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2. Which of the following statements would best describe the difference between public
health nursing and community health nursing?
A) Public health nursing is focused on the private aspects of health, and community
health nursing is focused on the public aspects of health.
B) In our textbook, the term community health practice refers to a focus on specific,
designated communities and is a part of the larger public health effort.
C) Public health nursing and community health nursing relate to the very same types
of services and perspectives.
D) Both public health nursing and community health nursing are practiced
exclusively within institutions.
Ans: B
Feedback:
In this textbook, community health practice refers to a focus on specific, designated
communities. It is a part of the larger public health effort and recognizes the
fundamental concepts and principles of public health as its birthright and foundation for
practice. Public health nursing is focused on the public aspects of health. Public health
nursing and community health nursing have distinctive types of services and
perspectives. Neither public health nursing nor community health nursing is practiced
exclusively within institutions.

3. Which of the following is most accurate about the concept of community?

A) A community is a collection of people who share some important features of their
lives.
B) Community members live in the same geographic location.
C) Community members are biologically related.
D) A community is made up of people who do not necessarily interact with one
another and do not necessarily share a sense of belonging to that group.
Ans: A
Feedback:
The broad definition of a community is a collection of people who share some important
features of their lives. Community members may not live in the same geographic
location as in a common-interest community or a community of solution. A population
is made up of people who do not necessarily interact with one another and do not
necessarily share a sense of belonging to that group.

Page 2
4. A group of students are reviewing material for a test on populations, communities, and
aggregates. Which of the following indicates that the students understand these
concepts?
A) Members of a population share a sense of belonging.
B) Communities and populations are types of aggregates.
C) Individuals of a community are loosely connected.
D) Members of an aggregate share a strong bond.
Ans: B
Feedback:
An aggregate refers to a mass of grouping of distinct individuals who are considered as
a whole and who are loosely associated with one another. Communities and populations
are types of aggregates. A population is made up of people who do not necessarily
interact with one another and do not necessarily share a sense of belonging to the group.
A community is a collection of people who chose to interact with one another because
of common interests, characteristics, or goals, which form the basis for a sense of unity
or belonging.

5. Which of the following would a community health nurse identify as a community of

common interest?
A) The global community
B) Small rural town in a northern state
C) National professional organization
D) Counties addressing water pollution
Ans: C
Feedback:
A common-interest community shares a common interest or goal that binds the
members together. Membership in a national professional organization is one example.
The global community and a small rural town in a northern state would be examples of a
geographic community. Counties addressing a water pollution problem would be an
example of a community of solution.

6. The nurse is working with a community of solution. Which of the following would the
nurse expect to find?
A) A health problem affecting the group
B) Common goal binding members together
C) Sharing of a similar goal
D) Locational boundaries
Ans: A
Feedback:
A community of solution involves a group of people coming together to solve a problem
that affects them. A common-interest community involves a collection of people widely
scattered geographically who have an interest or goal that binds the members together.
A geographical community is one defined by its geographical or locational boundaries.

Page 3
7. Which one of the following statements made by a student would the nurse educator
recognize as evidence that a student understands the health continuum?
A) The distinction between health and illness is well demarcated.
B) Illness refers to a state of being relatively unhealthy.
C) The term health is limited to reflect an individual's state.
D) Treatment of acute conditions reflects the current focus of health care.
Ans: B
Feedback:
Although society typically depicts an absolute line of difference between being either
well or ill, health is considered a relative term. Thus, illness is viewed as a state of being
relatively unhealthy. Health is typically described as a continuum that involves a range
of degrees from optimal health at one end to total disability or death at the other. The
line of demarcation is not clear. Health applies to individuals, families, and
communities. Traditionally, most health care has focused on the treatment of acute and
chronic conditions at the illness end of the continuum, but this emphasis is shifting to
focus on the wellness end.

8. When discussing the concept of the health continuum with a class, the nurse educator
would be certain to include which statement in the description?
A) Wellness is a relative concept, not an absolute, and illness is a state of being
relatively unhealthy.
B) A client's placement on the health continuum is static throughout time.
C) Health is best described as cyclic.
D) The health continuum can only be applied to individuals.
Ans: A
Feedback:
Wellness is a relative concept, not an absolute, and illness is a state of being relatively
unhealthy. The continuum can change. Because health involves a range of degrees from
optimal health at one end to total disability or death at the other, it is often described as
a continuum. The health continuum applies not only to individuals but also to families
and communities.

Page 4
 9. After discussing the leading health indicators with a class, which condition if stated by
the class as one of these indicators suggests that the class has understood the
information?
A) Cardiac disease
B) Mental health
C) Sedentary lifestyle
D) Maternal health care
Ans: B
Feedback:
Mental health is a leading health indicator. Other leading health indicators include
physical activity, overweight and obesity, tobacco use, substance use, responsible sexual
behavior, injury and violence, environmental quality, immunization, and access to
health care.

