UNIVERSITY OF THE WITWATERSRAND

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL
AND
INFORMATION ENGINEERING

ELEN 2000
ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

Dr John Van Coller

Chapter 1 RESISTANCE, CAPACITANCE AND INDUCTANCE
There are three fundamental building elements in electric circuits: resistors, capacitors and
inductors. All three rely for their characteristics on an intrinsic property of the material. In
this chapter we will examine some of the basic physical relationships governing these
devices, and will also review their circuit behaviour.

While power is dissipated only from resistors, we will see that instantaneous power flows
into and out from circuits containing capacitors and inductors. We will distinguish between
instantaneous power and average power.

Finally the concept of impedance will be introduced. This allows us to simplify all circuits
containing resistors, capacitors and inductors, and to treat them as if they were simple resistor
circuits (using complex notation).

1.1 Resistance

Any material that opposes the flow of electrical current is said to have electrical resistance

For the above geometry the electrical resistance is calculated from

R in Ohms ()

A

- where  is the resistivity of the material, in Ohm-meters (m)

is the length, in meters (m)
2
A is the cross-sectional area, in square meters (m )

8
 The resistivity of copper at 20 C is 1, 76  10 m
If we include the effect of temperature on resistivity

  o (1   T )

- where  is the resistivity at temperature T

o is the resistivity at 0 C
 is the temperature coefficient of resistivity, in C 1
T is the temperature, in C

 The temperature coefficient of resistivity for copper is 0, 00393 C 1

The relationship between the voltage across a resistor and the current through the resistor is
given by OHM'S LAW:

v i R
R R

- where v is the instantaneous voltage across the resistor, in Volts (V )

R
i is the instantaneous current through the resistor, in Amps (A)
R
R is the resistance, in Ohms ()

i
R

v v R
R R

 The conventional direction of current flow is from the positive terminal of the voltage
source to the negative terminal of the voltage source (as shown in the diagram),
although the charge carriers (electrons) actually move in the opposite direction (because
negatively charged).

 The polarity of the voltage across the resistor is such that the resistor voltage opposes
the resistor current.

Commercially available resistors are rated in terms of their resistance (typically 1 Ω - 10

MΩ) and the maximum power that can be dissipated without thermal destruction (typically
1/8 W – 10 W).
We also define:

1
Conductivity   in Siemens per meter ( S / m)


1
Conductance G in Siemens ( S )
R

i
Current density J  in Amps per square meter ( A / m 2 )
A

V
Electric field strength E in volts per meter (V / m)

1.2 Capacitance

Capacitors are used as energy storage devices, in electronic filters and as decoupling devices.
The last mentioned implies that for DC they block current; while AC signals pass through
them.

Applying a voltage across two electrodes that are separated by an insulator or a dielectric
creates an electric field between the electrodes and stores charge on the electrode surfaces. If
the applied voltage is changed then there must also be a change in the amount of stored
charge. This change in the amount of stored charge implies current flow to or from the
electrodes. This effect is known as capacitance.

The parallel-plate capacitor has the following physical construction

v
C

A
Its capacitance is calculated from C  in Farads ( F )

- where  is the permittivity of the insulator or dielectric, in Farads per meter ( F / m)

2
A is the area of the plates, in square meters (m )
is the separation between the plates, in meters (m)
 A
Or C   in Farads ( F )
r o

where r is the dimensionless relative permittivity (typically 1 ⟶ 1000)

 o is the permittivity of free space, in Farads per meter (F/m)

  o  8,85  1012 F / m

The relationship between the voltage across a capacitor and the current through the capacitor
is calculated as follows:

The total charge, q , stored on each plate of a capacitor is given by

q  C v in coulombs (C )
C

- where v is the voltage across the capacitor, in volts (V).

C

This implies that during transient conditions (when the capacitor voltage is changing) the
charge stored must also change - which implies the movement of charge (i.e. current) in the
external circuit

dq dv
i  C C
C dt dt

The polarity of the current is determined by whether the capacitor is charging (capacitor
voltage increasing - current flow into the positive terminal of capacitor) or discharging
(capacitor voltage decreasing - current flow out of the positive terminal)

i positive i negative
C C

C v C v
C C

Charging Discharging
(capacitor voltage increasing) (capacitor voltage decreasing)
This implies the following relationship between the polarities of the capacitor voltage and the
capacitor current

dvC
i =C
C dt

C v
C

dv
- when the capacitor is charging C is positive and i is positive; when the capacitor is
dt C
dv
discharging C is negative and the current is negative.
dt

 Note the important difference between current in a resistor and current in a capacitor:
charge moves through a resistor, but the only current flow in a conductor connected to a
capacitor is if the charge on the plates changes.

Commercially available capacitors are rated in terms of their capacitance (typically 1 pF – 0,1
F) and the maximum voltage that can be sustained between the plates without dielectric
breakdown (typically 6,3 V – 1000 V).

