Discrete Mathematics for Computer Science

Nirdosh Bhatnagar

Lesson 04 Properties of Integers: Mathematical Induction

1. Introduction

Properties of integers: mathematical induction are studied in this lesson. These are:

1. The well-ordering principle, and mathematical induction

2. Recursive de…nitions
3. The division algorithm, and prime numbers

Notation Some notation is introduced.

(a) The set of positive natural numbers P = f1; 2; 3; : : :g :

(b) The set of natural numbers N = f0; 1; 2; 3; : : :g :
(c) The set of integers Z = f: : : ; 2; 1; 0; 1; 2; : : :g :
(d) The set of rational numbers Q is the set of all fractions m=n, where m is any integer,
and n is any integer except 0: Thus

Q = fa=b j a; b 2 Z, b 6= 0g

(e) The set of all real numbers is denoted by R = ( 1; 1).

(f ) The set of positive real numbers is R+ : That is,

R+ = fr j r > 0 and r 2 Rg
= (0; 1)

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2. The Well-Ordering Principle, and Mathematical Induction

The set of positive integers P can also be speci…ed as

Z+ = fx j x > 0 and x 2 Zg = fx j x 1 and x 2 Zg

However for positive rational and positive real numbers we have

Q+ = fx j x > 0 and x 2 Qg , and R+ = fx j x > 0 and x 2 Rg

We cannot represent Q+ or R+ using as we did for Z+ .

The set Z+ is di¤erent from the sets Q+ and R+ in that for every nonempty subset
X of Z+ contains an integer a such that a x, for all x 2 X. That is, X contains
a least (or smallest) element.
This is not true for either Q+ or R+ . The sets themselves do not contain least
elements. There is no smallest positive rational number or smallest positive real
number. If q is a positive rational number, then since 0 < q=2 < q, we could have
the smaller positive rational number q=2.
These observations lead us to the following property of the set Z+ Z.

Well-Ordering Principle. Every nonempty subset of P contains smallest element.

This is often expressed by saying that P is well-ordered.
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2.1. Mathematical Induction.

We say that an assertion A (n) is de…ned on P if A (n) is true or false for each n 2 P.

Principle of Mathematical Induction I: Let A (n) be an assertion de…ned on P,

that is, A (n) is true or false for each integer n 1. Suppose A (n) has the following two
properties:

(a) A (1) is true.

(b) A (n + 1) is true, whenever A (n) is true.

Then A (n) is true for every n 1.

A proof of the above Principle of Mathematical Induction I is next given.

Proof. There are several steps in the proof.

Step (i) Let A (n) be an assertion satisfying conditions (a) and (b), and let

F = ft 2 P j A (t) is falseg

Step (ii) We wish to prove that F = ?. In order to obtain a contradiction, we assume

that F 6= ?.
Step (iii) Then by the Well-Ordering Principle, F has a least element m. That is, m 2 F .
Step (iv) As A (1) is true, then m 6= 1, so m > 1, and consequently (m 1) 2 P. Thus
(m 1) 2= F.
Step (v) Thus A (m 1) is true. Consequently by condition (b), A (m) is true. This
contradicts that m 2 F .
Step (vi) This contradiction occurred because, we assumed that F 6= ?. Consequently
F = ?.

The Principle of Mathematical Induction I using quanti…ers is

[A (n0 ) ^ [8 k n0 [A (k) ) A (k + 1)]]] ) 8 n n0 A (n)

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There is another, and sometimes more convenient, yet equivalent principle of mathe-
matical induction.

Principle of Mathematical Induction II: Let A (n) be an assertion de…ned on P,

that is, A (n) is true or false for each integer n 1. Suppose A (n) has the following two
properties:

(a) A (1) is true.

(b) A (n) is true, whenever A (k) is true for 1 k < n.

Then A (n) is true for every n 1.

Example Let A (n) be the assertion that the sum of the …rst n odd integers is n2 .
That is
A (n) : 1+3+5+ + (2n 1) = n2
Using induction, it is proved that A (n) is true for all n 1.
Observe that A (n) is true for n = 1, that is,

A (1) : 1 = 12

Assume that A (n) is true, then it needs to be shown that A (n + 1) is also true. Note
that

1+3+5+ + (2n 1) + (2n + 1)

= f1 + 3 + 5 + + (2n 1)g + (2n + 1)
2
= n + (2n + 1) (Use A (n) )
2
= (n + 1)

Thus
2
1+3+5+ + (2n 1) + (2n + 1) = (n + 1)
However, this is A (n + 1). Thus A (n + 1) is true, whenever A (n) is true. Thus by the
Principle of Mathematical Induction I, A (n) is true for all n 1.
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3. Recursive De…nitions

A function is said to be recursively de…ned, if the function de…nition refers to itself. In

order for the de…nition to be not circular, the function de…nition must have the following
two properties.

