ECTE213

Engineering Electromagnetics

Dr. Jun Tong

SECTE
University of Wollongong
Australia

Lecture 4: Maxwell’s
Equations and Numerical
Solution
1
 Outlines References

• Faraday’s law • W.H. Hayt Jr. and J. A. Buck,

Chapter 9
• Displacement current
• Maxwell’s equations for time-
varying fields
• Numerical methods for solving
Maxwell’s equations (self • B. Guru and H. Hiziroglu, Chapter 12
study)

2
 Introduction

So far we have learned Maxwell’s

equations for time-invariant cases; this
lecture extends the study to time-varying
cases, with time-invariant cases as special
cases

In the remaining of this subject, we will then study electromagnetic waves

(which can be predicted from the Maxwell’s equations), their propagation
in unbounded or bounded regions with or without loss in power, radiation
and antennas, applications to transmission lines, etc.

3
 4.1 Faraday's Law
A time-varying magnetic field produces an electromotive force (emf) that may establish a
current and/or an electric field; Faraday’s law results from the experimental research by
Michael Faraday in 1831, which shows that a current was induced in a conducting loop
when the magnetic flux linking the loop changed.

4
 Example Applications

Metal detector
http://www.thomasathomas.com Induction stovetops

http://macao.com
munications.muse
um

Electricity generator
5
A Simple Demonstration: Current (and Electric
Field) can be Produced by Magnetism

• Consider a single turn of wire,

through which an externally-applied
magnetic flux is present. The
magnetic flux varies with time.

• If there is a wire loop, a current,

Iind , is generated in the wire loop
as a result of the changing
magnetic flux.

• Current in the wire is caused by

electric field, E, that pushes the
charge around the wire. Even the
wire is removed, the electric field
remains.

Time-varying magnetic fields produce electric fields. 6

Electromotive Force (emf)

• Next, a unit normal vector to the surface, n, is shown. The

relative directions of n, and the contour C are defined by
the right-hand convention: Right hand thumb in direction
of n; fingers then curve in the direction of C.

• The electromotive force, or emf, is defined as the

closed path integral of E about C:

• The emf is the voltage about a specific closed path.

The line integral above is along a directional path as
indicated in the figure.

7
 Faraday’s Law of Induction
Faraday’s Law: The induced electromotive force in any
closed circuit is equal to the negative of the time rate of
change of the magnetic flux enclosed by the circuit.

where the magnetic flux is:

Note the normal unit vector (used in the surface integral to

calculate the magnetic flux) is determined by right hand
rule from the direction of the closed path.
• The induced emf will cause a current to flow in the closed loop in such a
direction as to oppose the change in the linking magnetic flux (Lenz’s
8
law).
Example 4.1: Faraday's Law of induction
• There is a circular loop with radius a in a time-varying
magnetic field. The magnetic field is orthogonal to the loop,
uniform in space but varying in time.

• The emf on the loop is defined as

• The magnetic flux is computed as

• Clearly,  is time varying, and

 Point Form of Faraday’s Law of Induction

• A time-varying magnetic field will always accompany a spatially-varying,

non-conservative electric field.

• From the integral form of the law, we can prove using Stoke’s theorem that
the curl of the E field is equal to the negative changing rate of the
magnetic flux density.

• This is in contrast to the static case where the electric field is a conservative
field and the curl of the E field must be zero:
 Motional emf due to Moving Closed Path

• Now consider a case where the flux within a closed

path is increasing with time as a result of the
sliding bar, moving at constant velocity v.

• The magnetic flux enclosed by the conducting path

varies with time as the bar is moving. The flux
change in time dt is

• Therefore an emf is produced Direction of integration

path of E through conductor
(by right hand convention)

• The E integration path direction is determined by the right hand convention (thumb of right hand
in direction of n, fingers in direction of closed path). This is the direction of dL as shown in the
figure.

• From the equation, we see that E.dL is negative, meaning that E will point from terminals 2 to 1
as shown. As we have a perfectly-conducing path, E will exist only at the voltmeter.
 4.2 Displacement Current

We can verify that H=J is true only for time-invariant cases. Ampere’s circuital
law must be modified for time-varying fields to account for the fact that a time-
varying electric field produces a magnetic field.

