Yogesh 1
Yogesh 1
( V Semester)
DIAGRAM
Constellation diagram for QPSK with Gray coding. Each adjacent symbol only differs by one bit.
Sometimes known as quaternary or quadriphase PSK or 4-PSK, QPSK uses four points on the
constellation diagram, equispaced around a circle. With four phases, QPSK can encode two bits per
symbol, shown in the diagram with Gray coding to minimize the BER — twice the rate of BPSK.
Analysis shows that this may be used either to double the data rate compared to a BPSK system while
maintaining the bandwidth of the signal or to maintain the data-rate of BPSK but halve the bandwidth
needed.
Although QPSK can be viewed as a quaternary modulation, it is easier to see it as two independently
modulated quadrature carriers. With this interpretation, the even (or odd) bits are used to modulate the
in-phase component of the carrier, while the odd (or even)
bits are used to modulate the quadrature-phase component of the carrier. BPSK is used on both
carriers and they can be independently demodulated
BLOCK DIAGRAM:-
Carrier
Generator
Carrier
Modulation
Circuit
Data Unipolar to
Generator Bipolar
Converter Summing
CRO
amplifier
Quadrature
Carrier
Generator Carrier
Modulation
Circuit
Data Unipolar to
Generator Bipolar
Converter
WAVE FORM:-
DIBIT PHASESHIFT
00 +90
01 0
10 180
11 270
Q7. What are the three basic type of modulation technique used in modems?
A7.The 3 basic types of modulation used in modems:
o FSK - Frequency Shifted Keying
o QPSK - Quadrature Phase Shifted Keying
o QAM - Quadrature Amplitude Modulation
8-QAM:
In the 8-QAM the data are divided into groups of 3 bits (Tribit), one of which varies the amplitude
of the carrier, the last two the phase. The modulated signal can take 4 different phases and 2
different amplitudes, for a total of 8 different states.
16-QAM:
In the 16-QAM the data are divided into groups of 4 bits (Quad bit). The 16 possible combinations
change amplitude and phase of the carrier, which can take 16 different states .At the moment we
reach to a data subdivision into groups of 9 bits, obtaining constellations with 512 modulation
points.
Main aspects
The main aspects characterizing the QAM are:
Applications in modems for high speed data transmission (ITU-TV22bis, V29, V32, V32bis, V33,
V34, V34bis, BELL 209) and digital radio transmission. It needs circuits of high complexity
Possibility of error higher than the PSK called Fb the bit transmission speed and "n" the number of
bits. Considered for the modulation, the minimum spectrum BW of the modulated signal is equal to
Ft/n
DATA COMMUNICATION LAB (EE‐427‐F)
The transmission efficiency, defined as the ratio between Fb and B w, is equal to "nil
Modulator QAM:
The functional diagram of a 8-QAM modulator,
Input I Q QAM
24 bit Channe Channe Output
Data l l
The 8-QAM signal can be seen as 4-PSK signal whose amplitude can take 2 different
values. In this way, each "modulation interval" depends on the state of 3 data bits ("I", "Q",
"C"): the first 2 ("I" and "Q") determine the phase of the output signal, the third ("C") the
amplitude.
PROCEDURE:
1. Ensure the following initial conditions on ST2112 trainer:
2. SW3, SW5, SW6, SW7, SW9 should be in the OFF mode.
3. Power supply should be OFF.
4. Switch on the power supply.
5. Connect Test point TP6 on Channel 1 & TP7 on Channel 2 of Oscilloscope; you will
observe 1 KHz sine & cosine wave.
6. Set I, Q & C Channel data with the help of DIP switch SW5, SW6, SW7. As there are 24
bits data available on the trainer so, first bit is I bit then second bit is Q bit then third bit
is C bit. In this experiment you have to use I bit & Q bit & C bit so you can select
combination according to your requirement.
