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Bloom's/Accessibility: 1. Remember / Keyboard Navigation
ASM Topic: Module 02 Cell Structure and Function
ASM Objective: 02.03 Bacteria and Archaea have specialized structures (e.g. flagella,
endospores, and pili) that often confer critical capabilities.
Learning Outcome: 01.01c Determine the type of microbe (e.g., bacterium, fungus, etc.) when
given a description of a newly discovered one
2
Copyright 2020 © McGraw-Hill Education. All rights reserved. No reproduction or distribution without the prior
written consent of McGraw-Hill Education.
4) Microbiologists study a variety of organisms, but all are considered either Bacteria or
Archaea.
Answer: FALSE
Topic: Taxonomy of Microorganisms
Bloom's/Accessibility: 2. Understand / Keyboard Navigation
ASM Topic: Module 05 Microbial Systems
ASM Objective: 05.04 Microorganisms, cellular and viral, can interact with both human and
nonhuman hosts in beneficial, neutral or detrimental ways.
Learning Outcome: 01.01a Define the term microbiology
5) All eukaryotes have a membrane-delimited nucleus.
Answer: TRUE
ASM Objective: 02.04 While microscopic eukaryotes (for example, fungi, protozoa and algae)
carry out some of the same processes as bacteria, many of the cellular properties are
fundamentally different.
6) Viruses are not generally studied by microbiologists because they are not classified as living
organisms.
Answer: FALSE
ASM Objective: 02.05 The replication cycles of viruses (lytic and lysogenic) differ among
viruses and are determined by their unique structures and genomes.
7) Viruses constitute the fourth domain of life in current biological classification schemes.
Answer: FALSE
ASM Topic: Module 01 Evolution
ASM Objective: 01.05 The evolutionary relatedness of organisms is best reflected in
phylogenetic trees.
Learning Outcome: 01.01b Explain Carl Woeses contributions in establishing the three-domain
system for classifying cellular life
3
8) Protists contain all of the following forms of life EXCEPT ________.
A) protozoa
B) fungi
C) slime molds
D) algae
Answer: B
phylogenetic trees.
9) Cells with a relatively complex morphology that have a true membrane-delimited nucleus are
called ________.
A) prokaryotes
B) eukaryotes
C) urkaryotes
D) nokaryotes
Answer: B
ASM Objective: 02.04 While microscopic eukaryotes (for example, fungi, protozoa and algae)
carry out some of the same processes as bacteria, many of the cellular properties are
fundamentally different.
4
10) Cells with a relatively simple cell morphology that do not have a true membrane-delimited
nucleus are called ________.
A) prokaryotes
B) eukaryotes
C) urkaryotes
D) nokaryotes
Answer: A
Topic: Bacterial Cellular Morphology
ASM Objective: 02.01 The structure and function of microorganisms have been revealed by the
use of microscopy (including bright field, phase contrast, fluorescent, and electron).
11) The ribosomal RNA studies that led to the division of prokaryotic organisms into the
Bacteria and the Archaea were begun by ________.
A) Pasteur
B) Woese
C) Needham
D) Watson
Answer: B
phylogenetic trees.
12) Proteins function in modern cells as ________.

A) catalysts
B) hereditary information
C) structural elements
D) both catalysts and structural elements
Answer: D
Topic: Bacterial Cellular Morphology
ASM Topic: Module 03 Metabolic Pathways
ASM Objective: 03.01 Bacteria and Archaea exhibit extensive, and often unique, metabolic
diversity (e.g. nitrogen fixation, methane production, anoxygenic photosynthesis).
13) RNA serves to convert the information stored in DNA to ________.

5
A) carbohydrates
B) protein
C) lipids
D) RNA
Answer: B
Topic: Bacteria
ASM Topic: Module 04 Information Flow and Genetics
ASM Objective: 04.02 Although the central dogma is universal in all cells, the processes of
replication, transcription, and translation differ in Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryotes.
Learning Outcome: 01.02a Propose a timeline of the origin and history of microbial life and
integrate supporting evidence into it
14) The earliest microbial fossils that have been found are dated from approximately 4.5 million
years ago.
Answer: FALSE
Topic: Bacteria
phylogenetic trees.
15) Which of the following distinguish the field of microbiology from other fields of biology?
A) The size of the organism studied.
B) The techniques used to study organisms regardless of their size.
C) Both the size of the organism studied and the techniques employed in the study of organisms.
D) Neither the size of the organism studied nor the techniques employed in the study of
organisms regardless of their size.
Answer: C
Topic: History of Microbiology
6
16) Who of the following developed a set of criteria that could be used to establish a causative
link between a particular microorganism and a particular disease?
A) Fracastoro
B) Koch
C) Pasteur
D) Lister
Answer: B
Learning Outcome: 01.03b Outline a set of experiments that might be used to decide if a
particular microbe is the causative agent of a disease
17) Who of the following was the first to observe and accurately describe microorganisms?
A) Pasteur
B) Lister
C) van Leeuwenhoek
D) Tyndall
Answer: C
Learning Outcome: 01.03a Evaluate the importance of the contributions to microbiology made
by Hooke, Leeuwenhoek, Pasteur, Lister, Koch, Beijerinck, von Behring, Kitasato, Metchnikoff,
and Winogradsky
7
18) Who of the following provided the evidence needed to discredit the concept of spontaneous
generation?
A) Pasteur
B) Koch
C) Semmelweiss
D) Lister
Answer: A
and Winogradsky
19) The concept that living organisms arise from nonliving material is called ________.
A) biogenesis
B) cell theory
C) spontaneous generation
D) germ theory
Answer: C
ASM Objective: 05.01 Microorganisms are ubiquitous and live in diverse and dynamic
ecosystems.
and Winogradsky
8
20) The concept that human and animal diseases are caused by microorganisms is called the
________.
A) cell theory
B) germ theory
C) causative theory
D) disease theory
Answer: B
21) Whose work on spontaneous generation first demonstrated the existence of a very heat-
resistant form of bacteria that are called endospores?
A) Schwann
B) Redi
C) Tyndall
D) Pasteur
Answer: C
ASM Objective: 02.03 Bacteria and Archaea have specialized structures (e.g. flagella,
endospores, and pili) that often confer critical capabilities.
and Winogradsky
9
22) Antiseptic surgery was pioneered by ________.
A) Pasteur
B) Lister
C) Jenner
D) Kitasato
Answer: B
ASM Objective: 03.04 The growth of microorganisms can be controlled by physical, chemical,
mechanical, or biological methods.
and Winogradsky
23) Studies by Emil von Behring and Shibasaburo Kitasato demonstrated that inactivated toxins
can induce the synthesis of antitoxins in the blood of rabbits. These antitoxins (antibodies) are
the basis of ________.
A) humoral immunity
B) cell-mediated immunity
C) antibiotic immunity
D) phagocyte-mediated immunity
Answer: A
and Winogradsky
10
24) The first surgical antiseptic to be used was ________.
A) iodine
B) ethanol
C) phenol
D) None of the choices are correct.
Answer: C
and Winogradsky
25) Old cultures of bacteria that have lost their ability to cause disease are said to be ________.
A) impotent
B) virulent
C) pathogenic
D) attenuated
Answer: D
and Winogradsky
11
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26) Who is credited with developing and documenting the first vaccination procedure against
smallpox?
A) Koch
B) Pasteur
C) Jenner
D) Lister
Answer: C
and Winogradsky
27) Who is credited with developing a vaccine against chicken cholera?

