Steady-State Analysis of Single Phase AC Circuit

ALTERNATING QUANTITY
An alternating quantity is that which acts in alternate directions and whose magnitude undergoes a definite cycle of changes in
definite intervals of time. When a simple loop revolves in a magnetic field, an alternating emf is induced in the loop. If the loop
revolves with an uniform angular velocity the induced alternating emf is sinusoidal in nature. The important alternating quantities,
that will be discussed in the chapter are current and voltage.

ALTERNATING VOLTAGE
Alternating voltage may be generated by rotating a coil in a stationary magnetic field or rotating a magnetic field across a
stationary coil. The value of the voltage generated in each case depends on:
(i) The number of turns in the coils.
(ii) The strength of the field.
(iii) The speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates
 Period: – This is the length of time in seconds that the waveform takes to repeat itself from start to finish. This value
can also be called the Periodic Time, (T) of the waveform for sine waves, or the Pulse Width for square waves.
 Cycle: – One complete set of all the possible values of a wave forms its one complete cycle.
 Frequency: – This is the number of times the waveform repeats itself within a one second time period. Frequency is the
reciprocal of the time period, (ƒ = 1/T) with the standard unit of frequency being the Hertz, (Hz).
 Amplitude: – This is the magnitude or intensity of the signal waveform measured in volts or amps.
 Phase: – Phase of a wave at a point is defined as the fraction of time period or the angle covered by the wave in
reaching at that point from the position where the wave had crossed its reference position last time.
ADVANTAGES OF SINE WAVE
 Sine wave can be expressed in a simple mathematical form.
 The resultant of two or more quantities varying sinusoidally at the same frequency is another sinusoidal quantity of same
frequency.
 Rate of change of any sinusoidal quantity is also sinusoidal
REPERSENTATION OF ALTERNATING QUANTITY BY PHASOR
An alternating quantity can be represented by rotating vectors or phasors provided they satisfy the following conditions
 Length of vector should represent the amplitude of alternating quantity at a suitable scale.
 The vector should be in horizontal position when the quantity is zero and increasing positively
 The angular velocity of rotating vector should be such that it should complete its one revolution in same time in which the
alternating quantity completes its one cycle
So if a vector fulfills the above conditions than it can represent the given alternating quantity and the instantaneous value of
quantity at any instant can be obtained by projecting the vector on y-axis at same instant. In this representation the anticlockwise
rotation of vector is considered positive and clockwise rotation is considered negative. Fig. Shows a vector OA representing an
alternating voltage v = Emax Sin wt .

 100sin500t  200sin(500  π /3)  Find

1.Draw a phasor diagram showing the following voltage V 1 , V2 t

RMS value of
V3  50cos500t, V 4  150sin(500 t  π /4)  result voltage

   
Ans. V1  100 sin 500 t V  200 sin  500 t   , V3  50 cos 500 t Or V3  50 sin  500 t  
, 2
 3   2 

 
V 4  150 sin  500 t  
 4 
   
Finding V max  V x  100  200 cos  150 cos  50 cos  100  100  75 2  306 . 067 V
3 4 2

 
V y  100 sin 0   200 sin  150 sin  50  0  173 .2  106 . 67  50  17 . 133
3 2

2 2 V
So, V max  V x V y  306 . 55 Volts And V rms  max
 216 . 76 Volts.
2

AVERAGE AND RMS VALUE, FORM FACTOR AND PEAK FACTOR

AVERAGE VALUE: The average of all the instantaneous values of an alternating quantity over one complete cycle is called Average
Value. If we consider symmetrical waves the positive half cycle will be exactly equal to negative half cycle. Therefore, the average
over a complete cycle will be zero. In such cases only positive half cycle is considered to determine the average value. For sine waves
avg. value is 0.636 times the maximum value.
RMS VALUE: It is defined as that steady current which, when flows through a given resistor produces same quantity of heat as
produced by the alternating current when flows through the same resistor for the same period of time. It is also called effective
value or true value. For sine wave its value is 0.707 times the maximum value. Root Mean Square is the actual value of an
alternating quantity which tells us an energy transfer capability of an AC source.
PEAK FACTOR: Peak Factor is also known as Crest Factor or Amplitude Factor. It is the ratio of maximum value to rms value of an
alternating wave. For a sinusoidal alternating voltage its value is 1.4142. This factor plays an important role in determination of
dielectric strength of insulations for a given AC circuit.
FORM FACTOR: it is defined as the ratio of rms value to the average value of a wave. For sine wave the value of form factor is
1.11. This factor is used for conversion from rms to average value and vice-versa.

