Lesson 5

NETWORK LAWS
& THEOREMS
(Part 2)

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

Department of Electrical Engineering, College of Engineering, Architecture
& Technology, Palawan State University, Tiniguiban Heights,
Puerto Princesa City, 5300, Philippines
 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:
1. Describe the concept of nodal analysis and its application in solving complex DC
circuits.
2. Formulate nodal equations using KCL to analyze and determine voltages at individual
nodes of a circuit.
3. Solve nodal equations using simultaneous equations or matrix methods to find
unknown node voltages in the circuit.
4. Apply the superposition theorem to simplify circuit analysis by considering the effects
of individual sources separately.
5. Solve for voltages, currents, and power in a circuit using the superposition theorem.
6. Use the source transformation method to simplify circuit analysis and calculate
equivalent resistance.
Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.
CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOMES:
At the end of the lesson, the student should be able to:
7. Apply Millman’s Theorem to find node voltages in circuits with multiple parallel
voltage sources.
8. Apply Thevenin’s and Norton’s theorem to analyze and solve complex circuits,
simplifying them into equivalent Thevenin and Norton circuits.
9. Define the maximum power transfer theorem to determine the load resistance that
maximizes power transfer from a source.
10. Analyze circuits to identify the conditions for maximum power transfer and calculate
the corresponding load resistance.
11. Evaluate how Kirchhoff’s Laws and other network theorems can optimize the design
of sustainable energy grids and infrastructures (SDG 9: Industry, Innovation, and
Infrastructure).
Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.
CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

• The Superposition Theorem is a fundamental principle in

electrical engineering that helps simplify the analysis of
complex circuits.

• It is particularly useful in determining the voltage across an

element or current through a branch when the circuit
contains multiple number of voltage or current sources.

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

Definition:
• The Superposition Theorem states that any linear circuit
with multiple power sources can be analyzed by summing
the currents and voltages from each power source.

• The Superposition Theorem only applies to linear circuits.

Linear circuits are those in which the component
characteristics (like resistors, capacitors, and inductors) do
not change with voltage or current.

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

Conditions for Applying the Superposition Theorem:

1. The circuit must be linear. This means that the elements in the
circuit (resistors, capacitors, inductors) must follow linear
relationships, obeying Ohm's Law, Kirchhoff's Laws, etc.
2. The circuit must be time-invariant, meaning that its
characteristics don't change with time.

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

Steps to Apply the Superposition Theorem:

1.Turn off all but one independent source: Set all other independent
sources to zero (replace voltage sources with a short circuit and current
sources with an open circuit).
IDEAL PRACTICAL
CIRCUIT CIRCUIT

r r

I r r
E I E

Voltage source is Current source is Voltage source is Current source is

replaced by a replaced by an replaced by a replaced by an
Short Circuit Open Circuit Short Circuit Open Circuit
Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.
CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

Steps to Apply the Superposition Theorem:

2.Analyze the circuit: Calculate the desired current or

voltage using traditional circuit analysis techniques (e.g.,
Ohm's Law, Kirchhoff's Laws, etc.).
3. Repeat for each independent source: Perform steps 1
and 2 for each independent source in the circuit.
4. Combine the results: The total current or voltage in the
element is the algebraic sum of the responses calculated for
each independent source.
Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.
CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

Sample Problem:

I1 I2

R1 = 3Ω R2 = 2Ω

+ +
E1 = 10V R3 = 4Ω E2 = 2V
- -
I3

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
Sample Problem:

Step 1: Turn off all but one independent source: Set all other
independent sources to zero (replace voltage sources with a short circuit
and current sources with an open circuit).
I1 I2

R1 = 3Ω R2 = 2Ω

+
E1 = 10V R3 = 4Ω
-
I3

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
Sample Problem:

Step 2: Calculate the desired current or voltage using traditional circuit

analysis techniques (e.g., Ohm's Law, Kirchhoff's Laws, etc.).

R1 R2 R3 R2 // R3 Total
E 6.924 V 3.076 V 3.076 V 3.076 V 10 V
I 2.308 A 1.538 A 0.769 A 2.308 A 2.308 A
R 3𝛺 2𝛺 4𝛺 1.333 𝛺 4.333 𝛺

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
Sample Problem:

Step 3: Repeat for each independent source: Perform steps 1 and

2 for each independent source in the circuit.