A) Koch
B) Pasteur
C) Jenner
D) Lister
Answer: B
and Winogradsky
12
28) Who of the following first discovered that some blood leukocytes could engulf disease-
causing bacteria?
A) von Behring
B) Meister
C) Metchnikoff
D) Ivanowski
Answer: C
and Winogradsky
29) The use of enrichment cultures and selective media was pioneered by ________.
A) Beijerinck
B) Jenner
C) Pasteur
D) von Behring
Answer: A
and Winogradsky
30) Fanny Hesse first suggested that agar be used to solidify microbiological media.
Answer: TRUE
ASM Topic: Module 03 Metabolic Pathways; Module 06 Impact of Microorganisms
Learning Outcome: 01.03c Predict the difficulties that might arise when using Koch's postulates
to determine if a microbe causes a disease unique to humans
13
31) M. J. Berkeley demonstrated that the great potato blight of Ireland was caused by a water
mold (then thought to be a fungus).
Answer: TRUE
and Winogradsky
32) Invisible living creatures were thought to exist and cause disease long before they were ever
observed.
Answer: TRUE
and Winogradsky
33) Koch's postulates were instrumental in establishing that the intracellular parasite
Mycobacterium leprae is the causative organism of leprosy.
Answer: FALSE
14
34) Edward Jenner's work in preventing rabies led to the use of the term vaccination to describe a
type of procedure used in the prevention of disease.
Answer: FALSE
and Winogradsky
35) Although developed over 100 years ago, Koch's postulates continue to be used successfully
in all known human infectious diseases.
Answer: FALSE
36) Viruses and bacteria were first cultured in the laboratory at about the same time.
Answer: FALSE
and Winogradsky
15
37) Charles Chamberland developed porcelain filters that allowed other scientists to demonstrate
that viruses are smaller than bacteria.
Answer: TRUE
ASM Topic: Module 07 Scientific Thinking
ASM Objective: 07.01b Ability to apply the process of science: Analyze and interpret results
from a variety of microbiological methods and apply these methods to analogous situations.
and Winogradsky
38) The first disease to be identified as being caused by a virus was tobacco mosaic disease.
Answer: TRUE
39) John Tyndall demonstrated that microorganisms present in the air are carried on dust
particles.
Answer: TRUE
ASM Objective: 05.01 Microorganisms are ubiquitous and live in diverse and dynamic
ecosystems.
and Winogradsky
16
40) Agostino Bassi demonstrated that a type of silkworm disease was caused by a fungus and
proposed that many diseases are caused by microorganisms.
Answer: TRUE
and Winogradsky
41) The usefulness of agar in solidifying microbiological growth media is limited because it does
not remain solid at temperatures above 28oC.
Answer: FALSE
and Winogradsky
42) Robert Koch developed a vaccine that could be used to prevent anthrax.
Answer: FALSE
and Winogradsky
17
43) Elie Metchnikoff discovered ________, which is a major feature of the host immune
response.
Answer: phagocytosis
and Winogradsky
44) An Italian physician, ________, challenged the concept of spontaneous generation by

demonstrating that maggots do not arise from decaying meat but rather from developing fly eggs.
Answer: Redi
and Winogradsky
45) ________ discovered that soil bacteria could oxidize iron, sulfur, and ammonia to obtain
energy.
Answer: Winogradsky
and Winogradsky
18
46) ________ was the first to isolate a root nodule bacterium capable of nitrogen fixation.
Answer: Beijerinck
and Winogradsky
47) The endosymbiotic hypothesis is generally accepted as the origin of eukaryotic organelles.
Answer: TRUE
ASM Objective: 01.01 Cells, organelles (e.g. mitochondria and chloroplasts) and all major
metabolic pathways evolved from early prokaryotic cells.
Learning Outcome: 01.02a Propose a timeline of the origin and history of microbial life and
integrate supporting evidence into it
48) The relationship between specific bacteria and specific diseases was first demonstrated by
Koch.
Answer: TRUE
and Winogradsky
19
49) Some microorganisms are useful in bioremediation processes that reduce the effects of
pollution.
Answer: TRUE
Topic: Bacteria
ASM Topic: Module 06 Impact of Microorganisms
ASM Objective: 06.01 Microbes are essential for life as we know it and the processes that
support life (e.g. in biogeochemical cycles and plant and / or animal microbiota).
Learning Outcome: 01.04a Construct a concept map, table, or drawing that illustrates the
diverse nature of microbiology and how it has improved human conditions
50) The branch of microbiology that deals with diseases of humans and animals is called
________ microbiology.
Answer: medical
Learning Outcome: 01.04b Discuss the belief held by many microbiologists that microbiology
is experiencing its second golden age
51) The branch of microbiology that deals with the mechanisms by which the human body
protects itself from disease-causing organisms is called ________.
Answer: immunology
Learning Outcome: 01.04b Discuss the belief held by many microbiologists that microbiology
is experiencing its second golden age
20
52) ________ ________ microbiologists monitor community food establishments and water
supplies in order to control the spread of communicable diseases.
Answer: Public health