7. Switch ON all the DIP switches on SW3.
LAB MANUAL (VII SEM ECE)
DATA COMMUNICATION LAB (EE‐427‐F)
8. Now press SW8 which is reset switch then press SW4 which is start.
9. Now Channel 1 of Oscilloscope to TP2 & Channel 2 to TP 1, you can observe Clock &
Data which you have set. ( if you are using logic analyzer then you are able to see all 24
bits)
10. Now to observe QAM modulated signal with respect to data, connect Channel l to TP I
& Channel 2 to TP9.
11. You can add noise by using DIP switch SW9 (001/010/111)
12. Turn OFF the power.
TP2
TP3
TP2
TP3
RESULT: QAM has been studied and waveform has been drawn
A parallel port sends and receives data eight bits at a time over 8 separate wires. This allows
data to be transferred very quickly; however, the cable required is more bulky because of the
number of individual wires it must contain. Parallel ports are typically used to connect a PC to
a printer and are rarely used for much else. A serial port sends and receives data one bit at a
time over one wire. While it takes eight times as long to transfer each byte of data this way,
only a few wires are required. In fact, two-way (full duplex) communications is possible with
only three separate wires - one to send, one to
Receive and a common signal ground wire.
RS-232 stands for Recommend Standard number 232 and C is the latest revision of the
standard. The serial ports on most computers use a subset of the RS-232C standard. The full
RS-232C standard specifies a 25-pin "D" connector of which 22 pins are used.
RS-232-C is divided into four groups
Data Signal
Control Signal
Timing Signal
Ground Signal
DIAGRAM:
25 Pin Connector on a DTE device (PC connection)
Pin Number
9 Pin Connector on a DTE device (PC connection)
APPARATUS REQUIRED:
ST5001 Trainer Kit, ST5001 Software, 11 Patch Cords (2mm), 2 Parallel Port Cables,
Mains Power Cord
PROCEDURE:-
1. Connect mains power cord to the trainer and switch ON the trainer.
2. Connect the parallel port cables to both node l & node 2.
3. To open the window, follow the steps. Run ST5001 software on both PCs
Click "Parallel Port Interface" image/press "Ctrl + P"/click "Options" on menu bar.
4. The very first· step is to select the port address of parallel port. Choose one correct
option from the given three options.
5. Generally the address is "378", so the window will open with this option selected.
6. To send data to other node enter the text in the window titled as "Enter Data to
Transmit". Click on "Send" button to transmit.
7. Transmitted data will be displayed in the "Received Data" window and the ASCII codes
of each byte received is displayed in "Received Data in ASCII" window.
8. A small window at sender side is given for transmission of ASCII code. Enter
an ASCII code in the window and then click "Send" button.
9. "Clear" buttons are given to clear all windows.
QUESTION/ANSWERS:
Star Topology
Many home networks use the star topology. A star network features a central connection point
called a "hub" that may be a hub, switch or router. Devices typically connect to the hub with
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Ethernet.
Compared to the bus topology, a star network generally requires more cable, but a failure in
any star network cable will only take down one computer's network access and not the entire
LAN. (If the hub fails, however, the entire network also fails
DIAGRAM: -
PROCEDURE:-
1. Create folder of source name in both PC in C or D drive
2. Write text document in one PC (sender)
3. Open Star topology on both PC
4. Write destination IP address on both PC
5. Share folder
6. Open the folder
7. Save the parameters
8. Open the text document
9. Sent data
10. Received data on another PC
Q9.Define Node?
A9. Entry or exit point of the network
DIAGRAM: -
PROCEDURE:-
1. Create folder of destination node (ECE COM 1, ECE COM 2) name in both PC.
2. Click IPX protocol to enable it
3. Select server on one PC.
4. Select connect to network on another PC
5. Open the text document
6. Type the data on one PC
7. Sent data
8. Data is received on another PC
QUESTIONS/ANSWERS:
Q3. What does the term ―selection process‖ signify in bus topology?