R1 R2 R3 R1 // R3 Total
E 0.922 V 1.076 V 0.922 V 0.922 V 2V
I 0.307 A 0.538 A 0.231 A 0.538 A 0.538 A
R 3𝛺 2𝛺 4𝛺 1.714 𝛺 3.714 𝛺

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
Sample Problem:

Step 4: Combine the results: The total current or voltage in the

element is the algebraic sum of the responses calculated for each
independent source.
With 10 V battery With 2 V battery With both batteries
6.924 V 0.922 V 6V
6.924 V – 0.922 V = 6 V
+ V - - V + + V -
R1 R1 R1

3.076 V 1.076 V 2V
+ - - + 3.076 V – 1.076 V = 2 V
VR2 VR2 + V -
R2

+ + +
VR3 3.076 V VR3 0.922 V VR3 4V 3.076 V + 0.922 V = 4 V
- - -
Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.
CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM
Sample Problem:

Step 4: Combine the results: The total current or voltage in the

element is the algebraic sum of the responses calculated for each
independent source.
With 10 V battery With 2 V battery With both batteries
2.308 A 0.307 A 2A
2.308 A – 0.307 A = 2 A
IR1 IR1 IR1
1.538 A 0.538 A 1A
1.538 A – 0.538 A = 1 A
IR2 IR2 IR2

IR3 IR3 IR3 0.769 A + 0.231 A = 1 A

0.769 A 0.231 A 1A
Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.
CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

Practical Applications of Superposition Theorem:

• The Superposition Theorem is often used in circuit design,

especially in electronic circuits where multiple sources are
common.
• It helps in analyzing how different sources contribute to the
overall behavior of the circuit.
• It's useful in finding voltage across or current through
specific components, making it valuable for
troubleshooting and design.
Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.
CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

Limitations of Superposition Theorem:

• The Superposition Theorem is applicable only to circuits

with linear components.
• It may not be used for circuits with non-linear elements like
diodes or transistors.
• It's essential to remember that it provides results for
individual voltages and currents, not power or energy.

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 SUPERPOSITION THEOREM

Exercise #1:
1. A 12V battery of 0.05-ohm resistance and another battery of 12V
and 0.075 ohm resistance supply power to a 2-ohm resistor. What is
the current through the load?
I1 I2

r1 = 0.05Ω r2 = 0.075Ω

+ +
E1 = 12V RL = 2Ω E2 = 12V
- -
IL

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

• Thevenin’s theorem states that any linear circuit, no matter

how complex, can be simplified to an equivalent circuit
consisting of a single voltage source with a series
resistance connected to a load.
• Thevenin's Theorem is a principle used to simplify circuits
with multiple elements.

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Limitations of Thevenin’s Theorem:

• Thevenin’s Theorem is applicable only to circuits with

linear (passive) components (i.e., resistors, inductors, and
capacitors).
• It may not be used for circuits with non-linear elements like
diodes, certain gas-discharge tubes, and semiconductor
components.

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit:

1.The Thevenin equivalent circuit
consists of two components: a Thevenin
voltage (VTh) and a Thevenin resistance RTh
(RTh).
2.The Thevenin voltage is the open- +
RLoad
circuit voltage at the terminals of VT -
h
interest.
3.The Thevenin resistance is the
resistance seen when all independent
sources are turned off (replaced by Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit
their internal resistance).
Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.
CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Steps in Applying the Thevenin’s Theorem:

1. Remove the load resistor: the chosen load resistor, R3, is removed
from the original circuit by breaking the connections at each node of
R3 and replacing R3 with an open circuit.

R1 = 3Ω R2 = 2Ω

+ Load resistor +
V1 = 10V V2 = 2V
- removed -

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Steps in Applying the Thevenin’s Theorem:

2. Calculate the Thevenin’s voltage: the original circuit with the load
resistor removed is nothing more than a simple series circuit with
opposing batteries. Determine the voltage across the open load
terminals by applying the rules of series circuits, Ohm’s law,
and Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL). 10 V – 2 V = 8 V Ohm’s Law

R1 R2 Total 8 V / 5 𝛺 = 1.6 A
V 4.8 V 3.2 V 8V
I 1.6 A 1.6 A 1.6 A
3𝛺+2𝛺=5𝛺
R 3𝛺 2𝛺 5𝛺
Calculate the Thevenin voltage.