53) The branch of microbiology that studies the relationship between microorganisms and their
habitats is called ________ ________.
Answer: microbial ecology

ASM Objective: 05.03 Microorganisms and their environment interact with and modify each
other.
54) ________ microbiology involves the use of microorganisms to make products such as
antibiotics, vaccines, steroids, alcohols, vitamins, amino acids, and enzymes.
Answer: Industrial
ASM Topic: Module 06 Impact of Microorganisms
ASM Objective: 06.03 Humans utilize and harness microorganisms and their products.
21
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Fig. 16.—Summit of Vesuvius in 1848.
In 1843, we find that the crater of Vesuvius contained three such
small cones arranged in a line along its bottom as depicted in fig. 16.
These drawings of the summit of Vesuvius give a fair notion of
the changes which have been continually going on there during the
whole of the historical period. Ever and anon a grand outburst, like
that of 1822, has produced a vast and deep crater such as is
represented in fig. 13, and then a long continuance of quiet and
regular ejections has built up within the crater small cones like those
shown in figs. 14, 15 and 16, till at last the great crater has been
completely filled up, and the cone reconstructed.
Fig. 17.—Outlines of Vesuvius, showing its Form at different periods of its

history.
In the series of outlines in fig. 17, we have CHANGES IN

endeavoured to illustrate the succession of changes OUTLINE OF
VESUVIUS.
which has taken place in Vesuvius during historical
times. In the year 79 one side of the crater-wall of the vast
mountain-mass was blown away. Subsequent ejections built up the
present cone of Vesuvius within the great encircling crater-wall of
Somma, and the form of this cone and the crater at its summit have
been undergoing continual changes during the successive eruptions
of eighteen centuries.
What its future history may be we can only conjecture from
analogy. It may be that a long continuance of eruptions of moderate
energy may gradually raise the central cone till its sides are
confluent with those of the original mountain; or it may be that
some violent paroxysm will entirely destroy the modern cone,
reducing the mountain to the condition in which it was after the
great outburst of 79. On the other hand, if the volcanic forces under
Vesuvius are gradually becoming extinct (but of this we have
certainly no evidence at present), the mountain may gradually sink
into a state of quiescence, retaining its existing form.
The series of changes in the shape of Vesuvius, which are proved
by documentary evidence to have been going on during the last
2,000 years, probably find their parallel in all active volcanoes. In all
of these, as we shall hereafter show, the activity of the vents
undergoes great vicissitudes. Periods of continuous moderate activity
alternate with short and violent paroxysmal outbursts and intervals
of complete rest, which may in some cases last for hundreds or even
thousands of years. During the periods of continuous moderate
activity, the crater of the volcano is slowly filled up by the growth of
smaller cones within it; and the height of the mountain is raised. By
the terrible paroxysmal outbursts the mountain is often completely
gutted and its summit blown away; but the materials thus removed
from the top and centre of the mass are for the most part spread
over its aides, so that its bulk and the area of its base are thereby
increased. During the intervals of rest, the sides of the mountain
which are so largely composed of loose and pulverulent materials
are washed downwards by rains and driven about by winds. Thus all
volcanoes in a state of activity are continually growing in size every
ejection, except in the case of those where the materials are in the
finest state of subdivision, adding to their bulk; the area of their
bases being increased during paroxysmal outbursts, and their height
during long-continued moderate eruptions.
We have pointed out that the conical form of
DEVIATIONS
volcanic mountains is due to the slipping of the falling FROM CONICAL
materials over one another till they attain the angle at FORM.
which they can rest. There are, however, some
deviations from this regular conical form of volcanoes which it may
be well to refer to.
The quantity of rain which falls during volcanic eruptions is often
enormous, owing to the condensation of the great volumes of steam
emitted from the vent. Consequently the falling lapilli and dust often
descend upon the mountain, not in a dry state but in the condition
of a muddy paste. Many volcanic mountains have evidently been
built up by the flow of successive masses of such muddy paste over
their surfaces. Some volcanic materials when mixed with water have
the property of rapidly 'setting' like concrete. The ancient Romans
and modern Italians, well acquainted with this property of certain
kinds of volcanic dust and lapilli, have in all ages employed this
'puzzolana,' as it is called, as mortar for building. The volcanic muds
have often set in their natural positions, so as to form a rock, which,
though light and porous, is of tolerably firm consistency. To this kind
of rock, of which Naples and many other cities are built, the name of
'tuff' or 'tufa' is applied. A similar material is known in Northern
Germany as 'trass.'
The cause of the 'setting' of puzzolana and tufa is that rain-water
containing a small proportion of carbonic acid acts on the lime in the
volcanic fragments, and these become cemented together by the
carbonate of lime and the free silica, which are thus produced in the
mass.
When a strong wind is blowing during a volcanic outburst, the
materials may be driven to one side of the vent, and accumulate
there more rapidly than on the other. Thus lop-sided cones are
formed, such as may frequently be observed in some volcanic
districts. In areas where constant currents of air, like the trade-
winds, prevail, all the scoria-cones of the district may thus be found
to be unequally developed on opposite sides, being lowest on those
from which the prevalent winds blow, and highest on the sides
towards which these winds blow.
The examination of any careful drawing, or better
ANGLE OF
still of the photograph, of a volcanic cone, will prove SLOPE IN
that the profile of such cones is not formed by straight VOLCANIC
CONES.
lines, but by curves often of a delicate and beautiful
character. The delineations of the sacred volcano of Fusiyama, which
are so constantly found in the productions of Japanese artists, must
have familiarised everyone with the elegant curved lines exhibited by
the profiles of volcanoes. The upper slope of the mountain is
comparatively steep, often exhibiting angles of 30° to 35°, but this
steepness of slope gradually diminishes, till it eventually merges in
the surrounding plains. The cause of this elegant form assumed by
most volcanic mountains is probably two-fold. In the first place we
have to remember that the materials falling upon the flanks of the
mountain differ in size and shape, and some will rest on a steeper
slope than others. Thus, while some of the materials remain on the
upper part of the mountains, others are rolling outwards and
downwards. Hence we find that those cones which are composed of
uniform materials have straight sides. But in some cases, we shall
see hereafter, there has certainly been a central subsidence of the
mountain mass, and it is this subsidence which has probably given
rise to the curvature of its flanks.
We have hitherto considered only the methods by which the froth
or foam, which accumulates on the surface of fluid lava, is
dispersed. But in many cases not only is this scum of the lava
ejected from the volcanic vent by the escaping steam, but the fluid
lava itself is extruded forcibly, and often in enormous quantities.
The lava in a volcanic vent is always in a highly heated, usually
incandescent, condition. Seen by night, its freshly exposed surface is
glowing red, sometimes apparently white-hot. But by exposure to
the atmosphere the surface is rapidly chilled, appearing dull red by
night, and black by day. Many persons are surprised to find that a
flowing stream of lava presents the appearance of a great mass of
rough cinders, rolling along with a rattling sound, owing to the
striking of the clinker-like fragments against each other. When
viewed by night, the gleaming, red light between these rough,
cindery masses betrays the presence of incandescent materials
below the chilled surface of the lava-stream.
No fact in connection with lavas is more striking than the varying
degrees of liquidity presented by them in different cases. While
some lava-streams seem to resemble rivers, the material flowing
rapidly along, filling every channel in its course, and deluging the
whole country around, others would be more fitly compared to
glaciers, creeping along at so slow a rate that the fact of their
movement can only be demonstrated by the most careful
observation. Even when falling over a precipice such lavas, owing to
their imperfect liquidity, form heavy, pendent masses like a
'guttering' candle, as is shown by fig. 18, which is taken from a
drawing kindly furnished to me by Capt. S. P. Oliver, R.A. The causes
of these differences in the rate of motion of lava-streams we must
proceed to consider.
Fig. 18.—Cascade of Lava tumbling over a cliff in the

