About the apparatus

1. Tangent Galvanometer
A tangent galvanometer is a scientific instrument used to
measure small electric currents based on the tangent law of
magnetism. It consists of a vertical circular coil of insulated
wire, a magnetic needle at the center, and a compass box with
degree markings. The magnetic needle aligns with the Earth’s
magnetic field when no current flows through the coil. When
current passes through, the coil generates a magnetic field
perpendicular to its plane, causing the needle to deflect. The
angle of deflection () is measured, and the current () is
determined using the formula , where is the instrument
constant. The galvanometer must be aligned with the Earth’s
magnetic field, and the current is calculated based on the
tangent of the deflection angle. It is commonly used to
measure small currents, study the relationship between
current and magnetic fields, and determine the horizontal
component of Earth’s magnetic field. While it is a simple and
cost-effective device, it is sensitive to external magnetic fields
and is limited to low-current measurements.

2. Commutator
A commutator is an essential component of certain types of
electrical machines, such as direct current (DC) motors and
generators. It is a mechanical rotary switch that reverses the
direction of current flow in the windings, ensuring that the
output or torque remains consistent and unidirectional. The
commutator consists of a cylindrical assembly made up of
 multiple copper segments, separated by insulating materials
like mica, and is mounted on the rotor shaft.

In a DC motor, the commutator works in conjunction with

brushes (made of carbon or graphite) that maintain electrical
contact with the rotating segments. As the rotor spins, the
commutator periodically reverses the current direction in the
armature windings, aligning the magnetic forces to produce
continuous rotational motion. In a DC generator, the
commutator ensures that the alternating current induced in
the armature windings is converted into direct current for the
external circuit.

The commutator plays a crucial role in the operation of DC

machines, but it has certain limitations, such as wear and tear
due to friction with brushes, sparking, and maintenance
requirements. Despite these drawbacks, it remains vital in
applications where DC motors or generators are needed.

3. Rheostat
A rheostat is a variable resistor used to control the flow of
electric current in a circuit. It operates by adjusting the
resistance, thereby varying the current without altering the
voltage source. A typical rheostat consists of a resistive wire or
track (made of materials like nichrome), a slider or wiper that
moves across the resistive element, and two terminals: one
connected to the resistive element and the other to the wiper.
 The working principle of a rheostat is straightforward. By sliding
the wiper along the resistive element, the effective length of
the resistance in the circuit changes, which in turn alters the
current. For example, increasing the resistance decreases the
current, and vice versa. Rheostats are commonly used in
applications such as controlling the brightness of lights,
adjusting the speed of electric motors, or varying the
resistance in testing circuits.

Rheostats are versatile and easy to use but are generally

inefficient in high-power applications due to energy loss as
heat. They are gradually being replaced by more efficient
electronic components like variable frequency drives and
pulse-width modulation circuits in modern systems.

4. Battery
A battery is a device that converts chemical energy into
electrical energy through electrochemical reactions. It has a
positive (cathode) and negative (anode) terminal and is used to
power devices. Batteries can be primary (non-rechargeable) or
secondary (rechargeable).

5. Ammeter
An ammeter is an instrument used to measure the electric
current in a circuit. It is connected in series with the circuit,
allowing the entire current to pass through it. Ammeters are
designed to have very low resistance to minimize any voltage
drop across them, ensuring accurate measurements. They are
commonly used in electrical systems to monitor current flow.
AIM

The aim of the project is to study the Earth's magnetic field and find its

value (BH)using a tangent galvanometer.

Tangent galvanometer

Top view of a Tangent galvanometer

INTRODUCTION

Earth's magnetic field, also known as the geomagnetic field, is the

magnetic field that extends from the Earth's interior to where it meets the
solarwind, a stream of charged particles emanating from the Sun. Its
magnitude at the Earth's surface ranges from 25 to 65 microteslas (0.25 to
0.65 gauss).Roughly speaking it is the field ofa magnetic dipole currently
tilted at an angle of about 10 degrees with respect to Earth's rotational
axis, as if there were a bar magnet placed at that angle at the center of the

Earth. Unlike a bar magnet, however, Earth's magnetic field changes over
time because it is generated by a geodynamic(in Earth's case, the motion
of molten iron alloys in its outer core).

The North and South magnetic poles wander widely, but sufficiently
slowly for ordinary compasses to remain useful for navigation. However,
at irregular intervals averaging several hundred thousand years, the Earth's
field reversesand the North and South Magnetic Poles relatively abruptly
switch places. These reversals of the geomagnetic poles leave a record in
rocks that are of value to paleomagnetists in calculating geomagnetic
fields in the past. Such information in turn is helpful in studying the
motions of continents and ocean floors in the process of plate tectonics.

The magnetosphere is the region above the ionosphere and extends several
tens of thousands of kilometers into space, protecting the Earth from the
charged particles of the solar wind and cosmic rays that would otherwise
strip away the upper atmosphere, including the ozone layer that protects
the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation.

