. The active

minimum s t r a i n I l l l is constant at every depth

(a) Active Case (b) Passive Case

Figure 5.26: Acting Pressure Cohessive Soil
plastic equilibrium will be developed in the wedge of soil between the wall and a failure Earth Pressu~-e&
plane passing through the heel of the wall at an angle of 45' + $/2to the horizontal Retainiug Structures
(Figure 5.26). Within this wedge the strain is constant and is of magnitude sufficient to
produce the acove Rankine state. The rest of the backfill will be in elastic equilibrium.
The active pressure distribution along the back of the wall howcver, is the sane for the
local state of plastic equilibrium as for the general Rankine state. The wedge of the soil in
the passive state will have its failure plane at 45' - $12 to the horizontal. Here also the
rotation of the wall about the base should create the minimum deformation about the base.
Rankine's theory assumes the back of wall to be smooth. No frictional forces are assumed
to exist between the soil and the wall. Hence the lateral pressure is assumed to act parallel
to the surface of the backfill. But in practice, considerable friction will be developed
between the soil and the wall due to the movement of the wall. As a consequence earth
pressure will be inclined at a certain angle to tlie normal to the wall. The assumption of a
smooth wall surface results in an overestimation of active earth pressure and an
underestimation of passive earth pressure. The error however is on the safe side.
In cases of irregular backfill surface and complcx surcharge loads, Rankine's theory is
difficult to use.

SAQ 3
i) A 5 m high gravity retaining wall is designed on the basis of dry backfill
active earth pressure with a factor of safety of 1.5 against sliding. Check
whether the wall will he safe in the following conditions.
a) the ground water level rises to the top of the backfill and there is no
drainage.
b) the retaining wall remains rigid and does not deform
ii) How do you prevent the conditions stated in problem 1 occurring during the
life of the wall'?

5.8 COULOMB'S THEORY OF EARTH PRESSURE

Instead of considering the equilibrium of an element in a stressed mass, Coulomb's theory
consider a, sliding wedge which tends to break away from the rest of the backfill when the
wall moves. A cohcsionless soil will slump down to its angle of shearing resist'mce $ on
the plane BD, if the wall is suddenly removed (Figure 5.27). If the wall is moved slightly,

Figure 5.27: Coulomb's Failure Wedge

rupture plane BC would develop somewhere between AB and BD. The wedge of soil ABC
would then move down the back of the wall AB and along the rupture plane BC. If the
wall is pushed toward the soil, the sliding wedge would move inwards and upwxds.
Coulomb's theory takes into account the friction between the wall and the soil in its
analysis. The assumptions in the Coulomb's analysis are as follows:
i) The backfill soil is dry, cohesionless, homogeneous and isotropic
Foundation Engineering-I1 ii) The failure surface is a plane surface which passes through the heel of the wall.
Note that the actual failure surface will be curved since wall friction is considered.
The error introduced by this assumption in the evaluation of active pressure is of
small magnitude. However in the case of passive pressure error will be significant
when the angle of wall friction o exceeds $/3.
iii) The sliding wedge is considered to be a rigid body.
5.8.1 Cohesionless Backfill
i) Active Earth Pressure
The three forces keeping the wedge ABC in equilibrium are the weight of the wedge ABC,
the soil reaction R on the failure plane and the reaction to the active earth force Pa between
the wall and the soil. The forces acting on the wall are shown in Figure 5.28(a). The earth

-
Figure 5.28 :Coulomb's Theory Cohesionless Backfill - Active case',

pressure reaction acts at an angle $ below the normal to the back of the wall. The direction
of soil reaction R at failure is at an angle $ measured below the normal to the failure plane
to oppose the downward movement of the wedge. The triangle of forces is shown in
Figure 5.28(b). Since the magnitude of W is known, the other forces can be determined.
The magnitude of Pa is thus known. The critical failure plane is the one for which the soil
reaction is the maximum. The wall must resist the maximum lateral force before it moves
out. The value of Pa (max) is the lateral active earth pressure.
The coefficient of active earth pressure for the case shown in Figure 5.28 is
sec 8 cos ( 41 - 0 )
K, =
J ~ ~
r l d s~
i n ( 8 - 6,) s i n ~
(@-&~
) ,
where,0 = angle of back of wall to the vertical
o = angle of wall friction
p = angle of inclination of surface of retained soil to the horizontal
$ = angle of shearing resistance of the soil
when o = o and o = 0, K, reduces to the Rankme's equation

cos j3 - 4cos2 p - cos2 4

K, = cos p ...
COS p + dcos2 p - cos2$

Ka = 1 - sin4
1 + sin $
The value of angle of wall friction varies from 2/3 $ to 314 $
Table 5.2 gives typical values of K,. It is seen that an increase in 6 causes a
decrease in K, but the increase is of the order of 5 to 10 percent only. But the more
 sig~lificailfactor in inclusion of Mction is in changing the line of action of earth Earth Pressure &
pressure. This will reduce the overturning moment and the lateral sliding force. Retaining Structures

Show that in the case of a retaining wall with %smoothvertical back retaining a
level cohesionless soil with a failure wedge making an angle of 45 + f to the
horizontal, Coulomb's theory gives the same magnitude of lateral active earth thrust
as thc Rankine's theory.