Island of Bourbon.
There can be no doubt that the temperature of
TEMPERATURE
lavas varies greatly in different cases. This is shown by OF LAVA-
the fact that while some lavas are in a state of STREAMS.
complete fusion, similar to that of the slags of
furnaces, and like the latter, such lavas on cooling form a glassy
mass, others consist of a liquid magma in which a larger or smaller
number of crystals are found floating. In these latter cases the
temperature of the magma must be below the fusing-point of the
minerals which exist in a crystalline condition in its midst. It has
indeed been suggested that the whole of the crystals in lavas are
formed during the cooling down of a completely fused mass; but no
one can imagine that the enclosed crystals of quartz, felspar, leucite,
olivine, &c., have been so formed, such crystals being sometimes
more than an inch in diameter. The microscopic examination of lavas
usually enables us to discriminate between those complete crystals
which have been formed at great depths and carried up to the
surface, and the minute crystalline particles and microliths which
have been developed in the glassy mass during cooling. Crystals of
the former class, indeed, exhibit abundant evidence, in their liquid
cavities and other peculiarities, that they have not been formed by
simple cooling from a state of fusion, but under the combined action
of heat, the presence of water and various gases, and intense
pressure.
As we have already seen, the different lavas vary greatly in their
degrees of fusibility. The basic lavas, containing a low percentage of
silica, are much more fusible than the acid lavas, which contain a
high percentage of silica. When the basic lavas are reduced to a
complete state of fusion their liquidity is sometimes very perfect, as
is the case at Kilauea in Hawaii, where the lava is thrown up into jets
and fountains, falling in minute drops, and being drawn out into fine
glassy threads. On the other hand, the less fusible acid lavas appear
to be usually only reduced to the viscous or pasty condition, which
artificial glasses assume long before their complete fusion. Of this
fact I have found many proofs in the Lipari Islands, where such
glassy, acid lavas abound. In fig. 6 (page 43) a lava-stream is
represented on the side of the cone of Vulcano.
This lava is an obsidian—that is to say, it is of the
IMPERFECTLY
add type and completely glassy—but its liquidity must FLUID LAVAS.
have been very imperfect, seeing that the stream has
come to a standstill before reaching the bottom of a steep slope of
about 35°. In fig. 19 there is given a side view of the same stream
of obsidian, from which it will be seen that it has flowed slowly down
a steep slope and heaped itself up at the bottom, as its fluidity was
not complete enough to enable it to move on a slighter incline. An
examination of the interior of such imperfectly fluid lavas affords
fresh proofs of the slow and tortuous movements of the mass.
Everywhere we find that the bands of crystallites and sphærulites
are, by the movement of the mass, folded and crumpled and
puckered in the most remarkable manner, as is illustrated in figs. 20
and 21. Similar appearances occur again and again among the
vitreous and semi-vitreous acid lavas of Hungary.
Fig. 19.—Lava-stream (obsidian) in the Island of Vulcano

showing the imperfect liquidity of the mass.
Fig. 20.—Interior of a Rhyolitic Lava-
stream in the Island of Lipari, showing
broad sigmoidal folds produced by the
slow movements of the mass.
Fig. 21.—Interior of a Rhyolitic

Lava-stream in the Island of Lipari,
showing the complicated crumplings
and puckerings produced by the slow
movements of the mass.
But, although the temperature of lava-streams and RATE OF