Earth's magnetic field serves to deflect most of the solar wind, whose
charged particles would otherwise strip away the ozone layer that protects
the Earth from harmful ultraviolet radiation. One stripping mechanism is
for gas to be caught in bubbles of magnetic field, which are ripped off by
solar winds.

The intensity of the field measured in gauss (G), but is generally

is often

reported in nanoteslas (nT),with 1 G =

100,000 nT. A nanotesla is also
referred to as a gamma (y).The tesla is the SI unit ofthe Magnetic field, B.
The field ranges between approximately 25,000 and 65,000 nT (0.25-0.65
G).

Rotation axis

Geographic
north pole Magnctie
north pole

FquatOr

Magnetic
sOuth pole Geographic
SOuth pole

Near the surface of the Earth, its magnetic field can be closely
approximatedby the field of a magnetic dipole positioned at the center of
the Earth and tilted at an angle of about 10° with respect to the rotational
axis of the Earth. The dipole is roughly equivalent to a powerful bar
magnet, with its South Pole pointing towards the geomagnetic North Pole.
The north pole of a magnet is so defined because, if allowed to rotate
freely, it points roughly northward (in the geographic sense). Since the
north pole of a magnet attracts the south poles of magnets and repels
the north poles, it must be attracted to the South Pole.
 Ma Geographc
North Pole
Pole

Geographic Mansati
South Pole
Pela

TANGENT GALVANOMETER

Principle

The tangent galvanometer works on the principle oftangent law.

Tangent law of Magnetism

The tangent law of magnetism states that the tangent of the angle of
a compass needle which is due to the movement under the influence
of magnetic field is directly proportional to the ratio of strengths of
two perpendicular magnetic fields.
 In simpler words, the tangent of the angle made by the moving
needle under the magnetic field directly indicates the strength of the
perpendicular magnetic fields.

Definition

Tangent galvanometer is the device which was used to measure

small amounts ofelectric current.

Croutar coil

Compss box

Teminals

-Leaing soreus

Construction

The working of tangent galvanometer is based on the principle of

tangent law of magnetism.

.It consists of a coil of insulated copper wire wound on a circular

non-magnetic frame.
It is utmost necessary that the coil wound is done in helical

arrangement otherwise, the field due to the wire will affect the
compassneedle, thus inducing an error in the reading.

.This frame is mounted vertically on a horizontal base for support.

.The coil ofinsulated copper wire

through its centre.
is usually rotated on a vertical axis
passing

.A small sized magnetic compasswith a powerful magnetic needle is

made to pivote at the centre of this coil, such that it is free to rotate
in a horizontal plane.
 The circular scale is used to read the movement of this magnetic
needle which is divided into four quadrants, each ranging from 0° to
90°.

A pointer is attached needle at right angles, usually made up

to this
of thin alluminium as alluminium is lighter in mass.

The usual way of discarding possibilities of parallax is also used i.e

placing of a plane miror below the compassneedle.

Working

.The instrument needle starts moving firstly under the influence of

Earth's magnetic field.

.Movement continues untill the magnetic field of earth is parallel

with the plane of coil.

Then,on application of an uknown current, a second magnetic field

on the axis of the coil which is perpendicular to the Earth's magnetic
field is created.

Hence the compass needle responds to the vector sum of the two
fields.

. This deflection angle

fields.
is equal to the tangent of the ratio of those two

APPLICATIONS

1. T.G. can be used to measure the magnitude of thehorizontal component

of the geomagnetic field.

2. The principle can be used to comparethe galvanometer constants.

3. For calibration of secondary instruments.

APPARATUS AND MATERIALS REQUIRED

Tangent Galvanometer (TG),

Commutator (C),
> Rheostat (R),
Battery (E),
Ammeter (A),
Key (K),
AAAAAA
Plug Key
THEORY

Tangent galvanometer is an early measuring instrument for small electric

currents. It consists of a coil of insulated copper wire wound on a circular
non-magnetic frame. Its working is based on the principle of the tangent
law of magnetism. When a current is passed through the circular coil, a
magnetic field (B) is produced at the center of the coil in a direction
perpendicular to the plane of the coil. The working of tangent
galvanometer is based on the tangent law. It is stated as when a magnet is
suspended freely in magnetic field F and H, the magnet comes to rest
making an angle with the direction H such that,

Eq 1: F= H tan

Coil

Magnetic
Needle

When a bar magnet is suspended in two Magnetic fields B and Bh,

it comes to rest making an angle with the direction Bh.of

Let a current I be passed through the coil of radius R, having turns N.

Then magnetic field produced at the centre of coil is,

Eq 2: F = 102aIN
4n R

Let H is the horizontal component of earth's

magnetic field and the magnetic needle comes to rest at angle with the

direction of H, then according Eq. (1),

Htan =u02IN
4TR

Htanb = 10 2aIN
R

Eq 3: H = 21x10IN
Rtane

by substituting the value of current I, from eq. (3),

Eq4: tane I =u0 2uN

4Tt RH
radius of coil of galvanometer R, deflection and N, the value of H can
be calculated.