A3. Primary message inquiring if secondary is ready to receive traffic
QUESTIONS/ANSWERS
THEORY: -A modem is a device or a program that enables a computer to transmit data e.g.
Telephone or cable lines. Computer information is stored digitally whereas information
transmitted in the form of analog waves
Types of Modem
Internal
Internal modems are Compact, Inexpensive but difficult to set-up (if not pre-installed with
computer package).
External
External modems are - Simple to set up, allow flexible usage but are more expensive than
internal modems.
In a configuration like this, a dumb terminal at an off-site office or store could "dial in" to a
large, central computer. A dumb terminal is simply a keyboard and a screen. A very common
dumb terminal at the time was called the DEC VT-100, and it became a standard of the day
(now memorialized in terminal emulators worldwide). The VT-100 could display 25 lines of
80 characters each. When the user typed a character on the terminal, the modem sent the
ASCII code for the character to the computer. The computer then sent the character back to
the computer so it would appear on the screen.
People got along at 300 bps for quite a while. The reason this speed was tolerable was because
300 bps represents about 30 characters per second, which is a lot more characters per second
than a person can type or read. Once people started transferring large programs and images to
and from bulletin board systems, however, 300 bps became intolerable.
Modem speeds went through a series of steps at approximately two-year intervals:
300 bps - 1960s through 1983 or so
1200 bps - Gained popularity in 1984 and 1985
2400 bps
9600 bps - First appeared in late 1990 and early 1991
19.2 kilobits per second (Kbps)
28.8 Kbps
33.6 Kbps
56 Kbps - Became the standard in 1998
ADSL, with theoretical maximum of up to 8 megabits per second (Mbps) - Gained
popularity in 1999
DIAGRAM: -
PROCEDURE:-
1. Connect the main power cord to the trainer and switch on the trainer
2. Connect the serial port cable between the two ports of the PC
3. Open the window and click on ―Modem Communication image‖ press ―CTRL+M‖
4. Select the desired band rate
5. Open the port by clicking open port button
6. Transmit data
7. Data trans mitted will be received in ASCII window
8. Small window at sender side is given for transmission of ASCII code
QUESTIONS/ANSWERS:-
Q2. In sending a binary data over an analog transmission line, what kind of device does the
Conversion?
A2.MODEM
Q7. Name the interface which is used to connect the external modem with the computer?
A7.RS-232 is the interface which is used to connect the external MODEM with the computer.
THEORY: -
The Hubs are the physical hardware devices placed in central locations. The Hubs can be
either multi-port repeaters or concentration. The Hubs can be of two types:-
a) The Hubs with minimum intelligent (i.e. no microprocessors).
b) Intelligent Hubs which can perform the basic diagnostics and task the nodes to see if
they are operating correctly or not.
The third category can be smart Hubs which can be polled and managed remotely
Purpose of Hub
Hubs are used to provide star topology. At the center of a star is the Hub or the switch with the
n/w nodes located on the tips of the star. The hub is installed in a central wiring clost with all
the cables extending out to the n/w nodes. The advantage of having a central wiring location
i.e. it is easier to maintain to troubleshoot large n/w. All n/w cables come to the central hub.
So it is especially easy to detect and fix the cable problems. The user can easily move a
workstation in a star topology by changing the connection to the Hub at the central wiring
closet.
BLOCK DIAGRAM: -
Q4. How many pairs of stations can simultaneously communicate on Ethernet LAN?
A4. One
Q5.A modem that is attached to the telephone system by jamming the phone's handset into
two flexible receptacles in the coupler?
A5. Acoustic coupler
Q7. As we know parallel transmission is faster than serial transmission. Name the device
which converts parallel to serial transmission.
A7. Multiplexer.