V1 – IR1R1 = 10 – 1.6(3) = 5.2 V

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.
CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
V2 + IR2R2 = 2 + 1.6(2) = 5.2 V
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Putting the values to the given circuit, it becomes like this:

R1 = 3Ω R2 = 2Ω
+ - + -
4.8 V I1 3.2 V
+
+ +
V1 = 10V 5.2 V V2 = 2V
- -
-

1.6 V 1.6 V
Equivalent Circuit Schematic
Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.
CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Thevenin voltage in the equivalent circuit is the voltage across the

open circuit, 5.2 V.

RTh

+
5.2 V RLoad
VT -
h

Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Steps in Applying the Thevenin’s Theorem:

3. Replace the power sources: to find the Thevenin series resistance
for the equivalent circuit, remove the power sources from the circuit
and replace them with short circuit wires.
Note that this process of replacing
R1 = 3Ω R2 = 2Ω the voltage supplies with short
circuits is identical to the process
used with the Superposition
Theorem, where voltage sources
Calculate equivalent are replaced with wires
resistance and current sources are replaced
with breaks.
If there are current sources in the
circuit, it needs to replace those
with open circuits.
Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.
CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Steps in Applying the Thevenin’s Theorem:

4. Calculate the Thevenin resistance: With the removal of the two
batteries, the total resistance measured at the location of the removed
load is equal to R1 and R2 in parallel.

R1 = 3Ω R2 = 2Ω 1 1
RTh = =
1 1 1 1
+ +
R1 R2 3 2
1.2 Ω
RTh = 1.2 Ω

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Steps in Applying the Thevenin’s Theorem:

5. Draw the Thevenin Equivalent Circuit: The simplified Thevenin
equivalent circuit can now be used for calculations for any linear load
device connected between the connection points.
RTh

1.2 Ω

+
5.2 V RLoad
VTh -

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Steps in Applying the Thevenin’s Theorem:

6. Apply Ohm’s Law: Analyze the voltage and current for the load
following the rules for series circuits.
RTh

1.2 Ω
RTh RLoad Total
+ V 1.2 V 4V 5.2 V
5.2 V 4Ω I 1A 1A 1A
VTh -
R 1.2 𝛺 4𝛺 5.2 𝛺

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Sample Problem 1:
Find the current through the 2-Ω resistor utilizing Thevenin’s Theorem.

R1 =4Ω R3 = 1Ω Since the current

through the 2-Ω
+ + resistor was asked to
V1 28V R2 = 2Ω V2 7V find, then, to identify
- - the load, it will
become RL = 2Ω.

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Step 1: Step 2:
28 V – 7 V = 21 V
R1 = 4Ω R3 = 1Ω
21 V / 5 𝛺 = 4.2 A

+ Load resistor + R1 R3 Total

28V removed V2 7V
- - V 16.8 V 4.2 V 21 V
V1
I 4.2 A 4.2 A 4.2 A
R 4𝛺 1𝛺 5𝛺

Calculate the Thevenin voltage.

V1 – IR1R1 = 28 – 4.2(4) = 11.2 V

V2 + IR2R2 = 7 + 4.2(1) = 11.2 V

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.
CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Step 3: Step 4:
1 1
R1 = 4Ω R3 = 1Ω RTh = =
1 1 1 1
+ +
R1 R3 4 1
Calculate
equivalent RTh = 0.8 Ω
resistance

R1 = 4Ω R3 = 1Ω

0.8 Ω

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Step 5: Step 6:
RTh
Using Ohm’s Law:

0.8 Ω RTh RLoad Total

V 3.2 V 8V 11.2 V
+ RLoad I 4A 4A 4A
11.2 V 2Ω R 0.8 𝛺 2𝛺 2.8 𝛺
VTh -

Therefore, the current flowing through the

2-Ω resistor is equivalent to 4 Amperes.

Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Sample Problem 2: Thevenin’s Resistor

Find VTh, RTh, and the load current IL flowing through and load voltage
across the load resistor using Thevenin’s Theorem.

A
12kΩ 8kΩ

+
RL
48V 4kΩ
5kΩ
-

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

The current will not flow here

Step 1: since the circuit became open. Step 2:
A 12 k𝛺 + 4 k𝛺 = 16 k𝛺
12kΩ 8kΩ
48 V / 16 k𝛺 = 3 mA
+ Same voltage will
48V appear here since it is R12 R4 Total
4kΩ connected in parallel
- V 36 V 12 V 48 V
R4 // RL.
I 3 mA 3 mA 3 mA
R 12 k𝛺 4 k𝛺 16 k𝛺
B
Calculate the Thevenin voltage.