the fusibility of their materials may in some cases MOVEMENT OF
VESUVIAN
account for their condition of either perfect liquidity or LAVAS.
viscidity, it is clear that in other instances there must
be some other cause for this difference. Thus it has been found that
at Vesuvius the lavas erupted in modern times have all a striking
similarity to one another in chemical composition, in the minerals
which they contain, and in their structure. They are all basic lavas,
which when examined by the microscope are seen to consist of a
more or less glassy magma, in the midst of which numerous crystals
of augite, leucite, olivine, magnetite, and other minerals are
scattered. Yet nothing can be more strikingly different than the
behaviour of the lavas poured out from Vesuvius at various periods.
In some cases the lava appears to be in such a perfectly liquid
condition that, issuing from the crater, it has been described as
rushing down the slope of the cone like a stream of water, and such
exceedingly liquid lavas have in some cases flowed to the distance of
several miles from the base of the mountain in a very short time. But
other Vesuvian lavas have been in such a viscid condition that their
rate of movement has been so extremely slow as to be almost
imperceptible. Such lava-streams have continued in movement
during many years, but the progress has been so slow (often only a
few inches in a day) that it could only be proved by means of careful
measurements.
If we examine some of these Vesuvian lavas which have
exhibited such striking differences in their rate of flow, we shall find
that they present equally marked differences in the character of their
surfaces. The lava-current of 1858 was a remarkable example of a
slow-flowing stream, and its surface, as will be seen in fig. 22, which
is taken from a photograph, has a very marked and peculiar
character. A tenacious crust seems to have formed on the surface,
and by the further motion of the mass this crust or scum has been
wrinkled and folded in a very remarkable manner. Sometimes this
folded and twisted crust presents a striking resemblance to coils of
rope. Precisely similar appearances may be observed on the surface
of many artificial slags when they flow from furnaces, and are seen
to be due to the same cause, namely, the wrinkling up of the chilled
surface-crust by the movement of the liquid mass below. Lavas
which present this appearance are frequently called 'ropy lavas'; an
admirable example of them is afforded in the lava-cascade of the
Island of Bourbon represented in fig. 18 (page 93).
But lavas in which the rate of flow has been very rapid, exhibit
quite a different kind of surface to that of the ropy lavas. The
Vesuvian lava-stream of 1872 was remarkable for the rapidity of its
flow, and its surface presents a remarkable contrast to that of the
slow-moving lava of 1858. The surface of the lava-current of 1872 is
covered with rough cindery masses, often of enormous dimensions,
and it is exceedingly difficult to traverse it, as the ragged projecting
fragments tear the boots and lacerate the skin. The appearance
presented by this lava-stream is illustrated by fig. 23, which is also
taken from a photograph.
Fig. 22.—Vesuvian Lava-stream of 1858, exhibiting the
peculiar 'Ropy' Surfaces of Slowly Moving Currents.
(From a Photograph.)
Fig. 23.—Vesuvian Lava-stream of 1872, exhibiting the
Rough Cindery Surfaces characteristic of Rapidly Flowing
Currents.
(From a Photograph.)
Now it is found that those lava-streams which move
VESUVIAN
slowly and present ropy surfaces give off but little LAVA-STREAM
steam during their flow, while those lava-streams which
flow more rapidly and present a rough and cindery OF 1872.
appearance give off vast quantities of steam. The extraordinary
amount of vapour given off from the lava-streams which flowed from
Vesuvius in 1872 is illustrated in the photograph copied in fig. 5
(facing page 24), in which the three lava-currents are each seen to
be surmounted by enormous vapour-clouds rising to the height of
several thousands of feet above them, and mingling with the column
that issued from the central vent. By the escape of this enormous
quantity of steam the surface of the lava was thrown into rugged
cindery projections, and in some places little cones were formed
upon it, which threw out small scoriæ and dust. The quantity of
vapour was, in fact, so great, that little parasitical volcanoes were
formed on the surface of the lava-stream. Some of these miniature
volcanoes were of such small dimensions that they were carried
away on boards to be employed as illustrations in the lecture-rooms
of the University of Naples.
The arrangement of the materials forced out from fissures on the
surfaces of lava-streams by the disengaged vapours and gases
depends on the degree of fluidity of the lava, and the force of the
escaping steam-jets. In very viscous lavas the materials may issue
quietly, forming great concentric masses like coils of rope; such were
described by Mr. Heaphy as occurring in New Zealand (see fig. 24).
Fig. 24.—Concentric Folds on mass of cooled

Lava.
In other cases the lava, if somewhat more liquid, may in issuing
quietly without great outbursts of steam, accumulate in great bottle-
shaped masses, which have been compared to 'petrified fountains.'
Cases of this kind have been described by Professor Dana as
occurring on the slopes of Hawaii (see fig. 25).
Fig. 25.—Mass of cooled Lava formed
Hawaii.
over a spiracle on the slopes of
When the steam escapes with explosive violence

MINIATURE
from a spiracle ('bocca') on the surface of a lava- CONES ON
stream, minute cinder cones, like those described as LAVA-STREAMS.
being formed in 1872, are the result. Fig. 26 represents
a group of miniature cones thrown up on the Vesuvian lava-stream
of 1855: it is taken from a drawing by Schmidt.
Fig. 26.—Group of small Cones thrown up on the Vesuvian

Lava-current of 1856.
Some of these appear like burst blisters or bubbles, while others
are built up of scoriaceous masses which have been ejected from the
aperture and have become united while in a semi-fluid condition.
Other examples of these spiracles or bocche on the surfaces of lava-
currents may be seen in the figs. 22 and 23, which are copied from
photographs.
The facts we have described all point to the conclusion that the
presence of large quantities of water imprisoned in a mass of lava
contributes greatly to its mobility. And this conclusion is supported
by so many other considerations that it is now very generally
accepted by geologists. The condition of this imprisoned water in
lavas is one which demands further investigation at the hands of
physicists. It has been suggested, with some show of reason, that
the water may exist in the midst of the red-hot lava as minute
particles in the curious 'spheroidal condition' of Boutigny, and that
these flash into steam as the lava flows along.
Lava, when extruded from a volcanic crater in a more or less
completely fluid state, flows down the side of the cone, and then
finds its way along any channel or valley that may lie in its course,
obeying in its movements all the laws of fluid bodies. The lava-
currents thus formed are sometimes of enormous dimensions, and
may flood the whole country for many miles around the vent.
Lava-streams have been described, which have flowed for a
distance of from fifty to a hundred miles from their source, and
which have had a breadth varying from ten to twenty miles. Some
lava-streams have a thickness of 500 feet, or even more. These
measures will give some idea of the enormous quantities of material
brought from the earth's interior by volcanic action and distributed
over its surface. The mass of lava which flowed out during an
eruption off Reykjanes in Iceland, in the year 1783, has been
calculated to be equal in bulk to Mont Blanc.
There are many parts of the earth's surface, such as the Western
Isles of Scotland and the North-east of Ireland, the Deccan of India,
and large tracts in the Rocky Mountains, where successive lava-
sheets have been piled upon one another to the height of several
thousands of feet, and cover areas of many hundreds or even
thousands of square miles.
The more fusible basic lavas are as a general rule
FEATURES OF
more liquid in character than any others, and it is these LAVA-STREAMS.
very liquid lavas that are usually found forming
plateaux built up of successive lava-streams. The less liquid lavas,
like those of Hungary and Bohemia, are not usually found flowing to
such distances from the vent, but form dome-shaped mountain-
masses.
Lava-streams usually exhibit in their upper and under surfaces a
scoriaceous texture due to the escape of steam from the upper
surface, portions of the cindery masses so formed falling off from
the end of the stream, and being rolled over by the stream so as to
form its base. The thickness of this scoriaceous upper and lower part
of a lava-stream varies according to the quantity of steam
imprisoned in it; but all thick lava-streams have a compact central
portion which is composed of hard, solid rock. Very good examples
of the internal structure of lava-streams may sometimes be
examined in the sea-cliffs of volcanic islands. In fig. 27 we have
given a copy of a drawing made while sailing round the shores of
Vulcano. The scoriaceous portions of lava-streams are sometimes
employed, as at Volvic in the Auvergne, as a building material, or as
at Neidermendig in the Eifel and in Hungary for mill-stones; the
compact portions are employed for building and paving, and for road
metal. The rock of some of the modern lava-streams of Vesuvius is
largely quarried for paving the streets of Naples.
This solid portion of the lava-streams in slowly cooling down from
its highly-heated condition undergoes contraction, and in
consequence is rent asunder by a number of cracks. Sometimes
these cracks assume a wonderfully regular arrangement, and the
rock may be broken up into very symmetrical masses.
Fig. 27.—Natural section of a Lava-stream in the Island of
Vulcano, showing the compact central portion and the
scoriaceous upper and under surfaces.
If we imagine a great sheet of heated material, like COLUMNAR