PROCEDURE

Connections are made as shown in the figure given below, where K is the
key, E the battery, A the ammeter, R the rheostat, C the commutator, and
T.G the tangentgalvanometer. The commutatorcan reverse the current
through the T.G coil without changing the current in the rest of the circuit.

Taking the average of the resulting two readings for deflection averages
out, any small error in positioning the T. G coil relative to the earth's
magnetic field H.
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

PROCEDURE FOR PERFORMING THE EXPERIMENT

1. Make the circuit connections in accordance with the circuit diagram.

2. Using spirit level, level the base and the compass needle in compass
box of tangentgalvanometer by adjusting the leveling serew.

3. Now the coil of the galvanometer about its vertical axis, till the
rotate
magnetic needle, its image in the plane mirror fixed at the base of the
compass box and the coil, i.e.all

4.These three lie in the same vertical plane.

5.In this setting, the ends of the aluminium pointer should read zero-zero.
If this is not so, rotate the box without disturbing the position ofthe coil
till at least one of the ends of the pointer stands at the zero marks.

6. By closing the key K, the current flow in the galvanometer. Read the
both endsofthe pointer. Now reverse the direction of current by using the

reversing key.When the mean values of both deflections shown by the

pointer in the two cases (i.e. before and after reversing the current) differ
by more than 1°, then turn slightly the vertical coil until the two values
agree. This willset the plane of the coil exactly in the magnetic meridian.

7. By adjusting the rheostat, bring the deflection in galvanometer around

45°. The deflection should not be outside the range (30°-60°).
8.Recordthe reading ofthe ammeter and the deflection ofthe compass
needle in the box shown by two ends of pointer on the scale.

9. Reverse the current in the coil ofgalvanometer and again record the
current and deflection of needle.

10. By changing the value of current, take four or more set of readings and
plot the graph between I and tane. The graph will bea straight line.

11. Measure the inner and the outerdiameter of the coil with a half metre
scale at least three times.

OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

Table 1. For variation of 0 with I

s.No Value of deflection (degree) Mean tan 0

Ammeter Reading (A)
For direct For reverse

current current

Obs Corrected
1. 35 35 35 35 35 0.70 0.15 0.15

2. 49 60 64 53.6 1.36 0.20 0.20

3. 36 36 55 58 46.25 1.04 0.25 0.25

4. 50 50 65 68 58.2 1.61| 0.30 0.30

5. 45 45 64 65 53.8 1.37 0.27 0.27

Table 2. For radius of tangent Galvanometer

S.No. Inner Outer Mean Mean

diameter diameter d2 diameter radius
dl (cm) (cm) d (cm)

1. 16.0 x 102 16.40 x 102 16.20 x 102 8.10 x 10:2

2 16.16 x 102 l6.08 x 102 16.12 x 102 8.06 x 102

3. 16.06 x 10-2| 16.10 x 10-2 16.08 ×10-2 8.04 x 10-2

Mean radius of coil R= 8.04 x 102

GRAPH

tane
Slope ofstraight line =BC
AC

m =tan
I

Now substitute the m in Eq. (4),

m =u02N
4n RH

Then,H ==7.6867 x 10*T

RESULT

The value of earth's magnetic field by using a tangent galvanometer is

H=7.6867 x 10*T

PRECAUTIONS

1. The battery should be freshly charged.

2. The magnetic needle should swing freely in the horizontal plane.

3. The plane ofcoil must be set in magnetic meridian.

4. There should be no parallax in noting down the readings ofammeter

and deflection.

5. Allthe readings should be adjusted between 30° and 60°.

SOURCES OF ERROR

1. There may a magnetic around apparatus.

material
2. The plane ofcoil will not be exactly in the magnetic meridian.
FACTS

The tangent galvanometer is an early measuring instrument for Current

> The magnetic field produced by a circular coil carrying current I is
Proportional to I.
> The S.I unit of magnetic field is Tesla.
The magnitude of horizontal intensity of earth's magnetic field
is3.5x10sT.
> For better whiledoing tangent galvanometerexperiment,the
result
deflection should be in between 30°-60,

The value of uo is 4zx107 NA 2.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Tangent Galvanonmeter (Procedure):Comprehensive
Physics Activities Volume :Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd.
I

>Tangent Galvanometer (Theory) : Comprehensive

Physics Activities Volume I :Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd.
Tangent Galvanometer (Precautions and Sources of error):
Comprehensive
Physics Activities Volume I:Laxmi Publications Pvt Ltd.
>Galvanometer:
http:/physics.kenyon.edu/EarlyApparatus/ Electrical Measurements/
Tangent_Galvanometer/Tangent_Galvanometer.html
>Galvanometer: Wikipedia, the free
encyclopediaen.wikipedia.org 'wiki/Galvanometer
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