VTh = 3mA (4k𝛺)

VTh = 12 V

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Step 3: Step 4:
A 1
RTh = 8kΩ +
12kΩ 8kΩ 1 1
+
4 kΩ 12 kΩ

RTh = 11 kΩ
4kΩ

8kΩ resistor here becomes in

series with the parallel
connection of 4kΩ and 12kΩ
resistors.
Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.
CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Step 5: Step 6:
RTh
Using Ohm’s Law:

11kΩ RTh RL Total

V 8.25 V 3.75 V 12 V
+ RL I 0.75 mA 0.75 mA 0.75 mA
12 V 5kΩ R 11k𝛺 5k𝛺 16k𝛺
VTh -

IL = 12 V / 16k𝛺

IL = 0.75 mA
Thevenin’s Equivalent Circuit

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Practical Applications of Thevenin’s Theorem:

• Thevenin's Theorem is widely used in circuit design and

analysis, especially in electronic circuits and power
systems.
• It simplifies complex circuits into easily manageable
equivalents, making it easier to analyze and design circuits.

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Exercise #2:
Find the current through the 40-kΩ resistor using Thevenin’s Theorem.

10kΩ 20kΩ

+ +
30V 40kΩ 20V
- -

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 NORTON’S THEOREM
• Norton’s theorem states that any linear circuit can be
simplified to an equivalent circuit with a single current
source and parallel resistance connected to a load.
• Norton’s Theorem is similar to Thevenin's Theorem,
however, instead of using a voltage source and a series
resistance, the Norton equivalent circuit consists of a
current source with a parallel resistance.

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 NORTON’S THEOREM

Limitations of Norton’s Theorem:

• Norton’s Theorem applies only to circuits with linear

(passive) components (i.e., resistors, inductors, and
capacitors).
• It may not be used for circuits with non-linear elements like
diodes or transistors.

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 NORTON’S THEOREM

Norton’s Equivalent Circuit:

1.The Norton equivalent circuit consists

of two components: a Norton current
(IN) and a Norton resistance (RN).
2.The Norton current is the short circuit IN RN RLoad
current at the terminals of interest.
3.The Norton resistance is the resistance
seen when all independent sources are
turned off (replaced by their internal
Norton’s Equivalent Circuit
resistance).

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 NORTON’S THEOREM

Steps in Applying the Norton’s Theorem:

1. Remove the load resistor: identify the load resistance and remove it
from the original circuit, as shown below.

R1 = 4Ω R3 = 1Ω

+ Load resistor +
V1 = 28V V2 = 7V
- removed -

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 NORTON’S THEOREM

Steps in Applying the Norton’s Theorem:

2. Calculate the Norton current: short the terminals between the load
points and calculate the short-circuit current (IN).
Using Kirchhoff’s current law
R1 = 4Ω R3 = 1Ω (KCL):
Isc = IR1 + IR3

+ 14 A + Applying Ohm’s law:

V1 28V V2 7V V1 V3
- - Isc = IR1 + IR3 = +
R1 R3
Isc = IR1 + IR3
28 7
Isc = +
4 1

Isc = IN = 14 A

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 NORTON’S THEOREM

Steps in Applying the Norton’s Theorem:

3. Replace the power sources: turn all sources off. The voltage sources
are replaced with short circuits, and the current sources are replaced
with open circuits. This process of replacing the power supplies is
identical to that used for the Superposition theorem and Thevenin’s
theorem.
R1 = 4Ω R3 = 1Ω

Calculate equivalent
resistance

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 NORTON’S THEOREM

Steps in Applying the Norton’s Theorem:

4. Calculate the Norton resistance: After replacing the two voltage
sources, the total resistance measured at the location of the removed
load is equal to R1 and R3 in parallel.
1
RN =
1 1
R1 = 4Ω R3 = 1Ω +
R1 R3
1
0.8 Ω RN =
1 1
+
4 1

RN = 0.8 Ω

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 NORTON’S THEOREM

Steps in Applying the Norton’s Theorem:

5. Draw the Norton Equivalent
Circuit: The simplified Norton
equivalent circuit can now be used
to calculate any linear load device
connected between the connection
IN RN RLoad
points.
14 A 0.8 Ω 2Ω