10. Which of the following statements about health promotion and disease prevention is the
most accurate?
A) Health promotion and disease prevention include all efforts that seek to move
people closer to optimal well-being or higher levels of wellness.
B) Disease prevention differs from health promotion in that disease prevention is
targeted toward a specific disease or diseases.
C) Health promotion can be described in terms of primary, secondary, and tertiary
prevention.
D) The goal of disease prevention is to raise levels of wellness for individuals,
families, populations, and communities.
Ans: B
Feedback:
Health promotion includes all efforts that seek to move people closer to optimal
well-being or higher levels of wellness. The goal of health promotion is to raise levels of
wellness for individuals, families, populations, and communities. Disease prevention is
targeted toward a specific disease or diseases and consists of primary, secondary, and
tertiary prevention.

Page 5
11. A group of community health nursing students design a health education program for a
group of pregnant teens that includes teaching nutrition during pregnancy,
demonstrating helpful exercises, and discussing their concerns. This is an example of
which of the following?
A) Health promotion
B) Treatment of disorders
C) Rehabilitation
D) Evaluation
Ans: A
Feedback:
The student nurses are engaging in health promotion activities. Health promotion
incorporates all efforts that seek to move people closer to optimal well-being or to
higher levels of wellness. Treatment of disorders would include direct care for issues
involving the group, such as complications that might arise in this population.
Rehabilitation would involve activities to minimize disability or restore or preserve
function. Evaluation would involve an analysis of the effectiveness of these activities.

12. The community health nurse is developing a plan of primary prevention activities.
Which of the following might the nurse include? Select all that apply.
A) Teaching about safe-sex practices to high school students
B) Encouraging older adults to install safety devices in the bathroom
C) Providing regular immunization programs for communicable diseases
D) Participating in cholesterol screening programs at health fairs
E) Providing skin testing for tuberculosis for children over 1 year of age
F) Working with a group testing water samples for contamination
Ans: A, B, C
Feedback:
Primary prevention activities are those taken to keep illness or injuries from occurring.
These include teaching about safe-sex practices, encouraging older adults to use safety
devices in the bathroom, and providing regular immunization programs for
communicable diseases. Cholesterol screening programs, skin tests for tuberculosis, and
working with a group testing water samples for contamination are examples of
secondary prevention activities.

Page 6
13. A community health nurse is preparing a presentation for a group of nursing students
about community health nursing. Which of the following descriptions about community
health nursing would the nurse most likely include in the presentation?
A) Focusing on addressing continuous needs
B) Working with the client as an equal partner
C) Engaging in tertiary prevention as the priority
D) Encouraging clients to reach out to the nurse
Ans: B
Feedback:
The community health nurse works with the client as an equal partner, encouraging
autonomy. At any time, the nurse deals with continuous and episodic needs
simultaneously. Primary prevention is the priority for community health nurses. The
community health nurse engages in primary prevention as the priority, having the
obligation to actively reach out to all who might benefit from a specific activity or
service.

14. A community health nurse is working with other members of a team that will be
implementing a citywide immunization program. The nurse is coordinating the services
and addressing the needs of the population groups to ensure which of the following?
A) Involvement of the community
B) Client participation
C) Continuity of service
D) Plan for follow-up
Ans: C
Feedback:
Working in cooperation with other team members and coordinating services and
addressing the needs of population groups are essential to interprofessional
collaboration. In doing so, the community health nurse is preventing fragmentation and
gaps thereby ensuring continuity of service. Involvement of the community and client
participation are important but these help to ensure that the clients are viewed as equal
partners of the health care team. A plan for follow-up may or may not be appropriate. In
addition, it is the only aspect that may be addressed with the program.

Page 7
15. A community health nurse works to ensure the greatest good for the greatest number of
people by applying which of the following?
A) Secondary prevention activities
B) Autonomy
C) Justice
D) Utilitarianism
Ans: D
Feedback:
The ethical theory of utilitarianism promotes the greatest good for the greatest number.
Primary prevention activities, not secondary prevention, are the priority. Autonomy
refers to the freedom of choice. Justice involves treating people fairly.

16. When working in the community, the community health nurse adopts the teaching plan
to ensure that the population understands the basic information provided to address
which of the following?
A) Self-care
B) Health disparities
C) Health literacy
D) Episodic needs
Ans: C
Feedback:
Consumers are often intimated by health professionals and are uninformed about health
and health care affecting the quality of care. Adopting a teaching plan to ensure that the
population understands the basic information addresses health literacy, the ability to
read, understand, and use health care information appropriately. Doing so helps to
ensure that the teaching plan will be effective. Self-care refers to the process of taking
responsibility for developing one's own health potential by actively participating in
promoting one's own health. Health disparities reflect differences in all aspects of health
care related to vulnerable populations. Episodic needs are one-time specific negative
health events that arise and are not an expected part of life.

