UNIT-V

ENERGY SOURCES FOR

ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Prepared by,
Ms. K Vijetha,
Assistant Professor,
Mechanical Engineering,
Aditya College of Engineering and Technology

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

 SYLLABUS
UNIT – V
Energy Sources for Electric Vehicles
Batteries - Types of Batteries – Lithium-ion - Nickel-metal
hydride - Lead-acid – Comparison of
Batteries - Battery Management System – Ultra capacitors –
Flywheels – Fuel Cell – it’s working.

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

 BATTERIES
• A battery is a device that converts chemical energy contained within its
active materials directly into electric energy by means of
an electrochemical oxidation-reduction (redox) reaction. This type of
reaction involves the transfer of electrons from one material to another via
an electric circuit.
• While the term battery is often used the cell is the actual electrochemical
unit used to generate or store electric energy.
• In understanding the differences between a cell and a battery, one should
think of a battery as one or more of these cells connected in series,
or parallel, or both, depending on the desired output voltage and capacity.
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 TYPES OF BATTERIES
Electric vehicles (EVs) use various types of batteries to store electrical energy and
power their electric motors. The choice of battery technology depends on factors
like cost, energy density, weight, and application. Here are some of the most
common types of batteries used in electric vehicles:
1. Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) Batteries:
•Suitability: Li-ion batteries are the most prevalent type of battery used in
electric vehicles today. They are suitable for a wide range of EVs, from small city
cars to larger SUVs.
•Advantages: High energy density, long cycle life, lightweight, and relatively low
self-discharge rate. They offer good performance and are well-established in the
industry.
•Disadvantages: Cost can be relatively high, and there are some concerns about
the availability of raw materials like cobalt.
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2. Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4) Batteries:
• Suitability: LiFePO4 batteries are often used in electric buses and some
commercial vehicles.
• Advantages: Excellent thermal stability, long cycle life, and good safety
characteristics. They are less prone to overheating and have a longer lifespan.
• Disadvantages: Slightly lower energy density compared to traditional Li-ion
batteries, which can result in a heavier battery pack.
3. Solid-State Batteries:
• Suitability: Solid-state batteries are an emerging technology with potential
applications in high-performance electric vehicles and future EVs.
• Advantages: Higher energy density, faster charging, and improved safety due to
the absence of liquid electrolytes. They are also more stable at high temperatures.
• Disadvantages: Currently, solid-state batteries are in the development stage and
not yet widely available. Cost and production challenges need to be overcome.
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3. Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Batteries:
• Suitability: NiMH batteries were used in some early hybrid vehicles, like the
Toyota Prius, but are now less common in purely electric vehicles.
• Advantages: Relatively good energy density, long cycle life, and a proven
track record for durability and reliability.
• Disadvantages: NiMH batteries are heavier and less energy-dense than Li-ion
batteries, making them less suitable for long-range EVs.
4. Lead-Acid Batteries:
• Suitability: Lead-acid batteries are primarily used in low-speed electric
vehicles (e.g., golf carts) and some budget electric cars.
• Advantages: Low cost and a long history of use in various applications.
• Disadvantages: Lead-acid batteries have low energy density, limited cycle
life, and are heavy. They are not suitable for high-performance or long-range
EVs.
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5. Sodium-Ion Batteries:
• Suitability: Sodium-ion batteries are an emerging technology with potential use in
electric vehicles.
• Advantages: Sodium is more abundant and less expensive than lithium. Sodium-
ion batteries are also considered safer and less prone to thermal runaway.
• Disadvantages: Currently, sodium-ion batteries are in the early stages of
development and are not widely available for automotive applications.
6. Supercapacitors (Ultracapacitors):
• Suitability: Supercapacitors are used in some hybrid vehicles as energy storage
for regenerative braking systems.
• Advantages: Fast charging and discharging, high power density, and long cycle
life. They can provide bursts of power during acceleration.
• Disadvantages: Supercapacitors have lower energy density compared to batteries,
making them less suitable as the sole energy storage system for all-electric
vehicles.
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The choice of battery technology depends on the specific requirements of
the vehicle, cost considerations, and the state of battery technology at the
time of production. Manufacturers continually research and develop new
battery technologies to improve the performance, safety, and cost-
effectiveness of electric vehicle.

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LITHIUM-ION

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
• The rechargeable lithium-ion battery is made of one or more power-
generating compartments called cells. Each cell has essentially three
components.- positive electrode, negative electrode and electrolyte.
• A positive electrode connects to the battery's positive or + terminal.
A negative electrode connects to the negative or − terminal. And a
chemical called an electrolyte in between them.
• The positive electrode is typically made from a chemical compound
called lithium-cobalt oxide (LiCoO2) or lithium iron phosphate
(LiFePO4). The negative electrode is generally made from carbon
(graphite). The electrolyte varies from one type of battery to another.