Norton’s Equivalent Circuit

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 NORTON’S THEOREM

Steps in Applying the Norton’s Theorem:

6. Apply Ohm’s Law: determine the current through the load resistor
and the voltage drop across it following the rules for parallel circuits.
Using Ohm’s law:
1 1
Rt = 1 1 = 1 1 = 0.57143 Ω
+ +
RN RLoad 0.8 2
IN RN RLoad
RN RLoad Total
14 A 0.8 Ω 2Ω
V 8V 8V 8V
I 10 A 4A 14 A
R 0.8 𝛺 2𝛺 0.57143 𝛺

Norton’s Equivalent Circuit

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.
CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 NORTON’S THEOREM

Sample Problem 1:
Find RN, In, the current flowing through and load voltage across the
load resistor by using Norton’s Theorem.

A
2Ω 3Ω

+
12 V 6Ω RL 1.5 Ω
-

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Step 1: Remove the load resistor

A
2Ω 3Ω

+ Load resistor removed

12 V 6Ω and short-circuited

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Step 2: Calculate the Norton current

Applying Ohm’s law:
6Ω ∗ 3Ω
Rt = 2Ω + = 4Ω
6Ω + 3Ω A
2Ω 3Ω
V 12V
It = = = 3A
Rt 4Ω IN = Isc
+
12 V 6Ω
Applying Current Divider Theorem
2A
(CDT): -
6Ω
Isc = IN = 3A
3Ω + 6Ω
B
Isc = IN = 2 A
Remember the CDT:
Rparallel
Isc = IN = It R R1
series + Rparallel I2 = It R +R
1 2
Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.
CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 THEVENIN’S THEOREM

Step 3: Replace the power sources

A
2Ω 3Ω

6Ω

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 NORTON’S THEOREM

Step 4: Calculate the Norton resistance

A 6Ω x 2Ω
2Ω 3Ω RN = 3Ω +
6Ω+2Ω

6Ω RN = 4.5 Ω

3 Ω resistor here becomes in

series with the parallel
connection of 6 Ω and 2 Ω
Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.
resistors.
CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 NORTON’S THEOREM

Step 5: Draw the Norton Equivalent Circuit

IN RN RLoad
2A 4.5 Ω 1.5 Ω

Norton’s Equivalent Circuit

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 NORTON’S THEOREM

Step 6: Apply Ohm’s Law By CDT:

Rparallel
ILoad = IN R
series + Rparallel
Using Ohm’s law:
𝑅!
ILoad = 𝐼!
𝑅! + 𝑅"
4.5Ω
IN RN RLoad ILoad = 2A
4.5Ω + 1.5Ω
2A 4.5 Ω ILoad 1.5 Ω
ILoad = 1.5 A

VLoad = ILoad x RLoad

Norton’s Equivalent Circuit VLoad = 1.5A x 1.5Ω
VLoad = 2.25 V
Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.
CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 NORTON’S THEOREM

Exercise #3:
Find the current through the load resistor RL by using Norton’s Theorem.

A
5Ω 4Ω

+
30 V 10 Ω RL 5Ω
-

6Ω
B

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 MILLMAN’S THEOREM
• Millman’s theorem states that in a circuit with multiple
voltage sources, replace it with a single equivalent voltage
source and a single equivalent resistance.
• Millman’s Theorem is similar to Thevenin’s and Norton’s
Theorem and applies to linear circuits, where the
relationship between current and voltage is constant and
doesn’t change with voltage or current.

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 MILLMAN’S THEOREM

Limitations of Millman’s Theorem:

• Millman’s Theorem applies only to circuits with linear

(passive) components (i.e., resistors, inductors, and
capacitors).
• It may not be used for circuits with non-linear elements like
diodes or transistors.

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 MILLMAN’S THEOREM

Millman’s Equivalent Circuit:

E1 E2 E
A + + …+ n
r1 r2 rn
VAB = 1 1 1
+ + …+
r1 r2 rn r1 r2 rn

+ + + where:
E1 - E2 - En -
E1, E2, En = emf of each voltage source connected in parallel
r1, r2, rn = internal resistance of each voltage source
VAB = voltage across the parallel combination
B

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 MILLMAN’S THEOREM

Steps in Applying the Millman’s Theorem:

