ECTE213

Engineering Electromagnetics

Dr Jun Tong
SECTE
University of Wollongong, Australia

Lecture 2: Static Electric Fields

 Key quantities for time-invariant electric
and magnetic fields

Electric fields Magnetic fields

Material
Source Source

Electric
fields Magnetic
fields

Electric Magnetic
potential potential
field field

2
 Outlines References
• Electric field • W.H. Hayt Jr. and J. A. Buck,
• Gauss’ law and divergence Chapters 2, 3, 4, 5, 6
• Potential and current
• Polarization
• Boundary conditions
• Capacitance
• Poisson's equations

3
 2.1 Electric Field

We start with the study of electrostatics which is about the interactions between time-invariant, static
electric charges and the constant electrical field.
Electric fields are force fields. They act upon material bodies by virtue of their property of charge. If
Q1 and Q2 have like signs, the vector force is in the same direction as the vector. The magnitude and
direction of the force are governed by Coulomb’s law.

4
 Coulomb’s Law
• The force acting on a test charge, Q2 , arising from charge Q1, is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance, in the direction of the line
joining the charges and proportional to the product of the charges.

where a12 is the unit vector directed from Q1 to Q2 , R12 the distance
between Q1 and Q2
•  is the permittivity of the material. In free space and air, ,

• The electric field intensity arising from charge Q1 is defined as the force
per unit positive test charge, or

volts per meter or V/m

• Electric field satisfies the superposition principle. 5

 Example 2.1： Find the electric force
• There are a charge of Q1=310-4 C at M(1,2,3) and a charge of Q2= -10-4 C
at N(2,0,5) in a free space.

• We use the following formula to find the force exerted on Q2 due to Q1

• Here

• Putting together we get

6
 Visualization of Electric Fields
• A quiver plot is a plot of the field lines constructed by making a grid of
points. An arrow indicates the direction and magnitude.

• A flux line (streamline) is drawn such that it is everywhere tangent to the

electric field.
• It is useful to think of flux lines indicating flow of some fluid emanating
from positive charges (source) and terminating at negative charges (sink).7
 Electric Field Arising From Charge Distributions
• From the expression of the field due to a point charge, we can use the
superposition principle to find the total field due to multiple point charges by
summing the fields due to individual charges.

• If charges are continuously distributed on a line, a surface or a space, we may use

line integral, surface integral or volume integral to find the superimposed field.

• Example: for a volume charge distribution in the free space with volume change
density rv, the total field at a position r is found by using volume integral as

8
 2.2 Gauss’ Law

Gauss’s law relates the total flux through any closed surface and the total charge enclosed
by that surface. It can be given in integral or point form. It is convenient for finding the
field distribution for certain charge distributions where symmetry can be exploited.
 Gauss’ Law

Gauss’s law relates the distribution of electric charge to the resulting electric field; it is one of
Maxwell’s four equations: The net electric flux through any closed surface is proportional to
the net electric charge within that closed surface.

• We define the differential surface

Es, normal area (a vector) as

Es
where n is the unit outward normal
vector to the surface, and where dS is
the area of the differential spot on the
surface.
• Flux crossing surface S is
S has area of S; its normal
• The total flux crossing a closed
direction n has an angle  with the
surface is
direction of the electric field Es at a
point P on the surface

10
 Gauss’ Law
• The total flux ’ due to E out of a closed surface S is equal to the charge Q
enclosed divided by the permittivity .

• For free space:

• Define the electric flux density as , then

• Note: The electric flux density D is similar to the electric field E, but does
not depend on the material which is characterized by permittivity

• Then Gauss’ law can be rewritten as

11
 Gauss’ Law Applied to Point Charge
• Consider a point charge Q at the origin and a spherical surface of radius r
centered at the origin; due to symmetry, the electric flux density Ds is
normal to the surface everywhere and has equal magnitude. Therefore,

Electric field lines

Note: Evaluation of the above surface integral

1. Due to symmetry, we choose the spherical Q
coordinates
2. DS has only nonzero component in the ar
direction, i.e., DS = DSar
3. For each point on the spherical surface, the A simple example with
point charge
direction is also on ar
4. Summarizing,