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• The electrolyte carries positively charged lithium ions from the anode to the cathode.
The movement of the lithium ions creates free electrons in the anode which creates a
charge at the positive current collector. The electrical current then flows from the
current collector through a device being powered (cell phone, computer, etc.) to the
negative current collector. The separator blocks the flow of electrons inside the
battery.
• While the battery is discharging and providing an electric current, the anode releases
lithium ions to the cathode, generating a flow of electrons from one side to the other.
When plugging in the device, the opposite reaction happens, the cathode releases
lithium ions and the anode receives them. This is how the Lithium-ion battery works.
• In this battery, the energy density and power density are the most common things of
the battery. Generally, the energy density is measured in watt-hours per kilogram
(Wh/kg) and is the amount of energy the battery can store with respect to its mass.
Power density measures watts per kilogram (W/kg) and is the amount of power of a
battery with respect to its mass.
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ADVANTAGES OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERY
•Generally, they are much lighter than other types of rechargeable batteries
of the same size.
•They hold their charge. A lithium-ion battery pack loses only about 5
percent of its charge per month.
•High specific energy and high load capabilities with Power Cells
•Long cycle and extend shelf-life; maintenance-free. They can handle
hundreds of charge/discharge cycles.
•High capacity, low internal resistance, good coulombic efficiency
•Simple charge algorithm and reasonably short charge times
•Low self-discharge (less than half that of NiCd and NiMH)

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LIMITATIONS OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERY
•Requires protection circuit to prevent thermal runaway if stressed
•Degrades at high temperatures and when stored at high voltage
•No rapid charge possible at freezing temperatures (<0°C, <32°F)
•Transportation regulations are required when shipping in larger quantities
•They are extremely sensitive to high temperatures. Heat causes lithium-ion
battery packs to degrade much faster than they normally would.

APPLICATIONS OF LITHIUM-ION BATTERY

Lithium batteries have a long list of real-world applications beyond running the
apps on your phone. From life-saving medical equipment to luxury
yachts, lithium batteries keep both the essentials and the comforts of modern life
running with safety and reliability.

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NICKEL-METAL HYDRIDE

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• A nickel metal hydride battery, NiMH, is a rechargeable battery with a
positive electrode made of nickel hydroxide and a negative electrode made of a
metal hydride (a hydrogen-absorbing alloy). The NiMH battery was
commercially introduced in 1989 and was mainly used as a power source in
portable personal computers. Since then, the NiMH battery system has become
very popular in electric hybrid vehicles and makes up 10% of the total market
for rechargeable batteries. Compared to the NiCd battery, the NiMH provides
40 percent higher specific energy resulting in about two times higher capacity.
NiMH batteries are also less affected by voltage depression, but the main
advantage is the absence of toxic cadmium. The memory effect of NiMH
batteries is much less than nickel-cadmium batteries.
• Compared to alkaline batteries, the internal resistance of NiMH batteries is
much lower. Because of this, they have the advantage that a higher voltage can
be maintained under high load.FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
• With high specific energy (up to 100Wh/kg) and energy density (double of lead-
acid and 40% more than nickel-cadmium), high cycle life, low cost, recyclability
(cadmium is hazardous), and other qualities made it the most used battery and
still nowadays is one of the most used. Its applications are much more diverse:
battery cells AA or AAA, cameras, old mobile phones, electric razors, medical
instruments and equipment, and high-power static applications. Compared to the
lead-acid battery, the drawback is that it is more expensive than lead acid per
kWh.
• NiMH batteries are (re)charged by applying electric current, which reverses the
chemical reactions that occur during discharge/use. Devices to supply the
appropriate current are called chargers. The electronics in charging systems and
control circuits for NiMHs are simple and inexpensive, and the battery is
considered safe. The NiMH battery also has high self-discharge and can lose up
to 20 % of its charge during the first 24 hours and thereafter 10 % per month.
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• Like NiCd batteries, they have a nominal voltage of 1.2V per
cell with a typical end-of-discharge voltage of 1V.
• The total voltage of the redox reaction is E0 = 0.49V – ( – 0.83V) =
1.32V.
• Nevertheless, they are widely used as a replacement for alkaline
batteries, which have 1.5V nominal voltage per cell, in many
applications and are commonly found in standard battery designs.
In some applications, however, the lower nominal voltage can be a
disadvantage. For example, unregulated lights that are designed for
1.5V operation tend to shine less brightly.