ii) Culmann's Graphical Procedure

When the surface of the retained soil is irregular, it is simpler to use the graphical method
proposed by Culmann in 1866. The procedure is versatile and can dcal with irregular soil
surfaces and with irregular combinations of uniform and line loads.
The procedure is to select a series of trial wedges and find one that exerts the greatest
thrust on the wall. A wedge is acted upon by the three forces:
W - the weight of the wedge
Pa - the reaction from the wall
R - the reaction on the plane of failure.
At failure the reaction on the failure plane will be inclined at maximum obliquity, $ to the
normal to the plane. If the angle of wall friction is o then the reaction from the wall will
be inclined at 6 to the normal to the wall. Please note that 6 cannot be greater than $. As
active pressures are being developed the wedge is tending to move downwards.and
consequently R and Pa will be on the downward side of the normals (Figure 5.29). W is of
known magnitude (area ABD x unit neight) and acts vertically downwards. The line of
action of R and Pa are known. Hence the magnitudes of R and Pa can be determined by
constructing thc Uiangle.,offorces.

culmann line

e d = P etc.
4 4 a4

& line load I

Figure 5.29: Colmann Comtruction -Active Case Cohesionless BackWl

In Figure 5.29, the total thrust on the wall due to earth pressure is to be evaluated. FOUI
trial wedges have been selected with failure surfaces BC, BD, BE and BF. At some point
along each failure surface, a line normal to it is drawn. Then a,second line is constructed at
$ to the normal. The .-
resulting four lines give the lines of action of the reactions on each of
Foundation Engineering-11 the trial planes of fallure The direction of wall reaction is similarly obtained by drawlrig a
line normal to the wall and then another line at an angle 8 to it.
The weight of each tr~alslice is next obtained. Starting at a point X these we~ghtsare set

weight of slice ABD etc.

A separate triangle of forces is now completed for each of the four wedges. The direct~ons
of the corresponding reaction on the failure plane and of Pa are obta~nedfrom space
diagram. The point of intersection of R and P, are given the symbol e with suffix thal
tallies with the wedge analysed (i.e.) the point e, represents the intersection of Pa,and R,
The maximum thrust on the wall is represented by the maximum value of length ed. To
obtain this length a smooth curve (the Culmann line) is drawn through points
el , e2 , e, , and e,. A tangent to the Culmann line parallel to x d, will cut the line at
point e; hence the line ed can be drawn on the force diagram and the length ed represents
the thrust on the back of the wall due to the soil.
The position of the actual failure plane can be plotted on the space diagram. The angle
e-, x e-:! on the force diagram equals angle EBD on the space diagram. Similarly angle
e x e2 equals the angle GBD when BG is the failure plane.
iii) Point of Application of Active Thrust
The total active thrust Paon the wall for bolh Rankine and Coulomb analytical methods is
given by the expression
1
P, = - Y H ~K ,
2
where, K,= coefficient of active earth pressure
y = unit weight of retained soil

(a) ( b) (c)

-
Figure 5.30 :Point of Application of Active Thrust Rankine Theory

The point of application of P, on the back of the wall is largely indetermate. Locations
suitable for design purposes when Rankine's theory is used are given in Figure 5.30.

Figure 5.31: Point of Application of Active Thurst Coulomb Theory

These are based on the assumption of triangular distribution of pressure obtained by Earth Pressure &
Rankine's theory. For most practical purposes these locations of Pa can also be used in Retaining Structures
conjunction with values obtained from a Coulmb analytical solution.
When Coulomb line construction is used, the magnitude of can be obtained directly from
the force diagram. Its point of application may be assumed to be where a line drawn
through the centroid of the failure wedge and parallel to thefailure plane intersects the
back of the wall (Figure 5.3 1).
Example 5.11
The retaining wall shown in Figure 5.32 retains cohesionless soil having an angle of
shearing resistance of 34' and unit weight of 18 kP4/m3. The angle of wall friction
can be taken as 20". The backfill is sloping at an angle of 15" to the horizontal.
Determine the total active lateral thrust due by Culmann's graphical procedure and
its point of action.
Solution
Refer to Figure 5.32
Weight of wedges
ABC = W, = 138.6. kN (Xd,)
ABD = W, = 277.2 MV (X d,)
ABI = W3 = 415.8 kN(x 4)
ABF = W, = 554.4 kN (X 4 )
ABG = W, = 693.0 kN (X 4)
The space and Force diagrams are shown in Figure 5.32.