12
 Gauss’ Law Applied to Point Charge
• We now try to relate the electric field with the total charge through
Gauss’s law. Recall that the total flux, when expressed in terms of the
electric flux density on the spherical surface, is given by

Electric field lines

• According to Gauss’ law, we must also have

Q
• We then have
C/m2 (0 < r <∞ )

• The electric field intensity A simple example with

point charge

V/m (0 < r <∞ )

• In the above, ar denotes the unit vector normal to the spherical surface.
13
 Example 2.2: Gauss’ Law
• Gauss’ law can be used for finding the electric field intensity in certain symmetric cases.

• Suppose we have two concentric cylinders, with the z axis down their centers. Surface
charge of density rS exists on the outer surface of the inner cylinder.

• A r-directed field is expected, and this should

vary only with r. We consider a cylindrical
surface of length L and of radius r, where
a < r < b.
• The total charge on a length L of the inner conductor is

• Symmetry considerations show us that only the Dρ component is present and that it can
be a function only of ρ; thus

• From Gauss’ law and assuming a vacuum:

 Divergence and Maxwell’s First Equation

• The divergence of the vector field D at a point is the net outward

electric flux from a small enclosed surface per unit volume as the
volume shrinks to zero

• From Gauss’s law, we can prove the following Maxwell’s

equation (divergence theorem):

• Note that v here denotes volume charge density.

• Intuitively speaking, a positive divergence for any vector quantity

indicates a source of that vector quantity at that point. Similarly, a
negative divergence indicates a sink.

• The divergence theorem is the point form of the Gauss’ law.

15
 Divergence Computation (see Formulas sheet)
• Define the del operator as a vector (spatial) differential operator as:

• We can prove that for rectangular coordinates, the divergence can be written
as the dot product of the del operator and the field vector:

• For other coordinate systems:

16
Example 2.3: Compute Divergence

17
2.3 Potential and Current
 Total Work Done Over an Arbitrary Path
• To move charge Q against the electric field, a force and work must be
applied that counteracts the force on Q that arises from the field:

EL is the component of E along dL.

• This is equivalent to

The integral expression involving the

scalar product of the field with a
differential path vector is called a line
integral or a contour integral.

19
 Definition of Potential Difference
• The potential difference is defined as the work done (or potential energy
gained) per unit charge. We express this quantity in units of Joules/Coulomb,
or volts:

• As such, the work done to move a change from B to A is

• A static electric field E is conservative as its line integral between any two
points is independent of the path chosen. Another property is that its closed path
line integral is zero:

• The curl (discussed later) of E in a static field is zero at all defined points.
20
 The Electric Potential Field
• The potential field specifies potential at any position within the defined
space, and with the potential at infinity (the reference value) equal to zero.

• For a point charge Q in free space, we can choose the spherical coordinates
and find the potential field from the electrical field by line integral, and
exploiting the facts:

• The result gives the electric potential field due to a point charge

• We can use integral or summation to find the potential field for other
charges.
21
 Example 2.4: Electric Dipole
.

• An electric dipole has two point charges

of equal magnitude and opposite sign,
separated by a small distance.

• In this example, the coordinates of the two

charges are (0, 0, d/2) and (0, 0, -d/2)

• The total potential at a point P is

• For a point P(x, y, z):

The distance between two points:

22
 Relation Between Potential and Electric Field
• The maximum rate of increase in potential is in a direction exactly opposite
the electric field;
• E points in the direction of maximum rate of decrease in potential -- in the
direction of the negative gradient of V.

Equipotential
• In rectangular coordinates: surfaces

aN
E

• The electric field E is orthogonal to the equipotential surface, i.e., the surface
of points with equal potential.
23
 Example 2.4: Electric Dipole in Spherical Coordinates System
Gradient in other coordinate systems:

Equipotential surface

Electric field streamline

24
 Potential Energy in an Electric Field
• An electric field has stored potential energy; for a charge volume, the
energy is evaluated as

• V is the position-dependent potential function within the charge volume.

• We can rewrite the above expression as

• The energy density in the electric field is defined as:

 Current and Current Density
• Current is a flux quantity defined to characterize the movement of charge.