Page 8
17. Which of the following would be crucial for the community health nurse to address as
the priority when dealing with policy makers about the development of community
health programs?
A) Research-based best practices
B) Population's make up
C) Amount of services to be provided
D) Scarcity of the available resources
Ans: A
Feedback:
Decisions for programs or services are often made on the basis of cost-effectiveness or
cost–benefit. Therefore, community health nurses must provide policy makers with
information about best practices, grounded in research. Although population make up,
amount of services to be provided, and scarcity of resources are factors that may need to
be considered, the community health nurse must demonstrate evidence-based practice.

18. After a class that described the differences between acute care nursing and community
health nursing, which statement by the class about community health nurses indicates
successful teaching?
A) Use a reactive approach.
B) Seek out potential health problems.
C) Concentrate on the illness end of the continuum.
D) Emphasize curative care.
Ans: B
Feedback:
Community health nurses, in contrast to acute care nurses, seek out potential health
problems, identifying high-risk groups and instituting preventive programs; use a
proactive approach; concentrate on the wellness end of the health continuum; and put
less emphasis on curative care.

Page 9
19. Which of the following activities would be associated with a community health nurse?
Select all that apply.
A) Examining infants in a city well-baby clinic
B) Caring for elderly stroke victims in their homes
C) Providing emergency care in an acute care facility
D) Carrying out epidemiologic research
E) Participating in health policy analysis
Ans: A, B, D, E
Feedback:
Community health nurses work in every conceivable kind of community agency, from a
state public health department to a community-based advocacy group. Their duties rang
from examining infants in a well-baby clinic or teaching elderly stroke victims in their
homes to carrying out epidemiologic research or engaging in health policy analysis and
decision making. Providing care in an acute care facility would not be an activity
associated with a community health nurse.

20. The term health can be described in many different ways. A community health nurse
would view health as which of the following?
A) The absence of disease
B) The potential to lead a productive life
C) An environment free of toxins
D) A holistic state of well-being
Ans: D
Feedback:
Community health nurses view health as a holistic state of well-being, which includes
soundness of mind, body, and spirit. Along with this foundational view is the emphasis
on wellness, which includes the definition of health as well as the capacity to develop a
person's potential to lead a fulfilling and productive life. Health is more than just the
absence of disease or an environment free of toxins.

21. While interviewing a client, which of the following statements would a nurse identify as
reflecting an objective dimension of health?
A) “I'm feeling better since I started taking that medication.”
B) “Life is pretty good right now, except for an occasional upset stomach.”
C) “I'm able to wash myself in the mornings with just a bit of help.”
D) “Sometimes when I wake up, I don't even want to face the day.”
Ans: C
Feedback:
The objective dimension of health involves one's ability to function in daily activities.
The statement about being able to care for one's self is an example. The statements of
feeling better with medication, life being pretty good, and not wanting to face the day
are examples of the subjective dimension of health, which involves how people feel.

Page 10
22. When employing a population-oriented focus, the community health nurse would do
which of the following?
A) Assess the groups' relationships looking for a common need.
B) Consider the members individually for similarities.
C) Focus on the geographical area of the population.
D) Promote the groups' dependency for improving health.
Ans: A
Feedback:
A population-oriented focus requires the assessment of relationships, considering the
groups or communities in relationship to the rest of the community to discover common
needs or risks for a common health problem. The nurse does not consider the groups or
communities separately but rather in context. The population may or may not be
delineated by the geographical area. The community health nurse encourages
individuals' participation to promote their autonomy rather than permitting dependency.

23. A community health nurse is involved in a project to evaluate the health of a city.
Which of the following findings would suggest that the city would most likely need
additional programs?
A) Citizens are actively involved in the city's department of recreation and
after-school programs.
B) The construction of affordable organized housing developments and communities
is nearing completion.
C) Approximately one third of the people are recently unemployed due to closure of
the automotive factory.
D) Several new recreational facilities for adults and children have been created at
several locations.
Ans: C
Feedback:
A healthy city is one in which there is continual creation and improvement the physical
and social environments with expansion of community resources so that people can
mutually support one another. It is characterized by the meeting of basic needs for all of
the city's people. This would include food, water, shelter, income, safety, and work.
Loss of employment of one third of the city's workforce would be a threat to the health
of the city and necessitate intervention. Active involvement in the city's functioning,
affordable housing, and recreational facilities are suggestive of a healthy city.