a lava-stream, slowly cooling down, it is evident that STRUCTURE OF
LAVAS.
the contraction which must take place in it will tend to
produce fissures breaking up the mass into prisms. A little
consideration will convince us what the form of these prisms must
be. There are only three regular figures into which a surface can be
divided, namely, equilateral triangles, squares, and regular
hexagons; the first being produced by the intersection of sets of six
lines radiating at angles of 60° from certain centres; the second by
the intersection of sets of four lines radiating from centres at angles
of 90°; and the third from sets of three lines radiating from centres
at an angle of 120°. It is evident that a less amount of contractile
force will be required to produce the sets of three cracks rather than
those of four or six cracks; or, in other words, the contractile force in
a mass will be competent to produce the cracks which give rise to
hexagons rather than those which form squares or triangles. This is
no doubt the reason why the prisms formed by the cooling of lava,
as well as those produced during the drying of starch or clay, are
hexagonal in form.
The hexagonal prisms or columns formed by contraction during
the consolidation of lavas vary greatly in size, according to the rate
of cooling, the nature of the materials, and the conditions affecting
the mass. Sometimes such columns may be found having a diameter
of eight or ten feet and a length of five hundred feet, as in the
Shiant Isles lying to the north of the Island of Skye; in other cases,
as in certain volcanic glasses, minute columns, an inch or two in
length and scarcely thicker than a needle, are formed; and examples
of almost every intermediate grade between these two extremes
may sometimes be found. The largest columns are those which are
formed in very slowly cooling masses.
The columnar structure is exhibited by all kinds of lava, and
indeed in other rock-masses which have been heated by contact
with igneous masses and gradually cooled. The rocks which display
the structure in greatest perfection, however, are the basalts.
Mr. Scrope first called attention to the fact that the upper and
lower portions of lava-streams sometimes cool in very different
ways, and hence produce columns of dissimilar character. The lower
portion of the mass parts with its heat very slowly, by conduction to
the underlying rocks, while the upper portions radiate heat more
irregularly into the surrounding atmosphere. Hence we often find the
lower portions of thick lava-streams to be formed of stout, vertical
columns of great regularity; while the upper part is made up of
smaller and less regular columns, as shown in fig. 28.
Fig. 28.—Section of a Lava-stream exposed on the

side of the river Ardèche, in the south-west of
France.
The remarkable grotto known as Fingal's Cave in the Island of
Staffa has been formed in the midst of a lava-stream such as we
have been describing; the thick vertical columns, which rise from
beneath the level of the sea, are divided by joints and have been
broken away by the action of the sea; in this way a great cavern has
been produced, the sides of which are formed by vertical columns,
while the roof is made up of smaller and interlacing ones. The whole
structure bears some resemblance to a Gothic cathedral; the sea
finding access to its floor of broken columns, and permitting the
entrance of a boat during fine weather. Similar, though perhaps less
striking, structures are found in many other parts of the globe
wherever basaltic and other lava-streams exhibit the remarkable
columnar structure as the result of their slow cooling. Portions of
basaltic columns are often employed for posts by the road-sides, as
in Central Germany and Bohemia, or for paving stones, as in Pompeii
and at the Monte Albano near Rome.
Fig. 29.—Portion
of a Basaltic
Column from the
Giant's Causeway,
exhibiting both the
ball-and-socket and
the tenon-and-
mortise structures.
Occasionally basaltic lava-streams exhibit other

OTHER JOINT-
curious structures in addition to the columnar. Thus STRUCTURES
some basaltic columns are found divided into regular IN LAVAS.
joints by equidistant, curved surfaces, the joints thus
fitting into one another by a kind of ball-and-socket arrangement.
Sometimes we find processes projecting from the angles of the
curved joint-surfaces, which cause the blocks to fit together as with
a tenon and mortise. This kind of structure is admirably displayed at
the Giant's Causeway, Co. Antrim, in the North of Ireland. A portion
of a basaltic column from this locality is represented in fig. 29.
Fig. 30.—Vein of green Pitchstone, at Chiaja
di Luna in the Island of Ponza, breaking up
into regular columns, and into spherical
masses with a concentric series of joints.
While the ordinary columnar structures are very common in