THEORY: -
Ethernet Cables
Comparison between CAT5, CAT5E, CAT6, CAT7 Cables
In the context of the 100-ohm UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) type of cable used for Ethernet
wiring the only categories of interest are Cat3, Cat4, Cat5, Cat5e, Cat6, and Cat7. CATx is an
abbreviation for the category number that defines the performance of building
telecommunications cabling as outlined by the Electronic Industries Association (EIA)
standards. Up until the late 1980s thick or thin coaxial cable was typically used for 10-Mbps
Ethernet networks, but around that time, UTP cabling became more commonly used because it
was easier to install and less expensive. UTP CAT3 and CAT4 were used for a quite limited
time since the emergence of 100Base-TX networks meant a quick shift to CAT5. By the year
2000, moves to gigabit (1000Base-TX) Ethernet LANs created a need for another
specification, CAT5e. CAT5e is now being superseded by CAT6 cable and there is a
developing standard for CAT7.
Specifications for Cat3, Cat4, Cat5, CAT5E, Cat 6, and Cat 7 Cables
It might seem that CAT5 and CAT5e are the same. Pretty much they are, the CAT5e
specification simply included some additional limits over the CAT5 specification. The reality
is that most CAT5 cable is in fact CAT5e cable just not certified as such. Here is a comparison
of those extra specifications.
CAT5, CAT5E, and CAT6 UTP Solid Cable Specifications Comparison
Category 5 Category 5E Category 6
Frequency 100 MHz 100 MHz 250 MHz
Attenuation (Min. at 100 MHz) 22 dB 22 dB 19.8 Db
Characteristic Impedance 100 ohms ± 15% 100 ohms ± 15% 100 ohms ± 15%
NEXT (Min. at 100 MHz) 32.3 dB 35.3 dB 44.3 dB
PS-NEXT (Min. at 100 MHz) no specification 32.3 dB 42.3 dB
ELFEXT (Min. at 100 MHz) no specification 23.8 dB 27.8 dB
PS-ELFEXT (Min. at 100 MHz) no specification 20.8 dB 24.8 dB
Return Loss (Min. at 100 MHz) 16.0 dB 20.1 dB 20.1 dB
Delay Skew (Max. per 100 m) no specification 45 ns 45 ns
Some modern hubs don't care if you use crossover cables or straight through cables, they work
out what you're using and configure themselves accordingly.
As stated at the outset, the actual difference is in the wiring. Inside the UTP patch cable there
are 8 physical wires although the network only uses 4 of them (the other 4 are simply wasted).
The 8 wires are arranged in what's known as pairs and one pair is used to send information
whilst the other pair is used to receive information.
On a PC, the pair on pins 1 and 2 of the connector sends information, whilst the pair on pins 3
and 6 receives the information. To make PCs talk to each we therefore need to connect the
send pair of one PC to the receive pair of the other PC (and vice-a-versa). That means we need
a crossover cable. If we used a straight through cable the both be listening on the one pair -
and hearing nothing, and sending on the one pair - achieving nothing.
The most common cable is the straight through cable. In a home or small office network you
might only have one crossover cable used - perhaps from the cable or DSL modem to the
distribution hub.
Color Codes
If a cable has 568A color wiring on both ends then it's a straight through cable.
If a cable has 568B color wiring on both ends then it's also a straight through cable.
If a cable has 568A color wiring on one end and 568B color coded wiring on the other
end, then it's a crossover cable.
In fact, while the colors are standardized and usually followed, that's not the important part.
What's more important is that one "pair" (wires that are twisted together inside the cable
sheath) is used for the transmit side and another pair for the receive side. If pairs aren't used
then it's likely your cable will not work. Pairs are identified by the colors. The orange wire and
the orange with white stripe (or sometimes white with orange stripe) wire are a pair. The
brown wire and the brown with white stripe wire are a pair. Etc.
DIAGRAM: -
Question/Answers:-
The illustration indicates the Source-User pair, Transmitter and Receiver. It also clearly shows
the fiber optic cable constituting the Transmission Medium as well as the connectors that
provide the interface of the Transmitter to the Transmission Medium and the Transmission
Medium to the Receiver.