1. Draw the Millman’s equivalent circuit and solve for VAB.
I1 A I2 A

R1 R2
R1 R3 R2 E1 E2
+
+ R1 R2
+ VAB = 1
E1 R3 E2 + +
1 1
- - + + +
R1 R2 R3
I3 E E3 = 0 E
- 1 - - 2

B B
Original Circuit Millman’s Equivalent Circuit

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 MILLMAN’S THEOREM

Steps in Applying the Millman’s Theorem:

2. Refer to the original circuit, solve for I1, I2, and I3.
A
E1 − VAB
I1 = R1
R1 I1 R3 I3 R2 I2
E2 − VAB
I2 = R2
+ + +
E E3 = 0
- 1 - - E2
VAB
I3 = R3
B
Millman’s Equivalent Circuit

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 MILLMAN’S THEOREM

Sample Problem 1:
Two-24 V batteries supply power to a 20-ohm load. The internal
resistance of one is 0.2 ohm while the other is 0.4 ohm. What is the
voltage across the load? E1 E2
+
E1 − VAB R1 R R 1 R2
I1 =
A 2
VAB = 1 1 1
R1 + +
0.2 𝛺 0.4 𝛺 R1 R2 RL
E2 − VAB
I2 = + +
24 24
R2 E2 24 V 0.2 + 0.4
E1 24 V R 20 𝛺
-
L
- VAB = 1 1 1
VAB + +
I = 3 R3 0.2 0.4 20

B
VAB = 23.8 V
Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.
CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 MILLMAN’S THEOREM

Sample Problem 2:
Draw the Millman’s equivalent circuit and solve for VAB and resistor
voltage drops. Also, solve the branch currents and their directions.
R1 A
R3

4𝛺 1𝛺

+ +
E1 28 V R2 2𝛺 E2 7 V
- -

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 MILLMAN’S THEOREM

Sample Problem 3:
Draw the Millman’s equivalent circuit and solve for VAB and resistor
voltage drops. Also, solve the branch currents and their directions.
R1 A
R2

1𝛺 2𝛺
R3 3𝛺
+ +
E1 10 V + E2 20 V
- E3 30 V -
-

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 MILLMAN’S THEOREM

Summary of Network Theorems:

• Superposition Theorem: Aids in finding the current and voltage in a circuit that has
multiple sources; the effects produced by each of the sources individually can be
summed.
• Thevenin's Theorem: Aids in circuit simplification; multiple sources and resistances can
be represented by an equivalent circuit with just a single voltage source and a single
resistor.
• Norton's Theorem: Aids in circuit simplification; multiple sources and resistances can
be represented by an equivalent circuit with just a single current source and a single
resistor.
• Millman's Theorem: A simplification technique involving circuits with parallel
branches.

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 REFERENCES:

1. Alexander, C. K., & Sadiku, M. (2020). ISE Fundamentals of Electric Circuits (ISE
HED IRWIN ELEC&COMPUTER ENGINEERING) (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
2. Boylestad, R. (2015). Introductory Circuit Analysis (13th ed.). Pearson.
3. Buchla, D. (2019). Experiments in Basic Circuits: Theory and Application (10th ed.).
Pearson.
4. Floyd, T., & Buchla, D. (2019). Principles of Electric Circuits: Conventional Current
Version (What’s New in Trades & Technology) (10th ed.). Pearson.
5. Hambley, A. (2017). Electrical Engineering: Principles & Applications (7th ed.).
Pearson.
6. Hayt, W., Kemmerly, J., & Durbin, S. (2011). Engineering Circuit Analysis (8th ed.).
McGraw-Hill Education.

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 REFERENCES:

7. Herman, S. L. (2011). Direct Current Fundamentals (8th ed.). Cengage Learning.

8. Nahvi, M., & Edminister, J. (2017). Schaum’s Outline of Electric Circuits, Seventh
Edition (Schaum’s Outlines) (7th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
9. Nilsson, J. W., & Riedel, S. (2019). Electric Circuits, Global Edition (11th ed.).
Pearson.
10. O’Malley, J. (2011). Schaum’s Outline of Basic Circuit Analysis, Second Edition
(Schaum’s Outlines) (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
11. Smith, D. (2019). Circuit Analysis for Complete Idiots (Electrical Engineering for
Complete Idiots). Beyond Why.
12. Zeng, M., & Zeng, M. (2021). Electric Circuits. Springer Publishing.

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.
 -- End of Presentation --

Dr. Khrisydel Rhea M. Supapo, D.Eng.

CEAT – Electrical Engineering Dept.