12
 Why Introduce Displacement Current

d
1. A time-varying magnetic field V0(t)
links a wire loop that is connected
to a parallel-plate capacitor. S H
D
area = A
2. We assume for the moment that
conduction current I exists in the
wire. Ampere’s Law is applied to
the circular path shown, whose
radius is very small compared to the
local wire length. The wire therefore
appears very long and straight. We
obtain:

• While current is flowing, the electric

field in the capacitor is changing with
time, in step with the plate charge level,
deposited by the current. 13
 Why Introduce Displacement Current

• Now suppose the surface S, Stretched surface now intercepts electric field lines,
surrounded by the original and no conduction current
contour, k, is stretched so that it
intercepts the electric field
between capacitor plates.

• If we apply the original form of the D

Ampere’s law on the stretched
surface, we get a contradicting H
result

• To fix this problem, we could introduce the displacement

current Id and modify Ampere’s law as

• When applied to the stretched surface here we have only the

displacement current
 Why Introduce Displacement Current
• We may use a charging capacitor to understand the displacement current.
• Conducting wires lead (conduction) current ic into one plate and out of the other.
The charge q increases, and the electric field between the plates increases.

A is the area of the plates; E=V/d is the field between

the plates; C=A/d

• The same current enters the left plate (ic) as leaves the right plate. Although current
is flowing through the capacitor, no actual charge is transported through the vacuum
between its plates. The explanation is that a displacement current id “flows” in the
vacuum.

• The term can be understood as a current density.

https://www.miniphysics.com/uy1-displacement-current.html
 Displacement Current Density
• We could further prove . Define the displacement current
density as

• Ampere’s law is modified for the time-varying field as

• This indicates that a time-varying electric field will produce a magnetic

field.

• The circulation of H depends not only on the current but also on the rate of
change with time of the electric flux (which is termed displacement current).

• The inclusion of the “displacement current” in Ampere’s formula was the key
contribution by Maxwell in his electromagnetic field theory; acknowledged as
one of the most innovative concepts ever introduced in the development of
physical science.
 Example 4.2: Displacement Current
• In a free space, , where k is constant. Find the
displacement current density and electric field.
Answer: In order to answer this question, we need to use

We first find the curl of H using the curl formula for rectangular coordinates

Note that many terms in the curl computation become zeros in this problem.

Also, J = 0 in free space. Thus the displacement current density is

Jd must also be equal to , we then compute the integral of Jd to find the E field:
4.3 Maxwell’s Equations for Time-
varying Fields

Compared to the static (time-invariant) cases, for time-varying

electromagnetic fields, the two curl equations need to be modified
while the two divergence equations remain the same.

18
 Maxwell’s Equations in Point Form

Ampere’s Circuital Law; time-varying magnetic field

is generated from both free current and
induction current

Faraday’s Law of Induction; E can have circulation

if a changing magnetic field is present and the electric
flux may form closed loops

Gauss’ Law for the electric field; the charge density

is a source or sink of electric flux line; every coulomb
of free charge must have one coulomb of electric flux diverging
from it

Gauss’s Law for the magnetic field;

magnetic charges are not known to exist

Maxwell’s equations give a complete description of the relation between

electromagnetic fields and charge and current distributions; and explain all
macroscopic electromagnetic phenomena. 19
 Auxiliary Equations
• Basic equations

E Electric field intensity volt per metre V/m

(strength)

D Electric flux density coulomb per square C/m2

metre
H Magnetic field intensity ampere per metre A/m
(strength)
• When there are polarization
and magnetization: B Magnetic flux density Tesla (Weber per T
squared meter)

 Permittivity farad per metre F/m

 Permeability henry per metre H/m

E Electric flux volt metre V.m

• When the material is linear
and homogeneous B Magnetic flux Weber Wb

20
 Maxwell’s Equations in Integral Forms
Ampère's circuital law (with Maxwell's addition) (A magnetic field can
result from a current or time variation of the electric field or both. )

Maxwell–Faraday equation (Faraday's law of

induction) (An electric field may result from the
time variation of the magnetic field.)

Gauss's law (The electric flux ΦD out of a

closed surface, defined as the surface
integral of the electric flux density over
the surface, is equal to the net charge
enclosed)

Gauss's law for magnetism (the net flux of the

Note: Stoke’s theorem can be applied to magnetic field out of a closed surface is always
prove the above equations. zero; magnetic monopoles do not exist.)