• The current density J specifies the current across a unit area of surface;
• The current is related to J as
n

• The direction of current flow may not be normal to the surface in question,
so we have treated current density as a vector with a direction

26
 Continuity of Current

• Equation of Continuity

Qi(t)
• Divergence of the current density is equal to
the negative rate of change of the charge density

• This can be proven from charge conservation and

• The amount of electric charge at any point can only change by the
amount of electric current flowing into or out of that point.
27
2.4 Polarization
 Energy Band Structure in Three Material Types
• Energy must be given to an electron to pull it away from the nucleus.

a) Conductors exhibit no energy gap between valence and conduction bands so electrons move
freely
b) Insulators show large energy gaps, requiring large amounts of energy to lift electrons into the
conduction band; When this occurs, the dielectric breaks down.
c) Semiconductors have a relatively small energy gap, so modest amounts of energy (applied
through heat, light, or an electric field) may lift electrons from valence to conduction bands.
29
 Electron Flow in Conductors
• Free electrons move under the influence of an electric field. The applied
force on an electron of charge Q = -e will be

• When forced, the electron accelerates to an equilibrium velocity, known as

the drift velocity; the drift current has a current density proportional to the
field

• The conductivity is denoted by

Material Conductivity at 20o (S/m)

Aluminium 3.50×107

Copper 5.96×107

Glass 10−15 to 10−11

Mercury 1.02×106

Teflon 10−25 to 10−23

Air 3×10−15 to 8×10−15 30

 Electrostatic Properties of Conductors

Consider a conductor, on
which excess charge has been
+ + + ++ Electric field at the
placed + +
E surface points in the
+ +
+ solid conductor + rs normal direction
+ E = 0 inside +
+ +
+ + + ++ +

1. Charge can exist only on the surface as a surface charge density, rs - not in the
interior.

2. Electric field cannot exist in the interior, nor can it possess a tangential
component at the surface.

3. It follows from condition 2 that the surface of a conductor is an equipotential.

31
 Electric Dipole and Dipole Moment
• In dielectrics charges are held in position (bound), and ideally there are no free charges that
can move and form a current. Atoms and molecules may be polar (having separated positive
and negative charges), or may be polarized by the application of an electric field.
• Consider such a polarized atom or molecule, which possesses a dipole moment, p, defined as
the charge magnitude present, Q, times the positive and negative charge separation, d. Dipole
moment is a vector that points from the negative to the positive charge.

Q
d p = Qd ax

• A dielectric can be modeled as an ensemble of bound charges in free space, associated with
the atoms and molecules that make up the material. Some of these may have intrinsic dipole
moments, others not. In some materials (such as liquids), dipole moments are in random
directions.

32
 Polarization Field (with Electric Field Applied)
• Introducing an electric field may increase the charge separation in each dipole, and
possibly re-orient dipoles so that here is some aggregate alignment, as shown here.
The effect is small, and is greatly exaggerated here!

• Such alignment can counter-effect the original electric field.

33
 Bound and Free Charge and Gauss Law

• For dielectrics,
E

• ε is the permittivity of the medium. S

+
+ +
• A polarization field is given by + +
P
+ +
+

• Define dielectric constant, or relative

permittivity as:

• Define susceptibility as

• We then have the relationship:

• Recall that the divergence relationship between the electric field and the
distribution of free charge is always:
34
2.5 Boundary Conditions
 Boundary Condition for Tangential Electric Field
• Consider a boundary between two medium (e.g., two dielectrics)
• The tangential components of the two electric fields at the boundary are
equal:

Sketch of Proof: • We use the fact that E is conservative:

n
• So therefore:

• Leading to:

Region 1
1
• More formally:

Region 2
2

36
Boundary Condition for Normal Electric Flux Density
• The normal components of the two electric flux densities satisfy:

Sketch of Proof: n
Region 1
1
We apply Gauss’ Law to the cylindrical volume shown here,
in which cylinder height is allowed to approach zero, and there rs
is charge density rs on the surface: Region 2
2

The electric flux enters and exits only through the bottom and top surfaces, respectively.