Q. Find Avg value, RMS value and form factor of half wave rectified alternating current.
Ans.

1  1  I  I 
2 2 2 2
I rms  i d   I max sin d  max
 sin d   max
 ( 1  cos 2  d )
2 0 2 0 2 0 4 0


I  1  I I
 max
  sin 2   max
   max

4  2 0 4 2

1  1  I I Im
I avg  i d    I max sin d   max
 cos 0  max
 cos   cos 0  1 1 
2 0 2 0 2 2 2

I
 max


I rms I /2 
Form Factor   max
  1 . 57
I avg I max / 2

Q. An alternating voltage is given by v = 141.4 sin 314t. Find :

(i) Frequency
(ii) r.m.s value
(iii) Average value
(iv) The instantaneous value of voltage when ‘t’ is 3 m sec.
 (v) The time taken for the voltage to reach 100V for the first time after passing through zero value.
Ans. Given v = 141.4 sin 314t
Compare above equation by v  V m sin wt
We have V m  141 . 4 V and w  314 rad/sec.
w 314
(i) w  2 f or f    50 Hz
2 2
Vm 141 . 4
(ii) V rms    100 V
2 2

2V m 2 ( 141 . 4 )
(iii) V av    90 . 07 V
 
(iv) Instantaneous voltage at 3m sec.
3
 141 . 4 sin 314 3  10 

 141 . 4 sin 0 . 942 rad 

 141 . 4 0 . 8087   114 . 395 V

(v) 100  141 . 4 sin 314 t  314 t  0 . 7855

1
Or t  0 . 7855   2 . 5  10 3 sec
314

Q. The equation of an alternating current is i  42 . 42 sin 628 t

Determine : (i)its maximum value (ii)frequency (iii)rms value (iv)average value (v)form factor
Ans. Given i  42 . 42 sin 628 t Compare with i  I max sin t
I max  42 . 42 ,   628
(i) Maximum value of current I max = 42.42Amp.
 628
(ii)   2 f so, f   f   100 Hz
2 2  3 . 14
I 42 . 42
(iii) Rms value of current I rms  max
  30 Amp .
2 2

2 I max 2  42 . 42
(iv) Average value of current I av   I av   27 Amp.
 
I rms 30
(v) Form factor    1 . 11 .
I av 27
ANALYSIS OF PURE RESISTIVE, INDUCTIVE AND CAPACTIVE CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT WITH PURE RESISTANCE ONLY
A pure resistance is that in which there is only a ohmic voltage drop. Consider a circuit having a pure resistance R as shown is Fig
below. Let the instantaneous value of the alternating voltage applied be, v = Vm Sin ωt The instantaneous value of current,
Vm
i = e/R = (Vm Sin ωt)/R . = Im Sin ωt where Im = A.
R
we find that in pure resistive circuit the voltage and current are in same phase.
VmIm VmIm
Instantaneous power p = Vm Sin ωt* Im Sin ωt = VmImSin2ωt = - Cos2ωt .
2 2
VmIm VmIm
Instantaneous power consists of a constant part and a fluctuating part cos2ωt of frequency double that of supply. On
2 2
taking average over complete cycle the fluctuating part reduces to zero and we get average power
1 2π VI
P= ∫ vi d(ωt) = m m or VRMS* IRMS watt
2π 0 2
CIRCUIT WITH PURE INDUCTANCE ONLY
A pure inductive circuit has only inductor with no resistance as shown below. When an alternating voltage is applied to it, a back
emf is induced it and the magnitude of this induced emf is equal and opposite to supply voltage at all instants. Let voltage applied
dI
be v = Vm Sin ωt and instantaneous value of self-induced emf is e given by e = -L .
dt
di dI
So at any instant v = -(e) or Vm Sin ωt = - ( -L ) or Vm Sin ωt = L
dt dt
Vm
or di = Sin ωt .
L
Vm Vm Vm
On integrating ∫di = ∫ Sin ωt or i = (-Cos ωt) or i = (Sin ωt-π/2)
L ωL ωL
Vm
or i = Im (Sin ωt-π/2) where Im = A.
XL
we find that the current lags the applied voltage by 90° or π/2 radian. The quantity XL is called inductive reactance and its units
is ohm.
XL = ωL Ω