Page 11
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Which is the greatest of all Planets? Which Planet ranks, in
magnitude, next to Jupiter? Which of the Planets ranks third in
magnitude? Which, Fourth? What Planets are smaller than our
Earth? What Planets are smaller than the Moon?
[§ 11.] What do you call the Diameter of a ball or sphere? Is the
Diameter of the Sun larger or smaller than the Diameters of all the
Planets taken together?
The teacher may yet ask a number of questions respecting the
Diameters of the Planets, which the pupil will be able to answer by
looking on Plate III. He may, for instance, ask whether the Diameter of
the Earth is larger or smaller than that of Venus? Whether the
Diameter of Jupiter or Saturn is the largest, etc.? This will oblige the
pupil to compare the different magnitudes of the Planets and their
Diameters.
[§ 12.] What proportion does the square-Contents of the Sun’s
surface bear to that of the surfaces of all the Planets? What two
Planets have together a surface nearly as large as that of our Earth?
Are the surfaces of Ceres, Vesta, Juno and Pallas taken together
sufficient or not, to cover the surface of our Earth? What Planets,
therefore, could be covered with the Earth’s surface? Which Planet
has the largest surface? What do you observe with regard to the
square-Contents of Jupiter’s surface? and that of the surfaces of all
other Planets, taken together? What Planet’s surface comes next in
magnitude to Jupiter’s? What Planet’s surface is larger than that of
our Earth, Venus and Mercury taken together? What three Planets’
surfaces taken together are smaller than that of the Moon? What
Planet has nearly as large a surface as the Moon?
[§ 13.] What is the opinion of philosophers respecting the Four
Planets, Ceres, Vesta, Juno and Pallas?

FOOTNOTES:
[1] Numbers are purposely omitted here, because abstract
numbers convey little or no ideas to young pupils. Those who
wish these relations expressed in numbers will find them in Table
I at the end of the book.
 LESSON III.
EXPLAINING THE MOTION OF THE PLANETS AND COMETS ROUND THE
SUN.
§ 14. You have learned, in the preceding lesson, that the Earth
and the other Planets are regularly moving round the Sun; but you
must know that the time which each requires to complete a whole
revolution, that is, the time which each needs to move once round,
cannot be the same with all; as you may easily judge yourself: for the
Planets which are next to the Sun will, of course, have a much
smaller journey to perform, than those which are further from it. Thus
Mercury, which is the first Planet in order from the Sun, will naturally
come round much sooner than Jupiter, which is placed at a much
greater distance from it.
That you may the easier understand this, the following Plate, No.
VI, will represent to you our Solar System:
The Sun from which proceeds all light and heat, is placed in the
centre. Then come the Planets Mercury and Venus; Third in order is
our Earth with its Satellite the Moon; and so on. The rest of the
Planets in the same order in which they are represented on Plate II.
You will also perceive there the orbs of two Comets, distinguished as
you were told, by a tail of light. The Planets Jupiter, Saturn and
Herschel are each represented with their Moons, and the Planet
Saturn with its luminous ring.
 No. VI.