If the charge density is zero:

37
 Between a Dielectric and A Conductor
Applying the general results to the special case with a dielectric and a conductor:

dielectric
dielectric
n

rs
conductor conductor

38
 2.6 Capacitance

Capacitors, made of conductors and

dielectrics, are used for storing energy
in the electrical field and constructing
circuits for the purposes of blocking
DC currents, etc.

By Eric Schrader from San Francisco, CA, United States - 12739s, CC BY-SA 2.0,
https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=37625896

rS
E

https://commons.wikimedia.org 1
39
 Capacitance Defined

• Capacitance measures the capability of energy storage in electrical

devices. A simple capacitor consists of two oppositely charged
conductors surrounded by a uniform dielectric.

• The capacitance of the structure is defined as the ratio of the stored

charge Q to the applied voltage V0, or

C/V or Farads
S
Q
.A
• Stored energy in a capacitor
E, D
-Q .
B

• Capacitance depends on the physical configurations of the conductors and

the property of the dielectric 40
 A Method for Finding Capacitance
1. Choose an appropriate coordinate system for a given geometry

2. Assume charges +Q and –Q on conductors

3. Find E between the two conductors by Gauss’ law or Coulomb’s law

4. Find V0 by evaluating

S
Q
5. Find the ratio for capacitance
.A

E, D
-Q .
B

41
 Example 2.5: Coaxial Cable
• Cylindrical coordinates are appropriate for analyzing coaxial cables

• The z-axis is chosen as the axis of the coaxial cable

rS
• We can assume positive charges uniformly distributed
E
on the surface of the inner conductor with a surface charge
density of rs 1

• The symmetry suggests that the magnitude of the electrical field between
the inner and outer conductors depends only on the distance to the z-axis
(i.e., r)and the direction is ar

• Gauss’ law can be used for finding the electrical field: Consider a
cylindrical surface with a fixed radius r and unit length (1 meter)

• From the electric field, we can find the potential difference between the
inner and outer conductors and also the capacitance
42
• Computational details in the next slide
 Example 2.5: Coaxial Transmission Line
• From Gauss’ law:

rS
• E = 0 elsewhere, assuming a hollow inner
E
conductor, and equal and opposite charges on the inner
and outer conductors; assuming a unit length in z. 1

• The potential difference between conductors is now:

• The charge on the inner conductor per unit length is:

• The capacitance:
43
 2.7 Poisson’s Equations

Poisson’s equations relate the scalar potential field V and the scalar quantity of
charge distribution rv; can be useful for solving for the field functions in
scenarios with or without sources.

44
 Poisson’s Equations
• Start with Maxwell’s first equation:

Recall that

• We shall be able to prove the Poisson’s equation

• Poisson’s equations allow one to find the potential field in a region, in

which values of potential or electric field are known at its boundaries.

•  is abbreviated as2 (and pronounced “del squared”); It is known

as the Laplacian operator

45
 Laplace’s Equations
• In the event that there is zero volume charge density, the right-hand-side
becomes zero, and we obtain Laplace’s equation:

• In other coordinate systems, the Laplace operator is given by

46
 Example 2.6: Parallel Plate Capacitor
• The plate separation d is assumed much less than the
smallest plate dimension. V can be assumed to varyx
only with x. V = V0
d
• Laplace’s equation reduces to: Equipotential
Surfaces

0
• Integrating once, obtain:
V=0

Boundary conditions:
• Integrate a second time to get:
1. V = 0 at x = 0
• A and B are integration constants that are to be 2. V = V0 at x = d
evaluated subject to the boundary conditions.

• Apply boundary condition 1: 0 = A(0) + B

• Apply boundary condition 2: V0 = Ad

• Finally:

47
 Optional Reading and Assignment

• For understanding flux, divergence, curl, gradient:

https://betterexplained.com/articles/category/math/vector-calculus/

• For general discussion: Z. Popovic and B. D. Popovic, Introductory

Electromagnetics, Pearson, 1999, Chapters 3-7
http://ecee.colorado.edu/~ecen3400/ECEE_3400_Textbook.html

• Assignment: see the Tutorial 2 question

48