1.3 Inductance

For our purposes, inductance may be thought of as a constant ( L) that relates the magnetic
flux ( ) linking a circuit to the current (i ) flowing through the circuit (or in a nearby circuit).

The flow of current through any conductor creates a magnetic field round and within the
conductor. If there is a change in the magnitude of the current then there is a change in the
magnitude of the magnetic field. However if there is a change in the magnitude of the
magnetic field then a voltage is induced along the length of the conductor. This effect is
known as inductance.
An inductor usually consists of wire wound round a bobbin or core. If we consider a toroidal
core:

i
L

v
L

We define the forcing function of the magnetic field

Magnetomotive force (mmf)   Ni in Ampere-turns (A-turns)

L

- where N is the number of turns

i is the current through the inductor, in amps (A)
L

This mmf produces a magnetic flux, , in the core where

A
  in Webers (Wb)

- where  is the permeability of the core material, in Henrys per meter ( H / m)

2
A is the cross-sectional area of the core, in square meters (m )
is the mean circumference of the core, in meters (m)

A
Or    r o  in Webers (Wb)

- where  is the dimensionless relative permeability of the core (typically 1 – 100000)

r
o is the permeability of free space

 o  4  107 H / m
We also define:

A
Permeance  in Henrys ( H )

in Henrys 1 ( H 1 )
1
Reluctance  
 A

Therefore 

 Compare this relationship with Ohm's law: mmf is analogous to voltage and flux is
analogous to current. The reluctance offers a 'resistance' to the establishment of a
magnetic flux

 2 2
Define Flux density, B  in Webers / m (Wb / m ) or Tesla (T )
A

  A 
Thus B  
A A


Define Magnetic field intensity, H  , in amp-turns per meter ( A  turns / m)

Therefore BH

Or B  H
r o

- where o is the relative permeability

o is the permeability of free space as before

This relationship is usually expressed as a curve – the B-H curve of the core material:

Saturation region
considerably reduced

Linear region
constant
(preferred)

H
 The flux density is limited by magnetic saturation of the core material.

Define Flux linkage,   N  in Weber-turns (Wb-turns)

- where N is the number of turns

 is the flux linking the turns, in Webers (Wb)

FARADAY'S LAW:

The magnitude of the voltage induced across an inductor is equal to the rate of change of flux
linkage

d d
|v | N
L dt dt

A A
But   Ni
L

A 2 diL
Therefore |v |  N
L dt

A 2
Define self-inductance of winding, L   N in Henrys ( H )

di
Therefore |v | L L
L dt

LENZ'S LAW:

The induced voltage assumes the polarity necessary to oppose the change in the current
producing the change in flux

i
L i increasing i decreasing
L L
+ -
Induced Induced
voltage voltage
polarity polarity
- - +
(opposes increase in (opposes decrease in
current) current)
Alternative to Lenz's law:

The polarity of the induced voltage is determined by the direction of power flow:

i
L i increasing i decreasing
L L
+ -
induced induced
voltage voltage
polarity polarity
- +

magnetic field magnetic field

is increasing; decreasing;
therefore therefore
direction of direction of
power flow power flow
is into is out of
inductor inductor
(compare with (compare with
charging of discharging of
battery) battery)

i
This implies the following relationship between the polarities of the inductor current and the
inductor voltage

i
L

diL
v = L
L dt

di
 When the inductor current is increasing, L is positive and v
L
is positive;
dt
di
when the inductor current is decreasing L is negative and v is negative.
dt L
Thus for resistors, capacitors and inductors the voltage arrow must always oppose the current
arrow
i
L

diL
v = L
L dt

 The inductance discussed above is a self-inductance since the induced voltage is due to
a change in the current through the inductor itself.

 An alternative situation is where there is a change in the magnetic flux produced by an

adjacent inductor. This flux links the first inductor and induces an additional voltage in
this inductor. This is referred to as the mutual inductance, M , and the situation
becomes:

Mutual flux
i i
L L
1 2
diL diL diL diL
1 2 2 1
v =L +M v =L +M
L 1 dt dt L 2 dt dt
1 2

L L
1 2
M

Commercially available inductors are rated in terms of their inductance (typically 1 µH – 10

mH) and the maximum current that can be sustained without saturation or thermal
destruction.

1.4 Power

1.4.1 Instantaneous power

The instantaneous power, p , is equal to the rate of change of energy, w .

The energy, w , required to move a charge, q , across a potential difference, v , is given by

w  qv

dw dq
Therefore p  v  iv in Watts (W )
dt dt

i.e. the instantaneous power is equal to the product of the instantaneous current and the
instantaneous voltage.
1.4.1.1 Resistance

The instantaneous power into a resistor is given by

p  i v  i (i R)  i 2 R in Watts (W )
R R R R R

- which is dissipated as heat. Recall that by our convention the arrows of v and i oppose
each other for the resistor. Power flow is therefore always into a resistor. As we will soon see
the instantaneous power flow can be both into and out of capacitors and inductors.