Now you will easily understand that Ceres, Vesta, Juno, Pallas,
Mars, Jupiter, Saturn and Herschel, have each a much greater
distance to travel, than our Earth; but that, on the contrary, Venus
and Mercury can complete their revolution in a much shorter time.[2]
§ 15. The time which our Earth needs to travel once completely
round the Sun, (to finish one revolution) is called a Year. Such a year
has three hundred and Sixtyfive days;—and each of these days has
again Twentyfour hours.
You see from this that the revolution of the Earth round the Sun
gives us a means of measuring time, by which we are able to bring
order and regularity into our business and transactions of life. For the
making of clocks and watches is but a late invention, and we should
be left entirely in the dark as regards the history of former ages, and
a great many people would, at this present moment, be incapable of
forming a correct estimate of time, if Providence had not given to all
this appropriate means of measuring it.
§ 16. While the Earth needs a whole year for one revolution round
the Sun; Mercury requires but Eightyone days, and Venus only about
two thirds of One of our years. Mars, on the contrary, needs for one
of his revolutions almost Two years; Vesta almost Four; Juno, Ceres
and Pallas over Four years; Jupiter almost Twelve, Saturn over
Twentynine, and Herschel nearly Eightyfour of our years![3]—And if
these Planets, as we have reason to believe, are inhabited by beings
endowed with human understanding and faculties, numbering their
years as we do ours—by the revolution of their Planets round the
Sun—how different from ours must be the Period of their existence!!
§ 17. During the time that the Earth is performing her journey
round the Sun, the Moon, our constant attendant, is continually
moving round the Earth, and completes one of these revolutions in
little more than Twentyseven days.—Very important and interesting
to us are the changes in appearance which she exhibits during each
of these revolutions.—You probably will know, that the Moon does
not appear to us, at all times, the same. Sometimes she is hardly at
all visible, (at least not with the naked eye); at other times only a
small rim of her is seen, which by degrees becomes larger and
larger, until finally she appears in her full round form. After this she
begins again to diminish, changes again into a small luminous rim,
and finally disappears entirely from our sight. These successive
changes in the Moon’s appearance are called the Moon’s Phases, or
the waxing and waning of the Moon. The time during which the Moon
is not seen is called New Moon; the time during which she exhibits
her full shape is called the Full Moon; and the different periods of her
waxing and waning (when she appears to us in the form of a
crescent) are called Quarters. Thus we speak of the First and of the
Last Quarter of the Moon. The First Quarter takes place after New
Moon; the last Quarter after Full Moon.
The following diagram, Plate No. VII, may serve to represent to you
the Moon’s phases as seen from our Earth.
 When the Moon is in a, then the light of the Sun falls just on that
side of it which is turned from the Earth. It is then, we have New
Moon. When in b, a small brim of the Moon is seen, because a small
portion of its lighted surface is then turned towards the Earth.—When
in c half of her lighted surface is turned towards us, and we have the
First Quarter. In d a still greater portion of the Moon’s lighted surface
is visible, and in e, we have Full Moon, because her whole lighted
surface is then turned towards the Earth. In f the moon commences to
wane (to grow smaller,) and in g the last quarter commences; finally,
when passed through the point h, we have in a, again New Moon. For
familiar illustration you may also take a white ivory ball, holding it
before a lighted candle, which may take the place of the Sun. When
the ball is in a straight line between your eye and the candle it will
appear to you all dark; because the lighted part is then entirely turned
toward the candle (away from you), and you have the same case
which is represented to you in the diagram, when the Moon is in a. But
if you move the ball a little to the right, you will perceive a streak of
light, similar to the First Quarter represented in the Diagram, when the
Moon is in c. If moved still farther to the right, so that the whole lighted
part of the ball is seen, it will resemble the Full Moon; represented in
the Diagram, when the Moon is in e.
No. VII.
 No. VIII.

§ 18. While the Moon is moving round the Earth, it often occurs
that she is placed in a direct line between ourselves and the Sun. In
this case a greater or less part of the Sun is concealed from us,
which causes a diminution of light or a partial darkness on our Earth.
This we call an Eclipse of the Sun. (Such an Eclipse took place in
1831, and you will probably have an opportunity of seeing many
more). If, on the contrary, the Earth is placed in a direct line between
the Sun and the Moon, then the Moon will be obscured by our Earth.
This is called an Eclipse of the Moon. The following two figures on
Plate No. VIII will serve for an illustration.
You will easily perceive from them that if the Moon (as represented
in Figure I) is placed in a direct line between the Sun and ourselves, it
must necessarily conceal from us part of that luminary; and in this
state cast a shade upon our Earth.
 But if the Earth is placed in a direct line between the Sun and the
Moon, (as represented in Figure II), then the Moon will be much more
obscured, because the Earth is much larger than the Moon, and will
therefore cast a much greater shade upon her.
§ 19. It remains for us to speak of that class of bodies known by
the name of Comets, (see Lesson I, § 6). Of these an unknown
number belongs to our Solar System.—(Some philosophers have
estimated their number to be about Twentyone; others think it must
amount to several hundred). They move round the Sun in
exceedingly long ovals, having their transparent tails always turned
away from that luminary. What is most remarkable about them is the
astonishing degree of heat to which they are exposed on account of
passing so near the Sun, and the astonishing velocity with which
they travel.
The Comet which appeared in the year 1680, is supposed to
sustain a heat nearly Two Thousand times greater than that of red hot
iron, and to move at the rate of several Hundred Thousand miles an
hour!!

RECAPITULATION OF LESSON III.