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A typical NiMH cell contains:
•Cathode: a nickel(III) oxide-hydroxide positive electrode plate
•Anode: a metal hydride (a hydrogen-absorbing alloy)
•Separator
•Electrolyte: an alkaline electrolyte (potassium hydroxide).
The metal M in the negative electrode of a NiMH cell is an intermetallic
compound. Many different compounds have been developed for this application.
The research on materials for negative electrodes for the Ni/MH battery has
involved several alloy families: AB5, AB2, and AB. In this notation, A represents
a metallic element with a strong affinity to hydrogen (typically rare-earth element
like lanthanum, cerium, neodymium, or praseodymium), whereas B is a metallic
element with weak hydrogen affinity (typically transition metal like nickel, cobalt,
manganese, or aluminum). Today the hydride-forming materials based on the AB5
intermetallics are the most versatile and commercially important family of
reversible hydriding alloys. FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
The optimal composition for electrode purposes has been found for an
alloy with the following composition:
MmNi3.55Mn0.4Al0.3Co0.75
where Mm is a Mischmetal, which is an alloy of rare-earth elements.
It is also called cerium mischmetal or rare-earth mischmetal. A typical
composition includes approximately 55% cerium, 25% lanthanum, and
15~18% neodymium, with traces of other rare earth metals.
The layer structure of a NiMH round cell can be seen in the figure. An
outer perforated foil serves as a carrier for the metal hydride powder,
which forms the negative electrode. During discharge, the hydrogen
bound in the metal hydride MH is oxidized to a proton, and metal of 0
oxidation state is formed: MH +OH– → M+H2O+e–
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The resulting protons react with the OH– hydroxide ions of the KOH solution to form water.
The redox potential is approximately -0.83 V. The separator holds the electrolyte, a 20% KOH
solution, and prevents direct contact with the positive electrode. The cathode consists of a
sheet of nickel hydroxide and nickel oxide hydrate. Here, nickel of oxidation state +III is
reduced to nickel of oxidation state +II in the reaction:
NiO(OH) + H20 + e–→ Ni(OH)2 + OH–
The overall reaction during discharge:
NiO(OH) + MH → Ni(OH)2 + M
• During this process, free electrons are bound so that this pole becomes the positive
electrode. The redox voltage of the reduction is approximately 0.49 V. The total voltage
of the redox reaction is thus E0 = 0.49V – ( – 0.83V) = 1.32V.
• The specific energy of a NiMH cell is about 80 Wh/kg, which is almost as high as that
of an alkaline cell and more than twice as high as that of a NiCd battery. NiMH
batteries are sensitive to overcharging, overheating, incorrect polarity, and also to deep
discharge.
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ADVANTAGES:
The main advantage of rechargeable cells is that they may be recharged after
discharge. Therefore, rechargeable batteries are more environmentally friendly
than primary batteries. Not only can they be used repeatedly, but they generate
less waste over the long term. This is particularly true in the case of power-
intensive devices, which consume batteries at an increased rate. Another very
important advantage is a high C-rate. Rechargeable cells have better power
output capabilities compared to primary cells and are used for high-power
applications.
There are several specific advantages to NiMH batteries.
•delivers high current output
•rapid recharge capability
•less expensive than lithium-based battery systems

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DISADVANTAGES:
Battery price is one of the challenging factors in choosing the right
rechargeable battery for your device or applications. It greatly affects the
decision of the buyer. Rechargeable batteries have higher initial costs than their
primary counterparts. Another important disadvantage is their self-discharge. In
low-drain applications, the service life is more important, and the self-discharge
characteristics of a rechargeable battery mean that they are less suitable for use
as the primary energy source.
There are several specific disadvantages to NiMH batteries.
•not suitable for shallow cycling
•lower specific energy and specific power than lithium-based battery systems

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 CHARACTERISTICS OF NICKEL METAL HYDRIDE BATTERIES
To compare and understand the capability of each battery, some important parameters are
characteristic of each battery, also within a type of battery. These parameters are a reference
when a battery is needed, and specific qualities are required since batteries are used in all types
of devices and for infinite purposes.
Cell Voltage
The voltage of electric batteries is created by the potential difference of the materials that
compose the positive and negative electrodes in the electrochemical reaction.
A common open circuit voltage for NiMH batteries (e.g. AAA and AA) is 1.2V.

Cut-off Voltage
The cut-off voltage is the minimum allowable voltage. It is this voltage that generally defines
the “empty” state of the battery.
When testing the capacity of a NiMH or NiCd battery, a cut-off voltage of 1.0 V per cell is
normally used, whereas 0.9 V is normally used as the cut-off voltage of an alkaline cell.