VmIm
Instantaneous power p = vi = Vm Sin ωt* Im (Sin ωt-π/2) = - Sin2ωt.
2
The instantaneous power consists only a fluctuating part with frequency double of supply frequency. On taking average over complete
cycle the fluctuating part reduces to zero and we get average power
1 2π 1 VmIm 2π Sin2ωt
P= ∫ vi d(ωt ) = ∫V Sin ωt * Im(Sin ωt - π/2) d(ωt) = - ∫ d(ωt) = 0 .
2π 0 2π m 2π 0 2
CIRCUIT WITH PURE CAPACTANCE ONLY
When an alternating voltage is applied to the plates of a capacitor (C), the capacitor is charged first in one direction and then in
the opposite direction. Let applied voltage be v = Vm Sin ωt, and q is the charge on the plates of capacitor then
q= Cv = C. Vm Sin ωt
As current is given by rate of flow of charge so instantaneous current is given by
dq d(Cv)
i = = = C. Vm Cos ωt. Ω or
dt dt
Vm Vm
i = Sin(ωt + π/2) = Im (Sin ωt+π/2). Where Im = A
1 Xc
ωc
we find that the current leads the applied voltage by 90° or π/2 radian. The quantity XC is called capacitive reactance and its
1
units is ohm Xc = Ω.
ωc

VmIm
Instantaneous power p = vi = Vm Sin ωt* Im (Sin ωt+π/2) = Sin2ωt.
2
The instantaneous power consists only a fluctuating part with frequency double of supply frequency. On taking average over complete
cycle the fluctuating part reduces to zero and we get average power
1 2π 1 VmIm 2π Sin2ωt
P= . ∫ vi d(ωt ) = ∫V Sin ωt * Im(Sin ωt + π/2) d(ωt) = ∫ d(ωt) = 0 .
2π 0 2π m 2π 0 2
ANALYSIS OF SERIES RL AND RC CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT WITH RESISTANCE AND INDUCTANCE IN SERIES
A pure resistance R and a pure inductive coil of inductance L are shown connected in series. Let V = RMS value of the applied
voltage, I = RMS value of current, VR = IR voltage drop across R (in phase with I), VL = I.XL voltage drop across coil (ahead of I by
90°)

These voltage drops are shown in voltage triangle OAB in Fig. Vector OA represents ohmic drop VR and AB represents inductive drop
VL. The applied voltage V is the vector sum of the two i.e.
2 2 2 2 2 2
V = VR +VL = (IR) +(IXL ) = I (R) +(XL ) = I* Z
2 2
Where Z is known as impedance of the circuit given by Z = (R) +(XL ) Ω.
VL XL -1 VL -1 X
The current I lags voltage V by an angle Φ such that tan Φ = = or Φ = tan ( ) = tan ( L )
VR R VR R
lagging. .
If the voltage is given by v = Vm Sin ωt, then circuit current is given by i = Im (Sin ωt- Φ) Where Im = Vm/Z A
The instantaneous power of the circuit can be calculated as p = Vm Sin ωt* Im (Sin ωt- Φ)
VmIm VmIm
or p = 2 Sin ωt* Sin(ωt- Φ) = [Cos Φ – Cos(2ωt- Φ)].
2 2
The instantaneous power can be divided in two components as
VmIm
(i) cos Φ is a constant value component independent of time and
2

VmIm
(ii) cos(2ωt- Φ) is fluctuating part with double of supply frequency.
2

On taking average over complete cycle the fluctuating part reduces to zero and we get the average power over complete cycle