QUESTIONS.
[§ 14.] Do all Planets need the same time to complete a whole
revolution round the Sun? Why not?
If the pupils are old enough to understand the use of Dividers, it will
perhaps be well for the teacher to let them draw the Solar System on
a piece of paper.—If not, he ought to let them explain Plate IV, or an
orrery, if one be at hand.
[§ 15.] What is the time called, which our Earth needs for a
complete revolution round the Sun? How many days are there in a
year? How many hours are there in a day?
What is the revolution of the Earth round the Sun, the means of?
[§ 16.] What time does Mercury require for a complete revolution
round the Sun? What time does Venus require for the same
purpose? What time does Ceres, Vesta, Juno and Pallas need?
What, Jupiter, Saturn, and Herschel?
[§ 17.] What motion does the Moon make whilst the Earth is
travelling round the Sun? How many days does the Moon need for a
complete revolution round the Earth? Does the Moon during its
revolution round the Earth always exhibit the same shape? What
changes then does she gradually undergo? What do you call the
successive changes in the Moon’s appearance? What do you call
the time during which the Moon is not seen? What, that, during
which she exhibits her full shape? What, the different periods of her
waxing and waning? When does the First Quarter take place? When
the last?
[The teacher might now require the explanation of Plate V; the elder
pupils may draw the Diagram.]
[§ 18.] What does frequently occur during the Moon’s motion
round the Earth? What is the consequence of the Moon’s position in
a direct line between the Sun and ourselves? What is such a
diminution of light in consequence of the Moon being placed
between us and the Sun, called? What takes place when the Earth is
placed between the Sun and the Moon? What is such an obscuration
of the Moon, in consequence of the Earth’s position between her and
the Sun, called?
[The younger pupils ought now to explain Plate VIII; the elder pupils
ought to draw the Diagram on a slate or paper.]
[§ 19.] Is the number of Comets belonging to our Solar System
precisely ascertained? How many are there supposed to belong to
our System? In what manner do they move round the Sun? What
remarkable property do they possess?

FOOTNOTES:
[2] If the teacher has an orrery at hand, if it be even of the most
simple construction, he may exhibit it now. But it is the author’s
belief that a considerable portion of the pupil’s interest is lost, if he
be acquainted with it, at the beginning of the study; or, as it is the
custom in some schools, if an orrery is hung up among the charts
and maps of the school room. The pupil ought not to see the
orrery, until he knows that it is but a faint illustration of the infinite
grandeur of the heavens. Nothing detracts so much from our
estimation of things as a too familiar acquaintance with them,
before we know their real value.
[3] The exact numbers are given in Table II, at the end of the
book.
 LESSON IV.
ROTATION OF THE SUN, THE EARTH, AND THE REST OF THE PLANETS ON
THEIR AXES.—DAY AND NIGHT.—INCLINATION OF THE EARTH’S AXIS.—
SEASONS.
§ 20. Besides the progressive motion of the Planets, of which we
have spoken in the last Lesson, they have yet a peculiar motion like
a wheel turning on its Axle-tree. This motion is called the rotation of
the Planets on their Axes; because each of them seems to move
round a straight line passing through its centre; like a ball turning
round a piece of wire run through the middle of it.—Moreover it is
customary to call such a straight line imagined to be drawn through
the centre of a Planet—the Axis of that Planet.
The double motion of the Planets,—progressive and rotary,—is
perhaps one of the most difficult things for young pupils properly to
understand, without some popular illustration. If the teacher, therefore,
has no orrery to show this motion to his pupils, he may compare it to a
screw which is turned round whilst it suffers at the same time a
progressive motion; or perhaps with more propriety to a spinning-top,
which is continually turning on its Axis, while at the same time it
describes large circles.[4]
§ 21. If you have well understood what has just been said, you will
be able to comprehend, that our Earth, while it is performing its great
journey round the Sun in Three Hundred and Sixtyfive days, is, at
the same time, every Twentyfour hours turning on its Axis. This
rotary motion of our Earth on its Axis is the cause of the successive
changes of day and night; that portion of the Earth which is turned
toward the Sun having always day, when the other, which is turned
away from him, has night.
This is again a wise dispensation of God’s providence. For if the
Earth would always keep the same relative position to the Sun, then
that portion of it, which would then be turned toward the Sun, would
have continual day, whilst the other, which would then be turned away
from him, would be enveloped in perpetual darkness. But as it is now
 arranged by the Earth’s rotation on its Axis, most every portion of its
surface must at least once every Twentyfour hours be turned toward
the Sun and receive from him light and heat. Without this, one great
half of our Earth would have a perpetual winter, destructive to plants
and animals, while an everlasting summer would scorch the other half
and render it equally unfit for the support of man.
The following Diagram, Plate IX, may serve to give you an idea of
the Earth’s rotation round its Axis, and the alternate succession of
Day and Night, resulting from it. When the Earth is situated as
represented in the Diagram, then that portion of it, which is marked
A, will have Day, because it is turned toward the Sun; and the portion
marked B, will have Night. But in the course of the next Twelve hours
the order will be reversed. The portion which is marked B, will be
turned toward the Sun and have day, whilst the portion A will be
turned from him, and have night.
§ 22. The rotation of the Earth on its Axis is also the cause of the
Rising and Setting of the Sun. For no portion of our Earth is at once
turned toward or from the Sun; but moves toward or from it by
degrees (as you may see by slowly turning a ball near the flame of a
candle). This gradual motion of each portion of the Earth’s surface
toward or from the Sun, makes the Sun himself appear to us as
rising and going down; while, in fact, we ourselves are turning
towards, or receding from him. This is a kind of deception similar to
that which you experience when slowly gliding down a river; when
the objects on shore have the appearance of receding from you,
while in fact, it is you, yourself, who are travelling away from them.
 No. IX.