21
 Example 4.3: Maxwell’s Equations
• In a source-free dielectric, the electric field intensity is given by

where E0 is the amplitude,  is the angular frequency, and k is the phase constant.
Determine the relationship between  and k.
Answer: A source-free dielectric indicates . We apply the Maxwell’s
equation first. Using the curl formula for rectangular coordinates

We can find

Taking integral of -E with respect to time (and setting the integration constant to 0)

We can further write the expressions for other field quantities as

 Example 4.3: Maxwell’s Equations (cont’d)
• In a source-free dielectric, the electric field intensity is given by

where E0 is the amplitude,  is the angular frequency, and k is the phase constant.
Determine the relationship between  and k.
Answer (cont’d): H and D must also satisfy another Maxwell’s equation

We have found

Then

It must be equal to

From this we must have the following relationship between  and k:

 Boundary Conditions
• The integral forms of Maxwell’s equations
can be used to derive boundary conditions
on B, D, E, and H; For two real physical
media surfaces with charge density  and
current density K:

1. The tangential component of an E field is continuous across an interface;

2. The tangential component of an H field is discontinuous across an interface
when there is surface current and the amount of discontinuity is determined by
the surface current density.

3. The normal component of a D field is discontinuous across an interface where a

surface charge exists and the amount of discontinuity being determined by the
charge density.
4. The normal component of a B field is continuous across an interface.
 Boundary Conditions
• In a perfect conductor: Between a dielectric (Medium 1) and a
conductor (Medium 2)

• There are usually no free charges and no surface currents at the interface
between the two lossless media. We would have

• Boundary conditions are critical for determining the unique solutions of

Maxwell’s equations.
4.4 Numerical Methods for Solving
Poisson’s Equations

(Self study)

26
 Introduction
• It is often needed to find the distributions of electric and magnetic fields.

• Laplace’s and Poisson’s equations, with boundary conditions, may be

suitable to model the system for static and quasi-static (low-frequency)
operating conditions.

• Numerous methods for solving partial differential equations can be applied

to solve the Laplace’s or Poisson’s equations.

• However, analytical solutions are available only for problems of regular

geometry, e.g., circular, rectangular, etc.

• Numerical methods such as the finite-difference method (FDM) and finite-

element method (FEM) may be used for more general scenarios

27
 Poisson’s Equations in Rectangular Coordinates
• For static electric fields, the Poisson’s equation is written as

V: electric potential; v: charge density

• In rectangular coordinates,

• If the region is source free, v=0, we have the Laplace’s equation:

• In the two-dimensional (2D) case, the Poisson’s equation reduces to

28
 4.4.1 Finite Difference Method
(FDM)
Solving Poisson’s equations by using appropriate finite-difference
approximations to the derivative terms. Find the potentials at grid
points by discretizing the derivatives.

29
 Finite Difference Method (FDM)

• FDM is a numerical method for solving general partial differential

equations (PDEs) and temporal and spatial distributions of electric and
magnetic fields.

• General idea: Divide the solution domain into finite discrete points and
replace the partial differential equation with a set of difference
equations.

• The solution is not exact, but approximate.

• The error in the solution can be minimized if the discrete points are
selected close to one another.

• For studying the principles and methods, we use electric field examples in
two-dimensional spaces.

30
 The Problem
• Consider the two-dimensional Poisson equation

• is the unknown spatial distribution of the electrostatic potential,

ρv is the volume charge density and ε is the permittivity of the medium.

• We want to solve for the for a region by finding values on the

grids, subject to the boundary conditions.

Region under
study

31
 Grid Points
• Consider a section of the mesh. V1(x,y+h) denotes the potential at the grid
point (x, y+h) and others are defined similarly. We wish to write an
approximation to the Poisson’s equation for Point O(x,y).
V1

h/2
A h
y

V2 B V0 O(x,y) D V4
x

V3

Apply Poisson's equation to point O.

32
 Approximate the Derivatives
• The first-order derivatives of V(x,y) w.r.t. x at points B and D are

• Similarly the first-order derivatives of V(x,y) w.r.t. y at points A and C are

• The second-order partial derivatives of V(x,y) can then be approximated by

33
 Equation for a Single Grid Point
• Following the same method:

• Using the above equations and the Poisson’s equation

• We have assumed square mesh with size h.

• If the region is source free, =0, the equation above simplifies to

• Applying the approximation to every node to generate as many algebraic

equations as the number of nodes considered.