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

 Capacity
The coulometric capacity is the total Amp-hours available when the battery is discharged at
a certain discharge current from 100% SOC to the cut-off voltage.
NiMH AA batteries feature a nominal voltage of 1.2 volts and an average capacity of 2000-
2700 mAh.
C-rate of Battery
C-rate is used to express how fast a battery is discharged or charged relative to its maximum
capacity. It has units h−1. A 1C rate means that the discharge current will discharge the entire
battery in 1 hour.
Typically, high C-rate NiMH batteries can be charged at 1C and be fully charged in just over
an hour.
Self-discharge
Batteries gradually self-discharge even if not connected and delivering current. This is due to
non-current-producing “side” chemical reactions that occur within the cell even when no
load is applied.
The NiMH battery also has high self-discharge and can lose up to 20 % of its charge during
the first 24 hours and thereafter 10 % per month.
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 Degradation
Some degradation of rechargeable batteries occurs on each charge-discharge
cycle. Degradation usually occurs because electrolyte migrates away from the
electrodes or because active material detaches from the electrodes.
The cycle life for NiMH batteries is typically 700-1,000 life cycles.

Depth of Discharge
Depth of discharge is a measure of how much energy has been withdrawn
from a battery and is expressed as a percentage of full capacity. For example, a
100 Ah battery from which 40 Ah has been withdrawn has undergone a 40%
depth of discharge (DOD).

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

 LEAD-ACID
The battery uses sponge lead and lead peroxide for the conversion of the chemical energy into
electrical power, such type of battery is called a lead acid battery. The lead acid battery is
most commonly used in power stations and substations because it has higher cell voltage and
lower cost.

Construction of Lead Acid Battery

The various parts of the lead acid battery are shown below. The container and the plates are
the main part of the lead acid battery. The container stores chemical energy which is
converted into electrical energy by the help of the plates.
1. Container – The container of the lead acid battery is made of glass, lead lined wood,
ebonite, the hard rubber of bituminous compound, ceramic materials or moulded plastics and
are seated at the top to avoid the discharge of electrolyte. At the bottom of the container, there
are four ribs, on two of them rest the positive plate and the others support the negative plates.
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The prism serves as the support for the plates and at the same time protects them from a short-
circuit.The material of which the battery containers are made should be resistant to sulfuric
acid, should not deform or porous, or contain impurities which damage the electrolyte.

2. Plate – The plate of the lead-acid cell is of diverse design and they all consist some form of
a grid which is made up of lead and the active material. The grid is essential for conducting
the electric current and for distributing the current equally on the active material. If the current
is not uniformly distributed, then the active material will loosen and fall out.
The grids are made up of an alloy of lead and antimony. These are usually made with the
transverse rib that crosses the places at a right angle or diagonally. The grid for the positive
and negative plates are of the same design, but the grids for the negative plates are made
lighter because they are not as essential for the uniform conduction of the current.

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

The plates of the battery are of two types. They are the formed plates or plante plates and
pasted or faure plates.
Plante’s plates are used largely for stationary batteries as these are heavier in weight and
more costly than the pasted plates. However, the plates are more durable and less liable to
lose active material by rapid charging and discharging. The plant plate has a low capacity-
weight ratio.
The faure process is much more suitable for manufacturing negative plates rather than
positive plates. The negative active material is quite tough, and it undergoes a comparatively
low change from charging and discharging.

3. Active Material – The material in a cell that takes active participation in a chemical
reaction (absorption or evolution of electrical energy) during charging or discharging is
called the active material of the cell. The active elements of lead-acid are
1.Lead peroxide (PbO2) – It forms the positive active material. The PbO2 is a dark chocolate
broom in colour.
2.Sponge lead – It forms the negative color active material. It is grey in color.
3.Dilute Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) – It is used as an electrolyte. It contains 31% of sulfuric
FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
acid.
The lead peroxide and sponge lead, which form the negative and positive active
materials have the little mechanical strength and therefore can be used alone.
4. Separators – The separators are thin sheets of non-conducting material made
up of chemically treated leadwood, porous rubbers, or mats of glass fibre and are
placed between the positive and negative to insulate them from each other.
Separators are grooved vertically on one side and are smooth on the other side.
5. Battery Terminals – A battery has two terminals the positive and the
negative. The positive terminal with a diameter of 17.5 mm at the top is slightly
larger than the negative terminal which is 16 mm in diameter.

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF LEAD ACID BATTERY
When the sulfuric acid dissolves, its molecules break up into positive
hydrogen ions (2H+) and sulphate negative ions (SO4—) and move freely. If
the two electrodes are immersed in solutions and connected to the DC supply
then the hydrogen ions are positively charged and moved towards the
electrodes and connected to the negative terminal of the supply. The SO4—
ions being negatively charged moved towards the electrodes connected to the
positive terminal of the supply main (i.e., anode).