1. There must be certain arguments, called base values, for which the function does
not refer to itself.
2. Each time the function does refer to itself, the argument of the function must be
closer to a base value.

A recursive function with these two properties is said to be well-de…ned.

De…nition. Factorial function.

(a) If n = 0, then n! = 1.
(b) If n > 0, then n! = n (n 1)!.

Observe that the above de…nition of n! is recursive, since it refers to itself when it uses
(n 1)! However:

1. The value of n! is explicitly given when n = 0 (thus 0 is a base value).

2. The value of n! for arbitrary n is de…ned in terms of a smaller value of n which is
closer to the base value 0.

Accordingly, this function is well-de…ned.

De…nition. Fibonacci sequence.

(a) If n = 0 or 1, then Fn = n.
(b) If n > 1, then Fn = Fn 1 + Fn 2.

Observe that the above de…nition of Fn is recursive, since it refers to itself when it
uses Fn 1 and Fn 2 . However:

1. The value of Fn is explicitly given when n = 0 and 1 (thus 0 and 1 are base values).
2. The value of Fn for arbitrary n is de…ned in terms of a smaller values of n which
are closer to the base values.

Accordingly, this function is well-de…ned.

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4. The Division Algorithm, and Prime Numbers

4.1. The Division Algorithm.

The following fundamental property of arithmetic is essentially a restatement of the

result of long division.

Theorem. Division Algorithm. Let a and b be integers with b 6= 0. Then there exist
integers q and r such that

a = bq + r, and 0 r < jbj

Also the integers q and r are unique. The numbers q and r are called the quotient and
the remainder.

Note in the above theorem, that the remainder r is nonnegative. The proof of the
above theorem uses the well-ordering principle.

Example. Let a = 23, and b = 4. Note that

a = bq + r
23 = 4 (5) + 3

Therefore, q = 5 and r = 3.

Example. Let a = 23, and b = 4. Note that

a = bq + r
23 = 4 ( 5) 3

Note that the remainder is required to be nonnegative. Consequently, we write

23 = 4 ( 5) 3
= 4 ( 5) 4 + (4 3)
= 4 ( 6) + 1

Therefore, q = 6 and r = 1.
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Divisibility

Let a and b be integers, with a 6= 0. Suppose ac = b for some integer c. We then say
that a divides b, or b is divisible by a and write

ajb

We may also say that b is a multiple of a or that a is a factor or divisor of b. If a does

not divide b, we will write a - b.

Examples

1. 4 j 12 since 12 = 4 3. Also 4 j 28 since ( 4) ( 7) = 28.

2. The divisors:

(a) of 1 are 1.
(b) of 4 are 1, 2, 4.
(c) of 12 are 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12.

3. If a 6= 0, then a j 0 since a 0 = 0.
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4.2. Prime Numbers.

A positive integer p > 1 is called a prime number or a prime if its only divisors are
1 and p. If n > 1 is not prime, then n is said to be composite. If n > 1 is composite,
then n = ab where 1 < a; b < n.

Examples

1. Integers 5 and 11 are prime, where as 14 = 2 7 and 15 = 3 5 are composite.

2. The primes less, than 30 are:

2; 3; 5; 7; 11; 13; 17; 19; 23; and 29

3. Although 21 and 40 are not primes, each can be written as a product of primes.

21 = 3 7, 40 = 23 5

We next state two very important theorems in all of mathematics.

Theorem. Fundamental Theorem of Arithmetic. Every integer n > 1 can be written

as a product of primes. Note that a product may consist of a single factor so that a prime
itself is a product of primes.
Proof. The proof is by induction. Let n = 2. Since 2 is a prime, n is a product of
primes. Suppose n > 2, and the theorem holds for positive integers less than n. If n is
prime, then n is a product of primes. If n is composite, then n = ab where a; b < n. By
induction, a and b are product of primes; hence n = ab is also a product of primes.

Theorem. There is no largest prime number. That is, there exist an in…nite number
of primes.
Proof. This result is proved via contradiction. Suppose that there are only a …nite
number of primes, say p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; pm . Consider the integer

n = p1 p2 : : : p m + 1

Since n is a product of primes (via last theorem), then it is divisible by one of the primes
say pk . Note that pk also divides the product p1 p2 : : : pm . Therefore pk divides

n p 1 p2 : : : p m = 1

The above result is not possible, and so n is divisible by some other prime. This contradicts
the assumption that p1 ; p2 ; : : : ; pm are the only primes. Thus the number of primes is
in…nite, and hence the theorem is proved.