1.4.1.2 Capacitance

The instantaneous power into or out of a capacitor is given by

dv
pi v C C v in Watts (W )
C C dt C

- which increases or decreases the energy stored in the electric field between the electrodes
(an electric field is a form of stored energy).

1.4.1.3 Inductance

The instantaneous power into or out of an inductor is given by

di
p  i v  i L L in Watts (W )
L L L dt

- which increases or decreases the energy stored in the magnetic field (a magnetic field is a
form of stored energy).

1.4.2 Average power

The average power, P , over any interval of time, T , is given by

1 1
P  p dt   vi dt in Watts (W )
T T

1.5 Energy

The energy transferred can be calculated from the integral of instantaneous power:

w   p dt   vi dt in Joules ( J )
 With large energy quantities the kilowatt-hour (kWh) replaces the Joule, where
6
1 kWh  3, 6  10 J

1.5.1 Energy dissipated from a resistor

w   p dt   i 2 R dt  R  i 2 dt in Joules ( J )
R R

1.5.2 Energy stored in a capacitor

Whenever there is a change in the voltage across a capacitor, there is a change in the
magnitude of the electric field between the electrodes and hence a change in the amount of
stored energy.

The change in stored energy when the voltage changes from v to v between time t and t
1 2 1 2
is given by
t t v dv
2 2 2
w   p dt   v C C dt  C  v dv
C dt C C
t t v
1 1 1

1 2 2
 C (v  v )
2 2 1

Similarly the total energy stored in a capacitor with voltage v is given by

C

1 2
w  C v in Joules ( J )
2 C

- which is analogous to potential energy.

1.5.3 Energy stored in an inductor

Whenever there is a change in the current through an inductor, there is a change in the
magnitude of the magnetic field and hence a change in the amount of stored energy.

The change in stored energy when the current changes from i to i between time t and t
1 2 1 2
is given by
t t i di
2 2 2
w   p dt   i L L dt  L  i di
L dt L L
t t i
1 1 1

1 2 2

L(i  i )
2 2 1
Similarly the total energy stored in an inductor carrying a current i is given by
L
 1 2
w Li in Joules ( J )
2 L

- which is analogous to kinetic energy.

 An instantaneous change in stored energy implies an infinite power flow. Since the
voltage across a capacitor determines the energy stored in the capacitor, and the current
through an inductor determines the energy stored in the inductor, instantaneous changes
in the voltage across a capacitor and in the current through an inductor are not possible.

1.6 Series and parallel connection of resistors, capacitors and inductors

Resistors in series Resistors in parallel

v v v i i i
R R R R R R
1 2 1 2
v v
 i (R  R )  R R
R 1 2 R R
1 2
v
i R  R
R equiv R
equiv

therefore for resistors therefore for resistors

connected in series connected in parallel

R R R 1  1  1
equiv 1 2 R R R
equiv 1 2

Capacitors in series Capacitors in parallel

v v v i i i
C C C C C C
1 2 2 1
1 1 dv dv
  iC dt   i dt C C C C
C C C 1 dt 2 dt
1 2
dv
 1
 iC dt C C
C equiv dt
equiv

therefore for capacitors therefore for capacitors

connected in series connected in parallel

1 1 1
  C C C
C C C equiv 1 2
equiv 1 2

Inductors in series Inductors in parallel

(assuming no mutual inductance) (assuming no mutual inductance)
 v v v i i i
L L L L L L
21 1 2
di di 1 1
L L L L   vL dt   vL dt
1 dt 2 dt L L
1 2
di 1
L L   vL dt
equiv dt L
equiv

therefore for inductors therefore for inductors

connected in series connected in parallel

1 1 1
L L L  
equiv 1 2 L L L
equiv 1 2

Up to now we have looked at all the basic circuit elements. Inductors and capacitors are the
two energy-storage elements and possess the distinctive ability to absorb energy in a circuit
(power flows into them), store the energy, and return it to the circuit (power flow out of
them).

While the relationship between v and i for resistors is simple it is somewhat more
complicated for capacitors and inductors.

In order to simplify AC (e.g. 50 Hz) circuit analysis when capacitors and inductors are
present we define the impedance of each.

The symbol for impedance is

Z

All laws that apply to resistors apply to impedance (e.g. parallel and series circuits). In
general, Z is a combination of resistance, capacitance and inductance, and importantly
includes the influence of frequency as well as the differential relationships between v and i
for capacitance and inductance.

Impedances in series: Z Z Z
equiv 1 2

1 1 1
Impedances in parallel:  
Z Z Z
equiv 1 2

Impedance will be more rigorously defined later in the course.