B e d = e d :P = 346.5 k N l m X
scale:lcm = l m 3 3
scale: 1 crn : 138.6 kN
r d = P = 415.8 k N l m
I I al

Figure 5.32

Maximum Pa = e, d, = ed = 346.5 kN/m. A parallel line is drawn through c and q the

failure wedge ABE to intersect the back of the wall to determine the line of action.
The active earth force Paacts at an inclination of 0" to the normal to the face of the
wall as shown.
iv) Surcharges
The extra loading carried by a retaining wall is known as a surcharge and can be a uniform
load (roadways stacked goods), a line load (track running parallel to a wall) or isolated
load (column footing)
The uniform load can be added to the weight of each slice. The weight of each wedge plus
its surcharge is plotted as x dl, , x d2, etc. and the procedure is as described before. Even
when a retaining wall is not intended to support a uniform surcharge, it is to be noted that
 I

. Foundation Engineering-11 it may be subjected to surface loading due to plant movement during its construction. It is
therefore preferable to design the wall for a nominal uniform surcharge of 5 to 10 kbI/rn2.
The weight W, due to the line load is s i m ~ l vadded to the trial wedges affected by it
(Figure ?.29).?he Culmann line is first cbistructed as before ignoring the line load. On
this basis the failure plane would be BC and P, would have a value ed to some force scale.
Slip occurring on BC, and all places further from the wall will be due to the wedge weight
plus W,. For plane BC, set off (W, + W, ) from X to d, and continue the construction of
Culmann line as before - for every trial wedge to the right of plane BC add W, to its
I weight. The Culmann line jumps from el to e: and then continues to follow a similar curve.
The wall thrust is again determined from maximum ed value by drawing a tangent, the
maximum value of ed being in this case e: d:. If is located far enough back from the wall,
ed may be greater than ei d!; in this case is taken as having no effect on the wall.
Neither Rankine theory nor the Coulomb theory can be adapted for isolated loads. The
lateral pressures due to isolated loads have to be solved by elastic theory.
Example 5.12
In the Example 5.11, assume that a vertical line load of 50 kN/m is acting at a
horizontal distance of 3 m from the crest of the wall. Determine the magnitude of
I the total active lateral earth thrust.
Solution
Refer Figure 5.33
weight of wedges
ABC = 138.2 kN (x d,)
ABD = 277.2 + 50 = 327.2 W (xd,)
ABE = 415.8 + 50 = 465.8 W (x d,)
I
ABF = 554.4 + 50 = 604.4 kN (Xd,)
I
ABG = 693.0 + 50 = 743.0 W (x d,)
The culmann line with live load are shown in dotted line.
Maximum Pa= e, d, = 41 5.8kNIm

5.8.2 Cohesive Backfill .

Coulomb theory assumes that at the top of the wall there is a zone of soil within which
there are no friction or cohesion effects along hoth the back of the wall and the plane of
rupture (Figure 5.33). The depth of zone is taken as z,.

8
space diagram

one slice

force diagram
-
Figure 5.33 :Culmann Corrritruction -Active Case Cohesive Backfill

There are now five forces acting on the wedge:(Figure 5.33)

 R - reaction of plane of failure
W - weight of whale wedge ABED
Earth Pressure &
Retaining Structures I
P - resultant thrust on me wall
C, - adhesive force along length BF of wall
C - cohesive force along rupture plane BE.
Note that unit wall adhesion Cacannot be greater than Ca.For soils with a cohesion value
greater than 50 k ~ / mC,~ should
, be taken as 50 kN/m2. Ca can be taken as equal to C, for
C,, values less than 50 kN/m2.
The magnitudes of W, C, and C can be determined as follows:

There are only two unknowns R and Pa and they can be determined by constructing a
polygon of forces. As the force C,is common to all wedges it is set off first and the C,
force is then plotted. The direction of Pais drawn from point d and the direction of R is
drawn from the end of force Ca. The two points intersect at the point e on the Culmann line.
Analytical solutions with the Coulomb theory are possible but extremely complicated.
Hence graphical procedures are generally preferred for stratified Backfill.
5.8.3 Stratified Backfill
Culmann's graphical construction can be used to solve the problems of stratified backfills.
Figure 5.34 shows a two layer backfill.
Assume BC as the back of wall retaining a single backfill (yl , $, ). The earth pressure is
determined by the Culinann method. The point of application of Pa,is obtained by drawing
a line through centre of gravity of the sliding wedge parallel to the critical plane to
intersect the back of the wall at BC. Pa,is drawn at an angle 6 to the normal to BC.
Next earth pressure Pa, is determined by the Culmann method for a retaining wall of
height CA by assuming the lower stratum. (7, , 4, ) as a backfill acted upon by a
surcharge equal in magnitude to the weight of the upper stratum (Figure 5.34).

Figure 5.34 :Stratified Backfill

The same procedure is continued when the backfill consists of more than the two strata.

5.9 CHOICE OF METHOD FOR PREDICTION OF

ACTIVE PRESSURE
It should be obvious to you that the assumptions made in Rankine's theory are not
realistic. T l ~ ewall will never be perfectly smooth and will have some degree of roughness.
Hence there will invariably be friction/adhesion developed between the wall and the soil.
Hence the assumption that no shear forces develop on the back of the wall is not true. So
there is now a general tendency to use the Coulomb theory whenever possible.
Foundation Engineering-I1 You should realise however that it is not easy to obtain measured values ok wall friction 6
and of wall adhesion C,.They are usually estimated. The value of 6 is taken to be 112 $ to
213 $ while the magnitude of C, is estimated to bc 112 C to C. The actual operating value
of 6 depends on the amount of relative movement between the soil and the wall. A
significant downward movement of the soil relative to the wall will result in the
development of maximum 6 value. In the case of gravlty and sheet pile walls, there may
not be significant downward movenlent UP the soil and a value of 6 less than the
maxir~iu~llcan be used. In the case of reinforced concrete cantilever or counterfort wall
where the retained soil is supported by a foundation slab, there will be virtually no
movenlent of the soil relative to the wall. Hence Rankine's theory can be justifiably used.
Rankine rnethod also enables a relatively faster method for determining a conservative
value of active pressure which can be useful in preliminary design work.
However the general consensus amongst soil engineers is that for-the solution of most
earth pressure problems, the Coulomb theory should be used.