The gradual rise and setting of the Sun is another excellent

provision of nature. Were we from the darkness of night at once
exposed to the luminous rays of the Sun, it would dazzle our eyes and
render them unfit to distinguish a single object.—It is only by a gradual
transition from darkness to light that we are able to accustom our eyes
to the brilliancy of noon.
§ 23. There is another peculiarity in the situation of our Earth with
regard to the Sun, which you have not yet learned. The Earth’s Axis
is not even (parallel) with that of the Sun; but is somewhat inclined
towards it, as represented in the last Diagram. To this is owing the
Change of the Seasons. For on account of the inclination of the
Earth’s Axis, the Sun’s rays fall, sometimes nearly perpendicular
upon us, while at other times they are striking us more obliquely[5].
This is the principal cause of those changes of temperature which
we are in the habit of distinguishing by the names, Spring, Summer,
Autumn and Winter.
In winter the Sun’s rays strike us most obliquely; it is therefore the
coldest season of the year. In summer they are most perpendicular;—
Summer therefore is the hottest season. Spring and autumn are
standing in the middle between these two. From spring till mid-
summer the Sun’s rays are striking us more and more perpendicularly;
from mid-summer till winter more and more obliquely.
A similar change of temperature is felt every day from Sun-rise
(when the Sun-beams are most oblique) till noon, (when they are
most perpendicular); and from noon again towards evening or Sun-
set, when they are again oblique.
§ 24. It has been mentioned (Lesson IV, § 20), that each Planet in
our Solar System is regularly turning on its Axis. But all of them do
not perform this rotation with equal velocity. The Planets which are
farther from the Sun are turning quicker than those which are near
him. Jupiter, for instance, turns on its Axis twice as fast as our Earth.
The nights in Jupiter, therefore, do not last half as long as ours.
This is, in some degree, necessary. For in proportion as a planet is
further from the Sun, it receives less light and heat, which deficiency
is, in part, made up by a more frequent exposition to his rays.

§ 25. The Sun himself is also known to turn regularly on his Axis,
and to complete one whole rotation in about Twentysix of our days.
This we have been able to perceive from the spots which have been
discovered on its surface, and which gradually move toward and
disappear on one side, when in a short time after they appear again
on the other.
§ 26. The Moon, and the Satellites of the other Planets have no
rotary motion; but have always the same side turned towards their
Planets. Thus the moon keeps constantly the same side turned
towards the Earth; but her monthly motion round the Earth (Lesson
III, § 17) is equal to a rotation on her axis; because by this means
every part of her is, at least, once every Twentyseven days turned
toward the Sun; as you may see from the Moon’s phases,
represented on plate VII. A day in the Moon, therefore, is equal to
Twentyseven of our days; because the Moon moves in Twentyseven
of our days round the Earth, which is equal to turning once on her
axis.

RECAPITULATION OF LESSON IV.

QUESTIONS.
[§ 20.] Is the progressive motion of the Planets round the Sun the
only one which they are performing? What other motion have they
besides this? What is this motion called? Why is it called so? What
do you call a straight line imagined to be drawn through the centre of
a Planet?
To what may the double motion of the Planets’ progression and
rotary be compared?
[§ 21.] What time does the Earth need to turn once on its axis?
How many times does the Earth turn on its axis during its whole
journey round the Sun?[6] What is this rotary motion of our Earth the
cause of? Which portion of the Earth has day? Which night?
What would be the case, if the Earth was always to keep the same
relative position with regard to the Sun? What is the advantage
derived from the rotation of the Earth on its Axis. Would the Earth be
habitable without it or not?
[The pupil ought now to explain plate IX.]
[§ 22.] What is the rotation of the Earth on its axis further the
cause of? What does the gradual motion of each portion of our Earth
towards the Sun produce?
What would be the case, if from the darkness of night we were at
once exposed to the luminous rays of the Sun? Could our eyes
endure the brightness of noon without a gradual transition from
darkness to light?
[§ 23.] What other peculiarity is there in the situation of the Earth
with regard to the Sun? What is this the cause of? Do the rays of the
Sun strike us at all times equally perpendicular or obliquely? What
changes of temperature are thereby created?
 How do the rays of the Sun strike us in winter? What season,
therefore, is it? How do the rays of the Sun strike us in summer? What
season, therefore, is summer with regard to temperature? How are
the rays of the Sun striking us from spring till mid-summer? How, from
mid-summer till winter? What similar change of temperature do we
experience every day from Sun-rise till noon, and from noon till
evening or Sun-set?
[§ 24.] Do all Planets turn on their axes with equal velocities?
Which Planets turn quicker, those which are nearer or those which
are further from the Sun? Give an instance. How long are Jupiter’s
nights in comparison to our’s?
Why is this, in some degree, necessary?
[§ 25.] Is the Sun himself also known to turn on its axis like the
Planets? How many days does he need for one complete rotation?
By what means have we been able to observe this motion?
[§ 26.] Have the Moon and the Satellites of the other Planets also
a rotary motion? In what position does the Moon remain with regard
to the Earth? But what is her monthly revolution round the Earth
equal to? Why? What is a day in the Moon equal to? Why?