basalts, the ball-and-socket and tenon-and-mortise structures are
exceedingly rare. The question of the mode of origin of these
remarkable structures has given rise to much discussion, and the
opinions of geologists and physicists are by no means unanimous
upon the subject.
Sometimes we find masses of lava traversed by curved joints,
and occasionally we find curious combinations of curved and plane
joints, giving rise to appearances scarcely less remarkable than
those presented by the columns of the Giant's Causeway. Some of
the more striking examples of this kind have been described and
explained by Professor Bonney.
Fig. 31.—Illustration of the 'Perlitic structure' in glassy
Rocks.
a. Perlltic structure, as seen in a lava from Hungary.
b. The same structure, artificially produced in Canada
Balsam during cooling.
In the Ponza Islands there occurs a remarkable PERLITIC-
example of a columnar pitchstone, which is also STRUCTURE IN
LAVAS.
traversed by a member of curved concentric joints,
causing the rock to break up into pieces like the coats of an onion.
This remarkable rock-mass is represented in fig. 30.
A very similar structure is often seen in certain glassy lavas,
when they are examined in thin sections under the microscope. Such
glassy lavas exhibit the peculiar lustre of mother-of-pearly doubtless
in consequence of the interference of light along the cracks. Lavas
exhibiting this character are known to geologists as 'perlites.' The
perlitic structure has been produced artificially by Mr. Grenville Cole
in Canada Balsam, and by MM. Fonqué and Michel Lévy, in
chemically deposited silica. See fig. 31.
A thick lava-stream must take an enormous period to cool down
—probably many hundreds or even thousands of years. It is possible
to walk over lava-streams in which at a few inches below the surface
the rock is still red-hot, so that a piece of stick is lighted if thrust into
a crack. Lava is a very bad conductor of heat, and loose scoriæ and
dust are still worse conductors. During the eruption of Vesuvius in
1872, masses of snow which were covered with a thick layer of
scoriæ, and afterwards by a stream of lava, were found three years
afterwards consolidated into ice, but not melted. The city of Catania
is constantly supplied with ice from masses of snow which have
been buried under the ejections of Etna.
During the cooling down of lavas, the escape of steam and
various gases gives rise to the deposition of many beautiful
crystalline substances in the cavities and on the surfaces of the lava.
Deposits of sulphur, specular-iron, tridymite, and many other
substances are often thus produced, and the colour and appearance
of the rock-masses are sometimes completely disguised by these
surface incrustations, or by the decomposition of the materials of the
lava by the action of the add gases, and vapours upon it.
Very frequently the surface of a lava-stream
SINKING OF
becomes solid, while the deeper portions retain their SURFACES OF
fluid condition; under such circumstances the central LAVA-STREAMS.
portions may flow away, leaving a great hollow
chamber or cavern. In consequence of this action, we not
unfrequently find the upper surface of a lava-current exhibiting a
depression, due to the falling in of the solidified upper portions when
the liquid lava has flowed away and left it unsupported, as in fig. 32.
Fig. 32.—Transverse section of a Lava stream.