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

• Each hydrogen ion takes one electron from the cathode, and each
sulphate ion takes the two negative ions from the anodes and
reacts with water and form sulfuric and hydrogen acid.
• The oxygen, which is produced from the above equation react
with lead oxide and form lead peroxide (PbO2.) Thus, during
charging the lead cathode remains as lead, but the lead anode gets
converted into lead peroxide, chocolate in colour.
• If the DC source of supply is disconnected and if the voltmeter
connects between the electrodes, it will show the potential
difference between them. If the wire connects the electrodes, then
current will flow from the positive plate to the negative plate
through an external circuit i.e. the cell is capable of supplying
electrical energy.
FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
CHEMICAL ACTION DURING DISCHARGING
When the cell is fully discharged, the anode is of lead peroxide (PbO2) and the
cathode is of metallic sponge lead (Pb). When the electrodes are connected
through a resistance, the cell discharge and electrons flow in a direction
opposite to that during charging.
The hydrogen ions move to the anode and reaching the anodes receive one
electron from the anode and become hydrogen atoms. The hydrogen atom
comes in contact with a PbO2, so it attacks and forms lead sulphate (PbSO4),
whitish in color and water according to the chemical equation.

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The each sulphate ion (SO4—) moves towards the cathode and reaching there
gives up two electrons becomes radical SO4, attack the metallic lead cathode and
form lead sulphate whitish in colour according to the chemical equation.

CHEMICAL ACTION DURING RECHARGING

For recharging, the anode and cathode are connected to the positive and the
negative terminals of the DC supply mains. The molecules of the sulfuric acid
break up into ions of 2H+ and SO4—. The hydrogen ions being positively charged
moved towards the cathodes and received two electrons from there and form a
hydrogen atom. The hydrogen atom reacts with lead sulphate cathode forming
lead and sulfuric acid according to the chemical equation.
SO4— ion moves to the anode, gives up its two additional electrons becomes
radical SO4, react with the lead sulphate anode and form leads peroxide and lead
sulphuric acid according to the chemical equation.
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The charging and discharging are represented by a single reversible equation
given below.
The equation should read
downward for discharge and
upward for recharge.

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LEAD ACID BATTERY APPLICATIONS
•These are employed in emergency lighting to provide power for sump
pumps.
•Used in electric motors
•Submarines
•Nuclear submarines

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ADVANTAGES OF LEAD ACID BATTERY
• It is available in all shapes and sizes.
• It does not require any maintenance.
• It is best in terms of reliability and working capabilities.
• It withstands slow, fast and overcharging.
• It is capable to withstand long term inactivity with or without solvent.
• It offers best value for power and energy per KWH.
• It offers longest life cycle.
• About 97% of lead can be recycled and reused in new batteries.
• It is inexpensive and simple to manufacture; low cost per watt-hour
• It offers low self discharge, which is lowest among rechargeable batteries.
• It offers good performance at low and high temperature.

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DISADVANTAGES OF LEAD ACID BATTERY
• Lead is heavier compare to alternative elements.
• It has low specific energy, poor weight to energy ratio.
• It can be charged slowly i.e. fully saturated charge takes 14 to 16
hours.
• It must be stored in charged condition in order to prevent
sulfation.
• It has limited cycle life. Moreover repeated deep cycling reduces
battery life.
• Flooded version of battery requires watering.
• It is not environmentally friendly.
• There are transportation restrictions on flooded type.
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 COMPARISON OF BATTERIES
1. Lithium-Ion (Li-ion) Batteries:
•Advantages:
• High energy density, providing long driving ranges.
• Lightweight and compact, reducing overall vehicle weight.
• Relatively long cycle life.
•Disadvantages:
• Higher initial cost.
• Concerns over resource availability (e.g., cobalt).
• Thermal management requirements to prevent overheating.
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2. Lithium Iron Phosphate (LiFePO4) Batteries:
• Advantages:
1.Excellent thermal stability and safety.
2.Longer cycle life compared to traditional Li-ion.
3.Relatively low self-discharge rate.
• Disadvantages:
1.Slightly lower energy density.
2.Slightly heavier compared to traditional Li-ion.
3. Solid-State Batteries:
• Advantages:
1.Higher energy density.
2.Faster charging and longer lifespan.
3.Improved safety due to the absence of liquid electrolytes.
• Disadvantages: Currently in the developmental stage; not widely available.
1.Production challenges and high costs.

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4. Nickel-Metal Hydride (NiMH) Batteries:
• Advantages:
1.Proven track record for durability and reliability.
2.Relatively good energy density.
3.Long cycle life.
• Disadvantages:
1.Heavier and less energy-dense than Li-ion.
2.Less suitable for long-range EVs.
5. Lead-Acid Batteries:
• Advantages:
1.Low cost.
2.Long history of use in various applications.
• Disadvantages:
1.Low energy density.
2.Limited cycle life.
3.Heavy and less suitable for high-performance or long-range EVs.

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6. Sodium-Ion Batteries:
• Advantages:
1.Sodium is more abundant and less expensive than lithium.
2.Considered safer and less prone to thermal runaway.
• Disadvantages:
1.Early-stage development; not widely available.
2.Limited track record in automotive applications.
7. Supercapacitors (Ultracapacitors):
• Advantages:
1.Fast charging and discharging.
2.High power density.
3.Long cycle life.
• Disadvantages:
1.Lower energy density compared to batteries.
2.Typically used in conjunction with batteries, not as the sole energy storage.