34
 Boundary Conditions
• Unique solutions of the partial differential equations can be achieved
only when a specified set of boundary conditions are given

• There are three kinds of boundary conditions:

V=g

Region under Region under Region under

study study study

V=g dV/dn=f dV/dn=f

• Dirichlet condition Neumann condition Mixed

35
 Example FDM – Generating Grids
• Determine the electrostatic potential distribution inside the region.

y y

x x

• This is a source-less case with ρ=0. Assume square mesh; from the
earlier result, the potential of any grid point is related to its four
neighbors' potentials:

36
Example FDM – Apply approximation to each grid point
Apply to the four points:

We now have 4 unknowns, 4 equations:

Solving this equation (e.g., using MATLAB) gives

37
 4.4.2 Finite Element Method (FEM)
FEM solves Poisson’s equations by minimizing the electric energy expressed as
an integral of the electric field intensity over the region of interest. It divides the
overall region into small subregions (each called an element). For each
element, it is assumed that the potential has a simple analytical expression with
only a few parameters, determined uniquely by the (unknown, to be found)
potentials at the vertices. The energy for each element can be expressed in
terms of those potentials in a simple expression and the total energy is obtained
as their sum. Then applying standard optimization tools, we shall be able to find
the potential values at the vertices that minimize the total energy.

The FEM is more suitable than FDM for regions with irregular boundaries.

38
 General Idea – Energy Minimization
• The FDM requires a partial differential equation and a set of boundary
conditions
• FEM was originally developed to evaluate the stresses and strains in complex
structures. The basic idea is that although a function can be complex over a
large region, it may be sufficient to use a simple approximation for a small
subregion. Each (non-overlapping) subregion is called a finite element.
• FEM can be used to find the potentials by solving an equivalent minimization
problem that minimizes the electrostatic energy inside the bounded region

• In two-dimensional (2D) space, the energy can be written alternatively as

• We have used
39
 Elements
• In finite element analysis，the region can be divided into a finite number of n
triangular meshes
The eth element:

• For each triangular element area S(e)

• The total energy

40
 Condition for Energy Minimization
• In order to minimize the energy, we must have

• From the above equation, if the partial derivative vector has a simple form in V,
then we may be able to find V easily and the problem is solved.

• This can be achieved by assuming that for each element, the potential function is
a linear function and thus at each point inside the element the potential has a
linear (interpolation) relationship to the potentials at the three vertices; the
associated E-field is then approximately constant for a given element; when the
element is small enough, such assumption tends to be precise. 41
 Linear Interpolation in Elements
• Note that each point inside a given
element divides the triangular area
into 3 smaller triangular areas.
Assume that the potential is a linear
function over the element. We can
then write:

(We temporarily dropped the index e to simplify notation).

• The coefficients (weights) are equal to the ratios of the areas of the triangle

42
 Area Ratios as Interpolation Coefficients

• More details for computing the

interpolation coefficients:

43
 Express E Components
• Now we shall be able to write W as a quadratic function of V, and the partial
derivative of W with respect to V will be in a linear form.
• The two E-field components：

• Now we restore the element index and define a 21 vector to characterize
the two components of the E-field at each point in a given element:

(determined by the location of the point in (list the potentials at the 3 vertices)
the element) 44
 Revisit the Energy Minimization Condition
• Now the potential energy is given by

• Its partial derivative with respect to node potentials

• Using the result we can solve the potentials as

• The above is a linear equation of V and can be solved efficiently.

• Knowing V, we can use interpolation to find potentials at any points.
45
 Example FEM – Problem Formulation

• This illustrates a problem using FEM

to solve a boundary value problem in a
y
static electric field.
1 2 3

• The boundary values are given.

2 3
1 4
4 5 6 • We divide the region of interest into 8
5 8
triangular elements with 9 nodes.
6
7 8 7 9 x • We can apply the above derivations to
build a linear equation that the node
potentials must satisfy.

46
 Example FEM – For Element 1
y
1 2 3 From slides 19 and 20:

2 3
4 1 5 4 6

5 8
6
7 8 7 9 x

Constant over the element and can

thus be moved out of the integral.
47
 Example FEM– For Element 2
y
1 2 3 Apply a similar procedure:

2 3
4 1 5 4 6

5 8
6
7 8 7 9 x

We can repeat for all other elements.

48
 Example FEM – Prepare to assemble the needed
y
equation in Slide 21
1 2 3 For element 1:

2 3
4 1 5 4 6

5 8
6
7 8 7 9 x

49
 Example FEM – Prepare to assemble the needed
equation in Slide 21
y
1 2 3 For element 2:

2 3
4 1 5 4 6

5 8
6
7 8 7 9 x

50
 Finally, Form and Solve an Overall Equation
y
1 2 3 Add the equations for all elements

2 3
4 1 5 4 6

5 8 We can get the following equation;

7
6
8 7 9 x
Solve the equation (e.g. using
MATLAB) to find the potentials.

51
 FEM Implementations
• FEM has been widely adopted by general software for solving partial differential
equations and also by specialized software for electromagnetic applications, such as
MATLAB PDE toolbox and ANSYS HFSS

See Lab2 for more information.