All of these are components of the simple fiber optic data line
TRANSMITTER:-
The Transmitter component of serves two functions. First, it must be a source of the light
coupled into the fiber optic cable. Secondly, it must modulate this light so as to represent the
binary data that it is receiving from the Source.
The Source provides the data to the Transmitter as some digital electrical signal. The
Transmitter can then be thought of as Electro-.optical (EO) transducer.
Within the context of a fiber optic data link the modulating signal, the Information, assumes
only the values of '0' and '1.' The demodulation function in the Receiver will just be looking
for the presence or absence of energy during a bit time interval.
RECEIVER:
The Receiver component of serves two functions. First, it must sense or detect the light
coupled out of the fiber optic cable then convert the light into an electrical signal. Secondly, it
must demodulate this light to determine the identity of the binary data that it represents. In
total, it must detect light and then measure the relevant Information bearing light wave
parameters in the premises fiber optic data link context intensity in order to retrieve the
Source's binary data.
Receiver senses the light output of the fiber optic cable. Light is detected and then converted
to an electrical signal. The demodulation process is carried out on the resulting electrical
signal. The light detection is carried out by a photodiode. This senses light and converts it into
an electrical current.
BLOCK DIAGRAM:-
Half duplex
Fig 1
PROCEDURE:-
1. Connect patch cords as shown in above figure.
2. Connect mains power cord to the trainer and switch ON the trainer.
3. Connect the serial port cables between one PC to Port l & another PC to Port2.
4. To open the window as shown in fig. 10, follow the steps.
5. Run ST5001 software on both PCs
6. Click "Fiber Optics Communication" image/press "Ctrl + F"/click "Options" on menu
bar. .
7. The software will open with default settings. Set the same parameters on both the
PCs. Baud rate can be varied from 2400bps to 1 15200bps. Select the desired baud
rate. Select the desired port settings.
8. After the port settings are done, open the port by clicking "Open Port" button.
9. To send data to other node enter the text in the window titled as "Enter Data to
Transmit". Click on "Send" button to transmit.
10. Transmitted data will be displayed in the "Received Data" window and the ASCII
codes of each byte received is displayed in "Received Data in ASCII" window.
11. A small window at sender side is given for transmission of ASCII code. Enter an
ASCII code in the window and then click "Send" button.
12. "Clear" buttons are given to clear all windows.
13. Before changing the port settings close the port by clicking "Close Port" button
and after changing the parameters click "Open Port" button to reopen the port.
QUESTIONS/ANSWERS
Q1. In selecting optical fibre, how does each of the following affect maximum distance?
Span of a fibre run between switches?
a) Fibre Quality b) Wavelength.
A1. a) Fibre Quality
Q2. In optical fiber refractive index of cladding is less than core. Why?
A2. It helps to undergo multiple total internal reflections through the optical fiber.
Q3. Define Acceptance angle?
A3. Is the maximum angle to the axis at which light may enter the fiber in order to propagate?
Q4. Define Skew rays?
A4. Rays, which greatly outnumber the meridional rays, follow a helical path through the
fibre.
Q5.Write advantages of optical fibre communication.
A5. Electrical isolation, Immunity to interference and crosstalk, Signal security, System
reliability.
Q6. Define cladding?
A6. The cladding surrounds the core and supports the waveguide structure whilst,
substantially
reducing the radiation loss into the surrounding air.
Q7. Define Numerical aperture?
A7. The relationship between the acceptance angle and the refractive indices of the three
media involved namely, core, cladding and air.
NA= n0 sin θa
Q8. Define mode?
A8. The stable field distribution in the x direction with only periodic z dependence is known
as a mode.
Q9.Disadvantage of fiber optics?
A9. High initial cost, difficult to install.
Q10.Define reflective index?
A10.ratio of the velocity of light in vacuum to the velocity of light in the medium