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 BATTERY MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
A Battery Management System (BMS) is a critical component in any system that utilizes
rechargeable batteries, and it plays a crucial role in electric vehicles, renewable energy systems,
consumer electronics, and more. The primary function of a BMS is to monitor and manage the
performance, safety, and lifespan of a battery pack. Here are the key functions and components of a
Battery Management System:
Key Functions of a BMS:
• Cell Monitoring: The BMS continuously monitors the voltage, current, and temperature of each
individual cell within the battery pack. This information ensures that all cells operate within safe
and optimal ranges.
• State of Charge (SoC) Estimation: The BMS calculates and maintains an accurate estimate of
the battery's state of charge, which indicates how much energy is left in the battery.
• State of Health (SoH) Assessment: The BMS assesses the overall health of the battery pack by
monitoring factors like capacity loss over time. This information helps predict battery life and
replacement timing.
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• Balancing: In multi-cell battery packs, cells may discharge and charge unevenly, leading to
imbalances in state of charge. The BMS can activate cell balancing to redistribute energy
and ensure uniform performance.
• Overvoltage and Undervoltage Protection: The BMS prevents cells from operating at
dangerous voltage levels by disconnecting or limiting current flow when voltages exceed
safe thresholds.
• Overcurrent Protection: The BMS monitors current flow and can limit or disconnect the
battery pack if excessive current is detected, preventing overheating or damage.
• Temperature Management: Controlling battery temperature is crucial for safety and
performance. The BMS may activate cooling or heating systems to maintain optimal
temperature ranges.
• Cell Tap Configuration: In some applications, the BMS can configure the arrangement of
cells (series or parallel) to adapt to different load requirements.
• Data Logging and Communication: Many BMS systems log data and enable
communication with external systems, such as vehicle control units or remote monitoring
stations, to provide real-time information about the battery's condition and performance.

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Key Components of a BMS:
1.Battery Pack Interface: This component connects to the battery pack's terminals and
measures voltage and current.
2.Cell Supervision: Individual cell monitoring circuits are responsible for tracking
each cell's voltage and temperature.
3.Control Unit: The brain of the BMS, responsible for data processing, decision-
making, and sending commands for balancing, disconnecting, or other control
functions.
4.Safety Disconnects: High-current relays or switches that can disconnect the battery
from the load or charging source in case of dangerous conditions.
5.Temperature Sensors: Sensors placed within the battery pack to monitor the
temperature of cells and the pack as a whole.
6.Data Storage and Communication: Memory for data logging and communication
interfaces (CAN, UART, Ethernet) for external connectivity.
7.Display and User Interface: Some BMS units have displays and interfaces for user
interaction and feedback. FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
 ULTRA CAPACITORS
Ultracapacitors, also known as supercapacitors or electric double-layer capacitors (EDLCs), are
energy storage devices that store and release electrical energy more rapidly than conventional
batteries. They are used in a variety of applications where rapid energy storage and release are
required.

How Does an Ultracapacitor Work?

Like a battery, a single ultracapacitor cell consists of a positive and negative electrode separated
by an electrolyte. However, they store energy electrostatically, like a regular capacitor, not
chemically like a battery - a dielectric separator divides the electrolyte, like a capacitor.

The small separation between electrodes permitted by this structure leads to a much higher
energy storage density than a normal capacitor. While an ultracapacitor stores less energy than an
equivalently sized battery, it can release it much quicker, as the discharge is not dependent on a
chemical reaction taking place.
FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Because no physical or chemical changes occur when the charge is stored, ultracapacitors can
also be used many times over without degradation.

In recent years, the ultracapacitor has become increasingly important due to its use in two
significant industries: electric vehicles and renewable energy. Both these industries will play a
vital role in helping the world to reach the climate change goals set out by the Paris Agreement.
As both these industries continue to show strong growth, as will the importance of the
ultracapacitor.