FOOTNOTES:
[4] The propriety of this comparison becomes still more evident,
when we reflect that the Axis of the top is generally somewhat
inclined to the plane.
[5] If the terms perpendicular and oblique, should not be
perfectly understood by the pupils, it will be easy for the teacher
to explain their meaning.
[6] If the Earth requires 365 days to travel round the Sun; and
each day has twentyfour hours; then the Earth will, during the
whole of this time, turn Three Hundred and Sixtyfive times on its
axis.
 LESSON V.
OF THE APPEARANCE AND PECULIARITIES OF THE MOON AND SOME OF
THE PLANETS WHEN VIEWED THROUGH A TELESCOPE.
§ 27. Next to the Sun there is no heavenly body so interesting to
us as the Moon. When viewed through a good Telescope[7] she has
nearly the same appearance as in Figure I, Plate X. The bright parts
are supposed to be lofty mountains and tracts of land; (which is
evident also from the shadow which they cast) and the dark spots
are supposed to be valleys and caverns. Many of the mountains of
the Moon are higher than the largest mountains on the Earth. Some
of them are volcanos, and their eruptions have been distinctly
observed by many distinguished Philosophers. Some of the caverns
are ascertained to have a depth of many miles and a width of almost
Three miles.—No water has as yet been discovered in the Moon.
Hence if she is inhabited, as we have reason to believe, her
inhabitants must be very differently constructed from ourselves.
§ 28. Among the Planets Venus is by far the most beautiful in
appearance. She is known also by the name of the Morning and
Evening Star. Her light is so bright that she is often seen at Noon.
When viewed through a good telescope she exhibits phases similar
to those of the Moon (Lesson III, § 17), which proves her spherical
form (Lesson I, § 3). The mountains in Venus have been calculated
to be at least Six times as high as those on our Earth. Her
Atmosphere is only half as dense as ours.
§ 29. Mars appears in many respects similar to our Earth. His light
is red and changeable; his surface exhibits black changeable spots
(see Figure II, Plate X). Some philosophers pretend to have noticed
a region of ice on his poles. His atmosphere is twice as dense as
ours.
 No. X.

§ 30. Jupiter, viewed through a telescope, exhibits a surface

covered with stripes. These are supposed to be clouds. A
representation of them is given in Fig. III, Plate X. His light is very
white and subject to but little variation. His atmosphere is nearly
Twentyseven times denser (thicker) than ours.
§ 31. Very remarkable, as we have already observed, is the Planet
Saturn, on account of its luminous ring. Viewed through a telescope
it has the appearance, represented in Figure IV. It is highly probable
that to the inhabitants of that Planet, this ring has an entirely different
appearance from what it has to us. It appears to be a solid opaque
mass, and is probably inhabited like the Planet, which it constantly
accompanies on its journey round the Sun. Saturn’s atmosphere is
nearly Ninety times denser than that of our Earth. No mountains
have as yet been discovered on its surface.

Herschel is too remote, for us to know much about its surface. Its
atmosphere is supposed to be Three Hundred and Sixty-one times
thicker than ours.
Mercury, being the nearest Planet to the Sun, has a very bright light;
but is only seen early before Sun-rise, and immediately after Sun-set.
It exhibits Phases like the Moon.

RECAPITULATION OF LESSON V.
QUESTIONS.
[§ 27.] What do you know about the Moon’s surface? What, about
its mountains, volcanos and caverns? Have any great waters been
discovered in it?
[§ 28.] What do you know about the Planet Venus? By what other
name is she known? What does she exhibit, when viewed through a
telescope? What do you know about her mountains? What, about
her atmosphere?
[§ 29.] What do you know about the Planet Mars? What, about his
light, surface and atmosphere?
[§ 30.] What surface does Jupiter exhibit when viewed through a
telescope? Of what color is the light of Jupiter? What do you know
about his atmosphere?
[§ 31.] What do you know about the Planet Saturn? What does the
ring of Saturn appear to be? What do you know about the
atmosphere of this Planet?

FOOTNOTES: