Electricity and its heating effects

Electric circuit: - A continuous and closed path through which electric charge flow, is called an electric circuit.

Notes:-
a) Like mass, electric charge (Q) is a fundamental property of matter.
b) The SI unit of charge is coulomb (C).
c) There are two types of charges, namely, positive and negative.
d) Charge of an electron is 1.602 x 10-19 C. It is negative in nature.

Electric current (I): - Electric current (I) is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge.
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑐𝑢𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑄
𝐼=
𝑡
Its SI unit is ampere (A).

Note: Direction of electric current is taken to be the direction of flow of positive charge.

Ampere (A): - One ampere of electric current is said to flow through a conductor, if one coulomb of charge
flows across a unit cross section in one second.
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 = 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
−1
𝐴 = 𝐶𝑠
Ammeter: - It is a device, which measures the electric current flowing through a circuit. It is connected in
series in the circuit.

Potential difference (V): - Electric potential difference between two points is defined as the work done in
carrying unit charge from one point to the other.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 =
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
𝑊
𝑉=
𝑄
Its SI unit is volt (V).

Volt (V): - The potential difference between two points is said to be one volt, when a work of one joule is done
in carrying one coulomb of charge from one point to the other.
𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑡 =
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
𝑉 = 𝐽𝐶−1
Voltmeter: - It is a device, which measures the electric potential difference across two points within a circuit.
It is connected in parallel across the points.

Ohm’s Law: - Ohm’s law states that the current flowing through the conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference applied across it, provided the temperature remains constant.

Notes: -
1) At a given temperature, V-I graph of a conductor will be a straight line.
2) With V plotted along Y-axis and I along X-axis, slope of the graph gives the resistance of the
conductor.

Resistance (R):- Resistance of a conductor is defined as the property by which it opposes the flow of electric
charges through it.

Its SI unit is ohm(Ω).

ohm (Ω): - The resistance of a conductor is said to be one ohm, when a potential difference of one volt applied
across the conductor causes an electric current of one ampere through it.

𝑗𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒
𝑜ℎ𝑚 =
𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
𝑉 = 𝐽𝐶−1
Notes: -
1) Component of a given size that offers a low resistance is a good conductor.
2) Conductor having some appreciable resistance is called a resistor.
3) Insulator is the one, which offers very high resistance.

Factors on which the resistance of a conductor depends

1. Length: - Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length.

𝑅∝𝑙
2. Area of cross section: - Resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its area of cross section.
1
𝑅∝
𝐴
3. Nature of material: - Resistance of a conductor depends on the nature of material with which it is
made of.
4. Temperature: - Resistance of a conductor also depends on the temperature.

From 1 and 2 we get,

 𝑙
𝑅∝
𝐴
𝜌𝑙
𝑅=
𝐴
Where , resistivity of the material, is a constant for a given material at a given temperature.

Resistivity: - Resistivity of material is numerically equal to the resistance of a conductor made of that material
with unit length and unit area of cross section.

Its SI unit is ohm meter (Ωm).

Resistance Resistivity
It is a property of a conductor due to It is numerically equal to the resistance of
which it opposes the flow of charge a conductor made of that material with
through it. unit length and unit area of cross section.
Property of a conductor, with given Property of a conductor, with given
dimensions. dimensions.
SI unit is ohm (𝛺) SI unit is ohm-meter (𝛺𝑚)

Notes:
1. Alloys are used for making heating elements in electric heating devices since they do not get oxidised
even at high temperature.
2. Tungsten is used for making filaments of electric bulbs, since it has very high melting point.
3. Copper and Aluminium are used for electric transmission lines since they have very low resistivity.

Series Combination of resistors

𝐕 = 𝐕𝟏 + 𝐕𝟐 + 𝐕𝟑 1
From Ohm’s law,
𝑽 = 𝑰𝑹 2
Where R is the equivalent resistance of series combination of R1, R2 and R3.
Note: - When a combination of resistors is replaced with a single resistor, such that it draws the same current
for a given potential difference, its value is said to be the equivalent resistance of the combination.

On applying Ohm’s law to the individual resistors, we get,

𝑽𝟏 = 𝑰𝑹𝟏 3
𝑽𝟐 = 𝑰𝑹𝟐 4
𝑽𝟑 = 𝑰𝑹𝟑 5
Substituting from Eqn 2,3,4 and 5 in Eqn 1, we get,
𝐈𝐑 = 𝐈𝐑𝟏 + 𝐈𝐑𝟐 + 𝐈𝐑𝟑
Therefore,
𝐑 = 𝐑𝟏 + 𝐑𝟐 + 𝐑𝟑 + …

Parallel Combination of resistors

𝐈 = 𝐈𝟏 + 𝐈𝟐 + 𝐈𝟑 1

From Ohm’s law,

𝐕
𝑰= 2
𝑹
Where R is the equivalent resistance of parallel combination of R1, R2 and R3.

On applying Ohm’s law to the individual resistors, we get,

𝑽
𝑰𝟏 = 3
𝑹𝟏
𝑽
𝑰𝟐 = 4
𝑹𝟐
 𝑽
𝑰𝟑 = 5
𝑹𝟑

From Eqn.1 and Eqn.2, we get,

𝑽 𝑽 𝑽 𝑽
= + + +…
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑

Therefore,
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +…
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑

Properties of series combination of resistors

1. There is no junction or branching in between the resistors.

2. Current flowing through all the resistors is the same.
3. The net voltage across the combination will be the sum of voltages across the individual resistors.
𝑽 = 𝑽𝟏 + 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑽𝟑 + …
4. The equivalent resistance of the combination is the sum of individual resistances.
𝑹 = 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 + …
Properties of parallel combination of resistors

1. All resistors share common end points.

2. Potential difference across all the resistors is the same.
3. The net current through the circuit will be the sum of currents through the individual resistors
(branch currents).
𝑰 = 𝑰𝟏 + 𝑰𝟐 + 𝑰𝟑 + …
4. The reciprocal of equivalent resistance of the combination is the sum of reciprocals of the
individual resistances.
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= + + +…
𝑹 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
Notes
1. In a series combination, the equivalent resistance will be greater than any individual resistance.
2. In a parallel combination, the equivalent resistance will be less than any individual resistance.
3. If ‘n’ number of identical resisters of value ‘R’ are connected in series, the equivalent resistance will be,
𝑅𝑠 = 𝑛𝑅
4. If ‘n’ number of identical resisters of value ‘R’ are connected in parallel, the equivalent resistance will
be,
𝑅
𝑅𝑝 =
𝑛
Use of parallel circuit in household wiring

In a series circuit the current is constant throughout the electric circuit. Since different home
appliances need currents of different values to operate properly, they cannot be connected in series. Another
major disadvantage of a series circuit is that when one component fails the circuit is broken and none of the
components works.

On the other hand, a parallel circuit divides the current through the electrical gadgets. This is helpful
particularly when each gadget has different resistance and requires different current to operate properly.

Heating effect of electric current

Consider a current I flowing through a resistor of resistance R. Let the potential difference across it be
V (Fig. 12.13). Let t be the time during which a charge Q flows across.

From the definition of potential difference, we have

𝑊
𝑉=
𝑄
Therefore, the work done W, in moving the charge Q through a potential difference V is VQ. This work/energy
gets dissipated in the resistor as heat.

𝑊 = 𝑉𝑄 1
Since Q=It, for a steady current I, the amount of heat H produced in time t is

𝐻 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 2
Substituting 𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅 from Ohm’s law in Eqn. 2, we get

𝐻 = 𝐼2 𝑅𝑡 3
𝑉
Substituting 𝐼 = 𝑅 from Ohm’s law in Eqn. 2, we get

𝑉2 𝑡
𝐻= 4
𝑅
Joule’s law of heating

The Joule’s law of heating implies that heat produced in a resistor is

(i) directly proportional to the square of current for a given resistance
(ii) (ii) directly proportional to resistance for a given current, and
(iii) (iii) directly proportional to the time for which the current flows through the resistor.

𝐻 ∝ 𝐼2
𝐻∝𝑅
𝐻∝𝑡

𝐻 = 𝐼2 𝑅𝑡
Advantages of Joule’s heating
a) Joule’s heating is desirable in devices which convert electric energy into heat energy, like electric iron,
electric toaster, electric kettle and electric heater.
b) The electric heating is also used to produce light, as in an incandescent bulb.
c) Also, Joule’s heating is the principle behind fuse.

Disadvantages of Joule’s heating

a) It causes loss of useful electric energy into heat energy, in various devices and transmission lines.
b) The rise in temperature due to Joule’s heating changes the properties of components and devices.
c) It may even cause the damage to the devices.

Notes
(a) Tungsten is used to make filaments of incandescent bulbs since it has a very high melting point (3380°
C).
(b) The disadvantage of incandescent bulb is that most of the power consumed by it is converted into heat
energy and only a small fraction into light.
Fuse
It is a safety device which prevents the flow of unduly high electric current through an electric
circuit/device.
It usually consists of a thin wire or strip of appropriate melting point. It is connected in series with the
circuit/device to be protected.
When current flowing through the circuit exceeds certain value, the heat dissipation in the fuse wire
due to Joule’s heating increases, and it melts off, disconnecting the circuit/device from the mains.

Electrical Power
Electrical Power is the rate at which electric energy is used. Its SI unit is watt.
E
P=
t
watt (W)
The electric power of a device is said to be one watt, if it draws a current of one ampere with a potential
difference of one volt applied across its ends.
watt = volt.ampere
𝑊 = 𝑉𝐴
Formulae
Heat Power
𝐻 = 𝑉𝐼𝑡 𝑃 = 𝑉𝐼

𝐻 = 𝐼2 𝑅𝑡 𝑃 = 𝐼2 𝑅

𝑉2 𝑡 𝑉2
𝐻= 𝑃=
𝑅 𝑅
Notes
1. In a series combination, the resistor with highest value will dissipate maximum power.
(when I is constant, 𝑃 ∝ 𝑅)
2. In a parallel combination, the resistor with lowest value will dissipate maximum power.
1
(when V is constant, 𝑃 ∝ )
𝑅

kilo watt hour (kWh)

It is the commercial unit of electric energy. One kilo watt hour is defined as the electric energy consumed
by a device of power 1000 watts, when operated for a time period of one hour.

1 kWh = 1000 W x 3600 s = 3600 000 W.s = 3.6 x 106 J

Extra Notes

1. Equivalent resistance of a combination of resistors is the value of a single resistor that could
replace the combination in such a way that current in the circuit remains the same.