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

Key Characteristics of Ultracapacitors:
1.High Power Density: Ultracapacitors have a high power density, enabling them to quickly
store and discharge energy. This makes them suitable for applications that require rapid bursts of
power, such as regenerative braking in electric vehicles.
2.Rapid Charging and Discharging: Ultracapacitors can charge and discharge quickly, often
within seconds or even milliseconds. This rapid response time is useful in applications where
fast energy transfer is critical.
3.Long Cycle Life: Ultracapacitors have a longer cycle life compared to many traditional
batteries, often in the hundreds of thousands of charge-discharge cycles. This makes them a
durable option for certain applications.
4.High Efficiency: Ultracapacitors have high charge and discharge efficiency, which means
minimal energy is lost during these processes.
5.Wide Temperature Range: They can operate effectively across a wide temperature range,
making them suitable for both extreme cold and hot environments.
6.Low Maintenance: Ultracapacitors typically require less maintenance than some other energy
storage solutions. They do not suffer from issues like sulfation, which can affect lead-acid
batteries.
FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
Applications of Ultracapacitors:
1.Regenerative Braking in Electric Vehicles: Ultracapacitors can capture and
store energy during braking and then release it for acceleration, increasing the
overall energy efficiency of electric and hybrid vehicles.
2.Peak Power Assistance: In combination with batteries, ultracapacitors can
provide peak power during acceleration, reducing stress on the battery and
extending its lifespan.
3.Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS): Ultracapacitors can provide backup
power in UPS systems to bridge the gap between a power outage and generator
startup, ensuring uninterrupted power supply to critical equipment.
4.Energy Harvesting: They are used in energy harvesting applications, such as
capturing and storing energy from renewable sources like solar panels or wind
turbines.
5.Public Transportation: Ultracapacitors are used in hybrid and electric buses
and trams to enhance accelerationFUNDAMENTAL
and regenerative
OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES braking efficiency.
6.Industrial Machinery: Ultracapacitors provide quick bursts of energy for heavy
machinery, reducing strain on the power grid during peak demands.
7.Backup Power for Data Centers: They can supply backup power to data centers
during brief power interruptions, allowing critical data operations to continue without
interruption.
8.Rapid Energy Storage and Release: Ultracapacitors are used in applications that
require rapid energy storage and discharge, such as flashlights, emergency lighting, and
wireless sensor nodes.

While ultracapacitors offer advantages in terms of power density, rapid charging and
discharging, and cycle life, they have limitations in terms of energy density. They can
store less total energy compared to conventional batteries. Therefore, they are often used
in combination with batteries to provide a balance between power and energy
requirements in various applications. Researchers are continually working on improving
ultracapacitor technology to address energy density limitations and expand their use in
energy storage solutions.
FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
 FLYWHEELS
Flywheels can be used as a form of energy storage, often referred to as "flywheel
energy storage systems" (FESS). While not exactly like traditional chemical
batteries, flywheels serve as mechanical energy storage devices that store kinetic
energy in a spinning mass and release it when needed. Here's how flywheel
energy storage systems work and their advantages:

HOW FLYWHEEL ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS WORK:

• Energy Storage: In a flywheel energy storage system, mechanical energy is
stored as kinetic energy by spinning a heavy rotor (the flywheel) at high
speeds. The flywheel is mounted on high-quality bearings in a vacuum or
low-friction enclosure to minimize energy losses due to friction and air
resistance.
FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
• Charging: The system charges the flywheel by supplying energy to accelerate it.
This can be done using an electric motor or another mechanical energy source.
• Energy Storage: As the flywheel spins, it stores the energy as rotational kinetic
energy. The energy stored is directly proportional to the flywheel's mass and the
square of its rotational speed.
• Discharging: When energy is needed, the flywheel's kinetic energy is converted
back into electricity. This is achieved by allowing the flywheel to slow down,
and the mechanical energy is transferred to an electrical generator, producing
electrical power.

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

ADVANTAGES OF FLYWHEEL ENERGY STORAGE:
• Rapid Charging and Discharging: Flywheels can charge and discharge
energy rapidly, making them suitable for applications that require quick power
bursts or short-duration energy backup.
• Long Cycle Life: Flywheels have a long cycle life, often in the hundreds of
thousands to millions of cycles, as there are no chemical reactions involved,
which can degrade a battery's performance over time.
• High Efficiency: Flywheels are highly efficient in storing and releasing energy,
with minimal energy losses during the process. This makes them an excellent
choice for applications where high efficiency is crucial.
• Minimal Maintenance: Flywheel systems generally require minimal
maintenance compared to some chemical batteries, which might need periodic
replacement of cells or electrolytes.
• Durability: Flywheels can withstand frequent charge and discharge cycles
without significant degradation, making them durable and reliable.
FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
APPLICATIONS OF FLYWHEEL ENERGY STORAGE:

1.Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS): Flywheels can provide short-term

backup power during brief power interruptions, bridging the gap until generators
or other power sources come online.
2.Grid Stabilization: Flywheels can help stabilize the electrical grid by
providing fast frequency regulation and voltage support.
3.Renewable Energy Integration: Flywheels can store excess energy from
intermittent renewable sources like wind or solar and release it when the energy
demand is high.
4.Industrial and Critical Facilities: They can provide backup power to critical
industrial facilities, data centers, and hospitals.
5.Railway Systems: Flywheels can be used in regenerative braking systems for
trains to store and release kinetic energy.
FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
 FUEL CELL & IT’S WORKING
Fuel Cell was invented in 1838 but was used commercially much later by NASA.
Typically, they used it in their satellites and other devices for their research to supply
power. Today, these are being used in commercial and residential premises and
industries. It can be used both as a primary or as a secondary source of power.
A fuel cell is a tiny device that has two electrodes namely, a cathode and an anode. These
electrodes result in an electrochemical reaction inside the cell.
However, a fuel cell needs to have two important components to perform this reaction.
These are:
•An oxidizing agent and
•Supply of fuel or an electrolyte.
When these two are cut off, the cell will stop generating electric power. The electrolyte is
very important because it supports the movements of ions, to and from the electrodes.