5.10 DESIGN PARAMETERS FOR DIFFERENT SOIL

TYPES
Though the retaining wall performs in a state of plane strain, the parameters obtained from
the triaxial shear tests give realistic estimates of active earth pressure. Please note that thc
strength parameters vary with soil type and drainagc conditions.
The appropriate strength parameter for and gravels is the angle of she,ulng
resistance, $. The coheslon is taken as zero.
In soft a i d normally consolidated clays, the strcngth of a soil immediately after
construction is minimum and the value of active earth pressure exerted on the back of the
wall is maximunl. After construction and after sufficient time is elapsed the soil will
achieve a drained condition. The soil will then be at its greatest strength. The active earth
pressure acting on the wall will then be minimum. It is generally advisable to use the
undrained strength parameters in earth pressure calculations. $ is assumed zero and the
undrained strength of clay is C, .
In overconsolidated clay negative pore pressures are generated during shear. The stiff clay
is strongest immediately after construction and exerts the minimum lateral pressure. The
maximum value of active earth pressure will occur when the clay attains a fully drained
condition. The effective stress parameters C and $ are to be used for determining the
pressure. It may be safer to assume C, = 0 and estimate the earth pressure based on 4 since
C, values may decrease with time.
Silts car1 bc assumed purely granular with the characteristics of fine sand or pilrely
cohesive with the characteristics of soft clay. When such a classification is not possible,
total stress paranleters C and $ should be used for evaluation of earth pressure.

CHOICE OF BACKFILL MATERIAL

The ideal backfill material is granular such as suitably graded stone, gravel, clean sand
with small percentage of fines. Such material will be durabale, strong and free draining.
However it can be expensive even if obtained locally.
Economy can sometimes be achieved by using granular material in retaining wall
construction in the form of a wedge as shown in Figure 5.35. The wedgc separates the
finer material niakirig up the bulk of the backfill material from the back of the wall. The
lateral pressures exerted on the wall can then be calculated with the assumption that the
backfill is entirely made up of granular material.
Slag, clinker, burnt colliery shale and other manufactured materials similar to granular
materials will generally prove satisfactory. However they should not contain any harmful
chemicals. Inorgmic silts and clays may require special drainage arrangements; shrinkage
and swell problems may also be encountered in such materials. Peat, organic soil, chalk,
and pulverized fuel ash should he avoided as backfill material.
 Earth Pressure 8;
Retaining Structures

Figure 5.35 :Use of Granular Materials in Retaining Walls

5.12 BACKFILL DRAINAGE

Drainage of backfill is of great importance in retaining walls. A retaining wall is
designed generally to wiLhstand only the lateral pressures exerted by the soil it is
supporting. Appropriate drainage system should be designed so that hydrostatic pressure
does not clcvelop behind the wall.
Provision o f weepholes that go through Lhe wall and are spaced at about 3 m centres both
horizontally and vertically is sufficient for granular backfills. The diameter of the holes
can vary from 75 im to 150 mm. They should be protected against clogging by the
provision of gravel pockets placed in the backfill immediately behind each weephole
(Figure 5.36 (a)).

< gsanylat '. granular

backfill
'

iilter material filter strips

open jointed
-
( a ) weepholes only ( b ) drain ( c ) strips of filter material

filter blanket

-
( d l vertical draindge blankel
( e ) inclined drainage dlanket

Figure 5.36 :Drawing Systems for Retaining Walls

An alternative arrangemenl for granular backfill is shown in Figure 5.36 (b). A continuous
longiludinal backdrain is placed at Lhe foot of the wall and consists of open jointed pipes
packed around with gravel.
If the granular backfill consists more than 5% fine sand or fine grained soil, then it is only
semi-Pervious. The provision of weepholes alone may not provide sufficient drainage.
Additional drainage may have to be provided in the form of vertical strips of filter material
(about 0.33 x 0.33 m) placed between the weepholes and down to a continuous
longitudinal strips of the same filter material of the same cross section (Figure 5.36 (c)).
Blanket drains of suitable material are necessary for clayey materials. These blankets
should be 0.33 m thick and typical arrangements are as shown in Figure 5.36 (d) and (e) .
If the surface of the soil can be protected with some form of imperious covering, drainage
~ h o w nin 5.36 (d) will be sufficient. If such protection cannot be given then .there is a
 Foundation Engineering-11 chance of greater seepage pressure created during heavy rain. In such cases the provision
of inclined filter as shown in Figure 5.36 (e) will substantially reduce seepage pressures.

SAQ 5-
i) Explain why cohesionless soils are preferred as backfills.
ii) Rankine's theory can be used to estimate lateral earth thrust in cantilever
,
walls. Do you agree ? Why ?
iii) Why are counterfort walls considered more ecorlomical than buttressed
walls?

5.13 TYPES OF EARTH RETAINING STRUCTURES

You have already seen that the major types of retaining structures are:
a) Gravity walls
b) Cantilever walls
c) Counterfort walls
d) Buttress walls
e) Crib walls
f) Sheet pile walls
g) Diaphragm walls
h) Reinforced earth walls
i) Anchored earth walls
A brief description of these walls are given in the following section. Design procedures are
discussed for gravity ,and cantilever walls along with examples.
5.13.1 Gravity Walls
This wall depends on its self weight for its stability. It is designed so that the overturning
effect of the lateral earth pressure does not induce tensile stresses within the section. This
is used for walls of low height and is not economical for large heights. Gravity walls have
been built of stone,bricks, mass concrete and precast concrete blocks.
The cross section of the wall is trapezoidal with a base width between 0.3 anci 0.5 H,
where H i s the height of the wall. The top width varies from 0.2 to 0.3 m. For concrete, a
top width of 0.3 m is recommended for proper placement of concrete.
5.13.2 Cantilever Walls
Reinforced concrete cantilever retaining walls are suitable for heights upto 7 m. It has a
vertical stem monolithic with the base. The slender sections are possible as the tensile

Figure 5.37 :Cantilever Wall

stresses within the stem and the base are resisted by steel reinforcement. If the face of the Earth pressure &
wall is to be exposed a small backward batter of about I in 50 is provided in order to Retaining Strgctures
compensate for any forward tilting of the wall (Figure 5.37).
1)Relieving Platforms
Both shear and bending stresses act in a retaining wall due to lateral pressures induced by
the supporting soil. Since the thickness of gravity wall is large, it can resist those stresses.
But in a cantilever retaining wall enough steel reinforcement must be provided in the stem
to resist the bending moment and it should have sufficient thickness to withstand the shear
forces.
It is this situation that imposes a practical height limitation of about 7mon the wall stem
of a conventional retaining wall. As the dimensions of the wall are increased, it becomes
less flexible. Consequently the lateral pressures exerted on the wall by the soil tend to be
higher than the active pressures assumed in the design. A peculiar situation is thus created
- if a wall is strengthened to withstand increased lateral pressure, then its rigidity is
increased and the lateral pressures are increased.
One of the solutions to the above problem is the provision of one or more horizontal
concrete slabs or platforms. The platforms are placed within the backfill and are rigidly
connected to the wall stem (Figure 5.38). A platform carries the weight of the material

\ platform
\

( a ) typical arrangement ( b) pressure d ist ri bution

Figure 5.38 :Relieving Platform

above it (up as far as the next platform if there are more than one). The vertical force
exerts a cantilever moment on to the back of the wall in the opposite direction to the
bending moment caused by the lateral soil pressure. The resulting bending moment
diagram becomes a series of steps and the wall is subjected to a maximum bending
moment that is considerably less than the value when there are no platform.
Since the bending moments are reduced to manageable level the stem of the wall can then
be kept slim so that assumption of active pressure is realistic. This will also result in more
economical construction.

5.13.3 Counterfort Wall

These walls are used for heights greater than about 6.0m. Its wall stem acts as a slab
spanning between the counterfort supports. The spacing between supports is about 2/3 H
but should not be less than 2.5 m. Details of the walls are given in (Figure 5.39).
A form of counterfort wall is the buttressed wall where the counterforts are built on the
face of the wall and not within the backfill. These walls area not very popular because of
the exposed buttressed which consume space and spoil the appearance.
5.13.4 Crib Wall
Figure 5.40 show the crib wall. It consists of a series of boxes made from timber, precast
concrete or steel members which are filled with granular soils. It acts as a gravity wall
with the advantage of quick erection. It can also withstand relatively large displacements
due to its flexible nature. It is usually fitted so that its face has a batter of 1in 6. The width
Foundation Engineering-I1

coun terfa ts

Figure 5.39 : Counterfort Wall

of the wall varies from 0.5 to 1.0 H and is suitable for walls upto a height of about 7.0 m.
Note that the crib wall should not be subjected to surcharge loadings.

.. .

Figure -5.40 :Crib Wall

5.13.5 Gabion Wall

A gabion wall is built of rectangular metal cages or baskets. They are made from a square
grid of steel fabric, generally 5 mm in diameter and spaced 75 mm apart. These baskets
are usually 2 m long and 1 m in cross section. A central diaphragm fitted in each metal
basket dvides it into two equal 1 m x 1 m sections and adds stability. During construction
the stone filled baskets are secured together with steel wire of 2.5 ,mm diameter. The base
of the gabion wall is about 0.5H. A typical wall is illustrated in Figure 5.41. A front face
batter can be provided by slightly stepping back each succeeding layer.

Figure 5.41 :Gabion Wall

5.13.6 Sheet Pile Walls Earth Pressure 6;
Retaining Structures
These walls are made up from a series of interlocking piles individually driven into the
foundation soil. Most modern sheet pile walls are made of steel. Sometinles timber or
precast concrete sections are also used.
C'antilever sheet pile walls are held in the ground by the active and passive pressures that
act on its lower part. (Figure 5.1 .b).
Anchored sheet piles walls are fixed at the base and are supported by a row or two rows of
ties or struts placed near its top (Figure 5.1.b).
5.13.7 Diaphragm Walls
A diaphragm wall can be classified either as a reinforced concrete wall or sheet pile wall.
It consists of a vertical concrete reinforced concrete slab fixed in position. It is held in
position by the passive and active pressures acting on its lower portion.
A diaphragm wall is constructed by a machine digging a trench in panels of limited length
filled with the bentonite slurry as the digging proceeds to the required depth. In clays there
is 110 penetration of bentonite slurry into the soil. But in sands and silts, bentomile slurry
initially penetrates into the soil and creates a virtually, impervious skin of bentonite
particles, only a few m m thick, on the sides of the trench. The lateral pressure created by
slurry acts on the sides of the short trench panel and prevents its collapse. The required
steel reinforcement is lowered into position when excavation is coniplete. The trench is
then filled with concrete by means of a trernie pipe, the displaced slurry being collected for
cleaning and further use.
A wall is constructed in alternating short panel lengths. When the concrete has developed
sufficient strength, the concrete has developed sufficient strength, the remaining
intermediate panels are excavated and constructed to complete the walls. The various
conslruction stages are shown in Figure 5.42.

(a) (b) (C.1 (dl

trench dug remforcemmt concrete d~splaces soil excavated in
inserted bentonite front of wall

Figure 5.42 :Construction of Diaphragm Wall

5.13.8 Reinforced Earth Walls

The use of reinforcement to strengthen the soil has been known for centuries. Straw has
been used to strengthen unburnt bricks and fascine mattresses have been used to
strengthen soft soil deposits prior to road construction. The principle of reinforced earth is
that a mass of soil can be given tensile strength in a specific direction if lengths of a
material capable of carrying tension are embedded within it in the required direction. A
rational approach to the design of reinforced earth was presented by Vidal in 1966.
Reinforced earth has been used in many geotechnical applications. In this section we are
only concerned with retaining structures.
A reinforced earth wall is a gravity structure. A simple form of such a wall is illustrated in
Figure 5.43. The components listed are described below :
The soil fill should be granular and free draining. The reinforcing elements can be either
metal strips or geosynthetics. This metallic strips 50-100 mm wide and 3 to.5 rnm thick are
generally used. Metal grids have also been employed in some cases. Galvanised steel
strips are the most common reinforcement. Aluminium alloy, copper and stainless steel are
thc other metals used. All these materials have a high modulus of elasticity and negligible
strains are created within the soil mass.
There have been increasing use of geosynthetics as reinforcement in reinforced earth from
1975, Wov~wgcot~~xtiles and geogrids have the advantage of greater durability than metals
 reinforcing ..
elernents . . .
. '.
. -. .
'
..
facin
units

Figure 5.43 :Reinforced Earth Retaining Wall

in corrosive soil. Their tenqile strength can approach that of steel. Geogrids can achieve
high frictional properties between itself and the surrounding soil. However all the
geosynthetics undergo creep deformation under sustained loading which can lead to large
strains within the soil mass.
At the boundary of reinforced earth structure it is necessary to provide a facing so that fill
is contained. The facing does not contribute to the structural strength of the wall. The
facing is usually built up from prefabricated units small and light enough to be handled by
manual labour. The most common facing material is precast concrete though steel,
aluminium and plastic units have been used. A concrete foundation is required to form a
p1at.fcx-m from which facing units can be built up.
Reinforced earth can provide a satisfactory method for retaining soil when existing
conditions do not allow construction by conventional methods. A compressible soil may
be capable of supporting a reinforced earth structure while pile foundation may be
required in the case of gravity or cantilever walls. The technique can also be used when
there is insufficient land space to construct the sloping side of an earthen embankment.
Please note that in developed countries reinforced earth is often the first choice for design
engineers when considering an earth retaining structure.

5.14 CAUSES OF FAILURE IN EARTH RETAINING

STRUCTURE
The more common causes of failure of retaining wall are as follows:
i) By a rotational slip failure of the surrounding soil (Figure 5.44 (a)). This can occur
in cohesive soils and can be analysed as a slope stability problem.
ii) By bearing capacity failure of the soil beneath the structure (Figure.5.44 (b)). The
overturning moment created by the lateral earth thrust causes high bearing pressures
at the toe of the wall. These values must be within safe limits.
iii) By overturning about the toe of the wall. The resultant thrust must fall within the
base for the wall to be safe against overturning. Generally most walls are so
designed that the resultant thrust is within the middle third of the base.
iv) By sliding forward of the wall along the base. This is caused by insufficient base
friction or lack of passive resistance in front of the wall (Figure 5.44 (c)).

(a) Slip Failure (b) Bearing Capacity Failure (c) Sliding Failure
Figure 5.44 : Common Causes of Failure of Retaining Walls
5.14.1 Bearing Pressure on Soil Earth Pressure %
Retaining Structures
The resultant of the forces due to lateral earth thrust and the weight of the wall subject the
loundalion to both direct and bending stresses.
Let R be the resu1tar.t force on the wall per unit length and let R be its vertical component
(Figure 5.45) considering unit length of the wall.
1
Section modulus of wall Z, = - B~ ... (5.48)
6

vJithin middle third on middle third outside middC third

Figurc 5.45 :Bearing Pressure Under Eccentric Loads

Maximum pressure on base = Direct pressure + pressure due to

bending

When R, is on the middle third

If the resultant R lies outside the middle third, then

5.14.2 Factor of Safety for Passive Resistance

The precise determination of passive resistance is difficult. Hence the factor of safety
should not be less than 2.5 for clays and should be increased to 3.5 for sands and silts. A
~Gnservativeapproach is to calculate the passive resistance by using Rankine's theory on
the assumption that wall friction and adhesion are both equal to zero. In this case a factor
of safety of 2.0 is recommended for the calculated passive resistance.

5.14.3 Sliding Resistance of Base

The coefficient of friction p between the base of gravity or reinforced concrete wall and
the granular soils or drained clays may be assumed to be
p = tan (I for cast-in-situ cowrete
p = 213 tan $ for precast concrete or stone
The resistance to sliding, R, is
I~'o~~ndation
Engillwring-I1 where, R,.# = is the vertical reaction on wall base.
For undrained clays the adhesion between the supporting soil and the base of gravity or
reinforced concrete wall can be obtained from C, as explained in earlier section. Then thc
resistance to sliding R, is
R, = C , x area of a base of wall
The factor of safety against sliding should not be less than 2.0.
Example 5.14
A gravity wall is to be constructed as shown in Figure 5.46. The wall is to be
constructed of masonry whose unit weight is 24 kN/m3. The properties of the
backfill material are: Unit weighty = 17 k ~ / r n; angle
~ of shearing resistance
@ = 33": Cohesion c = 0. The safe bearing capacity of the soil is 250 kN/m2 . The
coefficient of friction at the base is 0.60. Check the safety of the wall against sliding
and bearing capacity.
Solution
Let us first use Rankine's theory.
Let BC be the vertical surface from heel of the wall to the top of the soil
BC = 6.0 + 0.6 tan 20 = 6.218 m
cos 20 - dcos2 20 - cos2 33
K, = cos 20 = 0.356
cos 20 + dcos2 20 - cos2 33

Figure 5.46

Thrust on BC = 1/2K, y H = 1/2 x 0.356 x 17 x 6.222 = 117.0 N/m

The thrust acts parallel to the backfill.

Horizontal component P, = Pa cos 20 = 110.0 lcN/m
Vertical Component P, = Pa sin 20 = 40.0 kN/m
Vertical Force Horizontal Lever arm Moment
Part Force fraom A about A
(kN) (kN) (m) I (kNm)
I 43.2 - 0.4 17.3
2 259.2 - 1.5 388.8

3 43.2 - 2.6 112.3

4 31.7 -
 Overturning Moment = 227.7 kNm Earth Plpssure &
Retaining Structures
Resisting Moment = 727.2 kNm

, Factor of safety against overturning

I
If Rv acts at a distance x from B, then

I eccentricity of R, from Centre of foundation = 1.50 - 1.22 = 0.30 m

1/6B = 116 x 3 = 0.50 m
Hence R is well within the middle third of the foundation Maximum bearing
pressure on the soil

This is less than 250 k ~ / m '

Hence acceptable
Factor of safety against sliding

Now let us compare the results obtained by Coulomb's theory

Assume angle of friction = 2/3$ = 213 x 33 = 22 deg.
Let the total active thrust acts an angle of 20 deg to the horizontal.

cosec 95. sin (95.7 - 33)

dsin (95.7 22) d s i n (33+22)
+ +
sin (33-20)
sin (95.7 - 20)

P, = 128.8 sin 20 = 44.1 kN/m

Weight of wall = 43.2 + 259.2 + 432 = 345.6 kN
0.60 (345.6 + 44.1)
Factor of safety against sliding = = 1.95
120.2
The other alternative assumptions are 6 = $12 = 16.5' and that the resistant acts an
angle of 22' to the normal to the back of the wall.
Example 5.15
The dimensions of a cantilever retaining wall are shown in Figure 5.47. The
relevant properties of the foundation soil and the backfill material are as follows:
Foundation soil : $ = 36' ; c = 0; y = 19 kN/m3
Foundation Engineering-I1 Backfill : @=33O,; c =O; y = l S k ~ / r n ~
The unit weight ol'concrete can be taken as 24 k ~ / m ~ ;
The coefficient of friction between the base of the wall and the foundation can be
assumed to be equal to tan 36.
Determine the magnitude of factors of safety against:
i) overturning
ii) sliding and
iii) bearing capacity failure assuming the ultimate bearing capacity as 500 kN/mZ.
Use Rankine's theory.
Solution
BC = H = 5.5 + 2.5 tan 25 = 6.67 m
cos 25 - dcos2 25 x cos2 33
K, = cos 25 - $cos2 25 x cos2 33 cos 25

0.5m 2-5 m
Figure 5.47

' 112 x 0.408 x 18 x 6.67z = 163.36 kN/m

Active earth thrust P = 112 K y ~ =
P, = 163.36 x cos 25 = 148.05 kN/m
P, = 163.36 x sin 25 = 69.04 kN/m