(The dotted line indicates the original
surface.)
CHAPTER V
THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF VOLCANIC
MOUNTAINS.
Near the high-road which passes between the towns of Eger and
Franzenbad in Bohemia, there rises a small hill known as the
Kammerbühl (see fig. 33), which has attracted to itself an amount of
interest and attention quite out of proportion to its magnitude or
importance. During the latter part of the last century and the earlier
years of the present one, the fiercest controversies were waged
between the partisans of rival schools of cosmogony over this
insignificant hill; some maintaining that it originated in the
combustion of a bed of coal, others that its materials were entirely
formed by some kind of 'aqueous precipitation,' and others again
that the hill was the relic of a small volcanic cone.
Among those who took a very active part in this controversy was
the poet Goethe, who stoutly maintained the volcanic origin of the
Kammerbühl, styling it 'a pocket edition of a volcano.' To Goethe
belongs the merit of having suggested a Very simple method by
which the controversies concerning this hill might be set at rest: he
proposed that a series of excavations should be undertaken around
the hill, and a tunnel driven right under its centre.
Fig. 33.—The Kammerbühl of Kammerberg, Bohemia.
(As seen from the south-west)
The poet's friend, Count Caspar von Sternberg, THE
determined to put this project into execution. This KAMMERBÜHL.
series of excavations, which was completed in 1837,
has for ever set at rest all doubts as to the volcanic origin of the
Kammerbühl. A plug of basalt was found filling the centre of the
mass, and connected with a small lava-stream flowing down the side
of the hill; while the bulk of the hill was shown to be composed of
volcanic scoriæ and lapilli. The section fig. 34 will illustrate the
structure of the hill as revealed by these interesting excavations.
Fig. 34.—Section of the Kammerbühl, in Bohemia.
a a. Metamorphic rocks. b. Basaltic scoriæ. c. Solid plug of
basalt rising through the centre of the volcanic pile, d d.
Lava-stream composed of the same rock. e e. Alluvial
matter surrounding the old volcano.
(The dotted lines indicate the probable former outline of
the volcano.)
It can of course very seldom happen that actual VOLCANOES
mining operations, like those undertaken in the case of DISSECTED BY
DENUDATION.
the Kammerbühl, will be resorted to in order to
determine the structure of volcanic mountains. Geologists have
usually to avail themselves of less direct, but by no means less
certain, methods than that of making artificial excavations in order
to investigate the earth's crust. Fortunately it happens that what we
cannot accomplish ourselves, nature does for us. The action which
we call 'denudation' serves as a scalpel to dissect volcanic mountains
for us, and to expose their inner recesses to our view. Many portions
of the earth's surface are complete museums crowded with volcanic
'subjects,' exhibiting every stage of the process of dissection. In
some, rains and winds have stripped off the loose covering of
cinders and dust, and exposed the harder and more solid parts—the
skeleton of the mountain. In others, the work of destruction has
proceeded still further, and slowly wearing rivers or the waves of the
sea may have cut perfect, vertical sections of the mountain-mass.
Sometimes the removal of the materials of the volcanic mountain
has gone on to such an extent that its base and ground-plan are
fully exposed. It only requires the necessary skill in piecing together
our observations on these dissected volcanoes, in order to arrive at
just views concerning the 'comparative anatomy' of volcanoes. As
the knowledge of the structure of animals remained in the most
rudimentary condition until the practice of dissection was
commenced, so our knowledge of volcanoes was likewise
exceedingly imperfect till geologists availed themselves of the
opportunities afforded to them of studying naturally dissected
volcanic mountains.
In some cases we may find that the sea has encroached on the
base of a volcanic hill, till one half of it has been washed away, and
the structure of the mass to its very centre is exposed to our view.
Thus in fig. 6 (page 43), it will be seen that there lies in front of
Vulcano a peninsula called Vulcanello, consisting of three volcanic
cones, united at their base, with the lava-streams which have flowed
from them. One half of the cone on the left-hand side of the picture
has been completely washed away by the sea, and a perfect section
of the internal structure of the cone is exposed. The appearances
presented in this section are shown in the sketch, fig. 35. Some
portions of the face of this section are concealed by the heaps of
fragments which have fallen from it, but enough is visible to
convince us that three kinds of structures go to make up the cone.
In the first place, we have the loose scoriæ and lapilli, which in
falling through the air have arranged themselves in tolerably regular
layers upon the sides of the cone.
Fig. 35.—Natural section or a Volcanic Cone in the Island
of Vulcano.
a. Crater. b b. Lava-streams. c. Dykes which have
clearly formed the ducts, through which the lava has
risen to the crater. d d. Stratified volcanic scoriæ. e.
Talus of fallen materials.
In the second place, we have lava-streams which have been
ejected from the crater or from fissures on the flanks of the cone,
and flowed down its sides. And thirdly, we find masses of lava filling
up cracks in the cone; these latter are called 'dykes.' Of these three
kinds of structures most volcanic mountains are built up, but in
different cases the part played by these several elements may be
very unequal. Sometimes volcanoes consist entirely of fragmentary
materials, at others they are made up of lavas only, while in the
majority of cases they have been formed by alternations of
fragmentary and fluid ejections, the whole being bound together by
dykes, which are masses of lava injected into the cracks formed from
time to time in the sides of the growing cone.
If we direct our attention in the first place to the fragmentary
ejections, we shall find that they affect a very marked and peculiar
arrangement, which is best exhibited in those volcanic cones
composed entirely of such materials.
Everyone who examines volcanoes for the first time
INTERNAL
will probably be struck by the regular stratification of STRUCTURE OF
materials of which they are composed. Thus the tuffs VOLCANIC
CONES.
covering the city of Pompeii are found to consist of
numerous thin layers of lapilli and volcanic dust, perfectly distinct
from one another, and assuming even the arrangement which we
usually regard as characteristic of materials that have been
deposited from a state of suspension in water. The fragmentary
materials in falling through the air are sorted, the finer particles
being carried farther from the vent than the larger and heavier ones.
The force of different volcanic outbursts also varies greatly, and
sometimes materials of different character are thrown out during
successive ejections. These facts will be illustrated by fig. 36, which
is a drawing of a section exposed in a quarry opened in the side of
the Kammerbühl. In this section we see that the falling scoriæ have
been arranged in rudely parallel beds, but the regular deposition of
these has been interrupted by the ejection of masses of burnt slate
torn from the side of the vent, probably during some more than
usually violent paroxysm of the volcano. In those volcanoes which
are built up of tuffs and materials which have fallen in the condition
of a muddy paste, the perfect stratification of the mass is often very
striking indeed, and large cones are found built up of thin uniformly-
spread layers of more or less finely-divided materials, disposed in
parallel succession. Such finely-stratified tuff-cones abound in the
district of the Campi Phlegræi.
Fig. 36.—Section in the side of the
Kammerbühl, Bohemia.
a a. stratified basaltic scoriæ. b b.
Bands made up of fragments of burnt
slate. c. Stratified basaltic scoriæ. d d.
Pseudo-dykes occupying lines of fault.
If, in consequence of any subterranean movements,
ARRANGEMENT
fissures are produced in the sides of the cones formed OF
of fragmentary materials, these often become gradually FRAGMENTAL
MATERIALS.
filled with loose fragments from the sides of the
fissure, and in this manner 'pseudo-dykes' are formed. An example
of such pseudo-dykes is represented in fig. 36, where the beds
composing the volcanic cone of the Kammerbühl are seen to have
been broken across or faulted, and the fissures produced in the
mass have been gradually filled with loose fragments.
It is not difficult to imitate, on a small scale, the conditions which
exist at those volcanic vents from which only fragmentary materials
are ejected. If we take a board having a hole in its centre, into
which a pipe is inserted conveying a strong air-blast, we shall, by
introducing some light material like bran or sawdust into this pipe
cause an ejection of fragments, which will, when the board is placed
horizontally, fall around the orifice of the pipe and accumulate there
in a conical heap (fig. 37). It will be found necessary, as was shown
by Mr. Woodward, who performed the experiment before the
Physical Society, to adopt some contrivance, such as a screw, for
forcing the material into the air-pipe. If we alternately introduce
materials of different colours, like mahogany- and deal-sawdust into
the pipe, these materials will be arranged in layers which can be
easily recognised, and the mode of accumulation of the mass will be
evident. By means of a sheet of tin or cardboard we may divide this
miniature volcanic cone vertically into two portions, and if we sweep
one of these away the internal structure of the other half will be
clearly displayed before our eyes.
In this way we shall find that the conical heap of sawdust with
the hole in its centre has a very peculiar and definite arrangement of
its materials. It is made up of a number of layers each of which
slopes in opposite directions, towards the centre of ejection and
away from that centre. These layers are thickest along the line of the
circle where the change in slope takes place, and they thin away in
the direction of the two opposite slopes.
Fig. 37.—Experimental illustration of the mode of

Formation of Volcanic Cones composed of fragmental
materials.
The cause of this peculiar arrangement of the CAUSE OF THIS

materials is evident. The sawdust thrown up by the air ARRANGEMENT.
blast descends in a shower and tends to accumulate in
a circular heap around the orifice, the area of this circular heap
being determined by the force of the blast. Within this circular area,
however, the quantity of falling fragments is not everywhere the
same; along a circle surrounding the vent at a certain distance, the

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Fig. 17.—Outlines of Vesuvius, showing its Form at different periods of its

In the series of outlines in fig. 17, we have CHANGES IN

Fig. 18.—Cascade of Lava tumbling over a cliff in the

Fig. 19.—Lava-stream (obsidian) in the Island of Vulcano

Fig. 21.—Interior of a Rhyolitic

But, although the temperature of lava-streams and RATE OF

Fig. 24.—Concentric Folds on mass of cooled

When the steam escapes with explosive violence

Fig. 26.—Group of small Cones thrown up on the Vesuvian

If we imagine a great sheet of heated material, like COLUMNAR

Fig. 28.—Section of a Lava-stream exposed on the

Occasionally basaltic lava-streams exhibit other

While the ordinary columnar structures are very common in

Fig. 32.—Transverse section of a Lava stream.

Fig. 37.—Experimental illustration of the mode of

The cause of this peculiar arrangement of the CAUSE OF THIS

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