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

WORKING PROCESS OF FUEL CELLS
A fuel cell generates electricity via a chemical reaction by simply completing an electric
circuit. The entire process is completed in a few steps which are as follows:
•At the anode, Hydrogen atoms are introduced. These atoms are known to carry a positive
electric charge. However, these atoms are stripped of their electrons at this stage. These
negatively charged electrons move and create a current through the wires.
•At the cathode, Oxygen atoms are introduced. These atoms combine with the leftover
electrons of the hydrogen atoms. It can combine with it after it passes through the anode or at
this stage itself. It all depends on the type of cell.
The different reactions that take place involve:
At Cathode: O2 + 2H2O + 4e- → 4OH-
At Anode: 2H2 + 4OH- → 4H2O + 4e-
The net result of these two reactions is 2 H2 + O2 → 2H2O.
Sometimes, however, the reaction can be too slow and in such a situation a catalyst is used.
Usually, platinum or palladium is used to expedite the reaction.

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
TYPES OF FUEL CELLS
There are different types of fuel cells available in the market, though the working process is
pretty similar in all. The various types of the fuel cell are:
•PEM or Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells, which are also known as Proton Exchange
Membrane Fuel Cells, have an operating temperature of 50 to 100 degrees Centigrade while
conducting protons. These cells consist of electrodes, bipolar plates, a polymer membrane, and
a catalyst.
•Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells contain phosphoric acid as their electrolyte. The operating
temperature of these fuel cells is typically between 150 to 200 degrees Centigrade while they
carry the positively charged Hydrogen ions. It is the non-conductive nature of this electrolyte
that forces the electrons to pass through the cathode by completing an external circuit.
However, the acidic nature corrodes the electrodes and oxidizes during the process.
•Solid Acid Fuel Cells work on either Cesium Hydrogen Sulfate, CsHSO4, or Cesium
Dihydrogen Phosphate, CsH2PO4. The molecular structure of the solid acid material works in a
specific order at a lower temperature. However, at a high temperature, conductivity can increase
significantly due to the phase transition.

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

•Alkaline Fuel Cells use an aqueous alkaline solution. This solution helps to saturate the
permeable milieu and helps in separating the electrodes. These cells operate at a
temperature of 90 degrees Centigrade and are very efficient in producing heat and water
apart from electric power.
•Solid Oxide Fuel Cells come with a solid oxide or a ceramic electrolyte like the Yttria-
stabilized Zirconia. These low-cost cells are also very efficient. However, it operates at
a very high temperature. The standard operating temperature of these cells can be
600°C and 1000°C at the two extremes of the temperature scale.
•Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells are powered by natural gas or biogas and use Lithium
Potassium Carbonate salt as its electrolyte. It turns liquid at high temperatures to help
the carbonate ions move. These cells also have a very high operating temperature of
more than 650°C. However, the electrolyte corrodes the anode and cathode of the cells
for its high operating temperature.

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

APPLICATIONS

Fuel cell technology is very useful and has a wide and varied range of
applications. A few of them include but are not limited to:
•Electric and eco-friendly vehicles
•Spaceships and space expeditions
•Electronic devices and
•Military applications.
The byproducts of the fuel cells, in the form of heat and water, are also very
useful. Also, in remote areas, fuel cells are used as a primary electrical source or
as a backup. It can also be used to power up cell phones, other appliances, and
even households.

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES

ADVANTAGES
There are lots of different advantages of using fuel cells. A few of them are:
•These are more efficient in comparison to any regular combustion engine since they do
not undergo a double conversion process.
•These cells save wasteful emissions of greenhouse gases. It not only conserves energy
but creates heat and water as its byproducts.
•These cells are consistent and more stable, reliable, and convenient to use because the
parts in them or around them need minimal or no movement.
•The working process involves atom separation and is very clean, ergonomic, and is very
useful for preserving natural resources.
•These cells are very easy to combine with other technologies such as solar panels and
turbines.
•Most importantly, the fuel cells are considered to be extremely scalable in comparison
to a traditional cell. Depending on the need, these cells can generate electric power from
a few watts to several megawatts.
FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES
QUERIES?

FUNDAMENTAL OF ELECTRIC VEHICLES