Overturning moment = 328.7 kNm

Resisting Moment = 1169.8 kNm
 x v = 436.0kN; H = 148.1 k N : x M = 841.1 kNm
i) Factor of.safety against overturning

ii) Factor of safety against sliding

Resisting Force against sliding 436.0 x tan 36 = 3 16.8 kN
316 8
Factor of safety = - 2.14
=:
148.1
iii) Factor of safety against bearing capacity
Let the resultant vertical force Rv act at a distance x from A = 436.0 x = 841.1
x = 1.93 m
Eccentricity e = 2 - 1.93 = 0.07 m
Hence R, is well within the middle third of the foundation.
The maximum bearing pressure on the soil

Factor of safety against bearing capacity failure

Table 5.2 : Typical Values of K,for Cohesionless Soils (Coulomb's Theory)

(Vertical Back And Level Backfill)

5.15 SUMMARY
The importance of movement of retaining walls relative to backfill in the development of
active, passive and at-rest conditions is delineated. The theoretical background of Rankine
and Coulomb theories and estimation of lateral earth force by the two theories are
explained in detail. It is shown that the influence of surcharge loads, full and partial
submergence of backfill, inclination of surface of backfill and back of wall and tension
cracks on the lateral earth force can be conveniently included in the analysis. The merits of
different backfill materials and drainage system are discussed. Different types of
retaining walls and their common causes of failure-sliding and bearing capacity are
described. The procedures to check the stability of gravity and cantilever retaining walls
against sliding and bearing capacity failure are demonstrated. Numerous examples have
been worked out to enable the students to understand the theoretical portions.
Self-assessment questions are given so that students can test his grasp of the subject.

5.16 ANSWER TO SAQs

SAQ 1
i) Refer to Figure 5.48
 fTzd,,'Fu
. *

Foundation Engineering41

I
I

shape *;
I
I

sheet pile bulkhead

Figure 5.48
I
I
ii) Consider a semi-infinite elastic half space. At any depth z
oz= yz : ox = oy = KOyz
Also E, = E, = 0. This satisfies condition.

I
3) For water, Poisson's ratio = 0.5
~ Hence
2
sin2 (45 - $/2)
i) We can write tan2 ( 45 - $/2 ) = ---
cos2 (45 - $/2 )
You recollect the trignometric relations
I
I
1 - cos 2A = 2 sill2A
I 1 -cos2A = 2 c o s 2 ~
Also sin (90 - A) = cos A
Hence, 2 sin2(45 - $ A ) = 1 - cos ( 90 - $ )
2 ~ 0 ~ 2 ( 4 5$/2
- ) = 1-cos ( 9 0 - $ )
1 - sin $
tan2(45 - $/2 ) -
1 + sin (I
ii) For K, = tan2 ( 45 - @ / 2 ) = Ih KO = 1 - sin (I = 0.5
K, = tan2 ( 4 5 + $/2) = 3

iii) For water and soft clay (I = 0,

Hence K, = K, = 1.0
3
i) Let us assume suitable values as given in Examples 5.1 and 5
(I = 30"; y , = 16 k ~ / m ' ; ,,y, = 10.2 k ~ / r n K,=
~
When sand is dry, active lateral earth force
 When water level rises to the ground level and there is no drainage, the total Earth Pr.e,surc
lateral force is Retaining Structure.

P, = 1/3 x 1/2 x 10.2 x 25 i 1/2x9.5 x 25 = 165.0 kN/m

You can clearly observe that the lateral force has increased by a factor of about
2.4.This is greater than the factor of safety of 1.5. So the wall will fail.
ii) If the wall remains rigid inqtead of rotating about the base, earthpressure at the
rest conditions prevail. So to calculate lateral earth pressure KOhave to be used
If $ = 30" KO= 0.5 and K , = 0.33. The lateral earth force will increase by a
factor of 1.5. Hence the present factor of safety will be 1.0
The wall is unsafe
iii) a) Suitable arrangements for drainage have to be provided. You will study
about different systems of drainage in section 5.12

-
b) You have to ascertain what are the movements of the wall before designing
the structure.Appropriate coefficients have to be used.
SAQ 4
1.Refer Figure 5.49

plane

P
a
/
W

45-$12
space diagram
force
diagram
Figure 5.49

L = tan (45 - $12)

W = tan ( 4 5 - ( / 2 )
2
Applying the same rule in the force diagram
W -
- Pa -
sin ( 45 i ( h) sin ( 45 + ( h)
Pa = W tan (45 - $12)

Please refer to sub-section 5.5.1, Equation 5.15. This is the same result obtained by
Rankine's method.
SAQ 5
i) Read section 5.1 1.
ii) Refer Figure 5.50
 a Foundation Engineering-I1

Ti I &failure

qi,
H I plane
I /

* 1
Figure 5.50
I
In a cantilever retaining wall, the failure plane passes through the heel of the wall as
shown. Hence Rankine's theory is a realistic assumption.
iii)The buttress is constructed at the face of the wall while the counterfort is constructed at
the back of the wall. Hence buttress is structurally more efficient. But in actual practice
counterfort is preferred since buttress occupies valuable space in front of the wall.
Generally buttress is constructed of masonry rather than reinforced concrete.
I
I

I
I