VmIm
P= cos Φ or P = VRMS IRMS cos Φ watt
2

ACTIVE, REACTIVE AND APPARENT POWER

In an ac circuit the power is classified in three categories. The three powers drawn by the circuit are as follows
(i) Apparent Power (S): It is given by the product of RMS values of applied voltage and RMS value of circuit current
S= VI = (IZ) .I = I2Z VA or KVA
(ii) Active Power (P): It is the power which is actually dissipated in the circuit resistance. It is given by product of RMS value of
voltage, RMS value of circuit current and cosine of angle between them
P = VI cos Φ = I2R Watt or Kwatt
(iii)Reactive Power(Q): It is the power developed in the inductive reactance of the circuit. It is given by product of RMS value of
voltage, RMS value of circuit current and sine of angle between them
Q = VI Sin Φ = I2X L VAR or KVAR

Fig. shows Power triangle for a RL Series circuit. From this triangle it is clear that
2 2
S = P +Q and P = S cos Φ; Q = S Sin Φ
CIRCUIT WITH RESISTANCE AND CAPACITOR IN SERIES
A pure resistance R and a capacitor of capacitance C are connected in series as shown Fig. Let V = RMS value of the applied
voltage, I = RMS value of current, VR = IR voltage drop across R (in phase with I), VC = I.XC voltage drop across capacitor (lags
behind of I by 90°)
As capacitive reactance XC is taken negative, VC is shown along negative direction of Y-axis in the voltage triangle. Now the applied
voltage can be represented as
2 2 2 2 2 2
V = VR +(-VC ) = (IR) +(IXC ) = I (R) +(XC ) = I* Z
2 2
Where Z is known as impedance of the circuit given by Z= (R) +(XC ) Ω.
VC X -1 VC -1 X
The current leads voltage V by an angle Φ such that tan Φ = - = - C or Φ = -tan ( ) = -tan ( L )
VR R VR R
If the voltage is given by v = Vm Sin ωt, then circuit current is given by i = Im (Sin ωt+Φ) Where Im = Vm/Z A
The instantaneous power of the circuit can be calculated as p = Vm Sin ωt* Im (Sin ωt+Φ)
VmIm VmIm
or p = 2 Sin ωt* Sin(ωt+Φ) = [Cos Φ – Cos(2ωt+Φ)]
2 2
The instantaneous power can be divided in two components as
VmIm
(i) cos Φ is a constant value component independent of time and
2
VmIm
(ii) cos(2ωt+Φ) is fluctuating part with double of supply frequency.
2
On taking average over complete cycle the fluctuating part reduces to zero and we get the average power over complete cycle P
VmIm
= cos Φ or P = VRMS IRMS cos Φ. watt
2
Q. An A.C. Voltage e(t) = 141.4 Sin 120t is applied to a series RC circuit. The circuit is obtained as i(t) = 12.25Sin
(120t + 30) Determine : (i)Value of R and C (ii)Power factor (iii) Power delivered
ANS Given e(t) = 141.4 Sin 120t i(t)= 12.25 Sin(120+30) and ɸ = 30˚

141 . 4 0 
Impedance (z)  or Z  11 . 54   30

12 . 25 30

(a) Resistance (R) = Z cos (R)  11 . 54 cos 30 Resistance (R) = 10
Reactance (XC)= Z sin  = 11.54 sin 30 (XC)= 5.77
1 1
Capacitance (C) = C  C = 0.00144 F or 1.44 mF
2 f X C 120  5 . 77
(b) Power factor (cos) cos = cos30 or cos = 0.866 leading
(c) Power delivered by the source
141 . 4 12 . 25 
 V rms I rms cos     cos 30 = 750 watt
2 2

.
Q. A load having impedance of ( 1  j 1 )  is connected to an a.c voltage represented as V  20 2 cos( t  10 º) Volt. Find the
current in load, expressed in the form of i  I m sin( t  Ø ) A Find the real power Consumed by the load.
Ans Impedance Z  (1  j1 )  or Z  2 45 º { in polar form}
V  20 2 cos( t  10 º) or, V  20 2 sin( t  10 º90 º) or V  20 2 sin( t  100 º)

Also V  20 2 100 º { in polar form}

V 20 2 100 º 20 2
(i) Current (I )  or I  or I  ( 100 º45 º )
Z 2 45 º 2

I  20 55 º or, I  20 sin( t  55 º)

(ii) Real Power  VI cos Ø

20 2  20  20 400
P   . cos 45 º or P  20 . . cos 45 º or P 
2  2  2 2. 2

P  200 W

Q. A 120 V, 60 W lamp is to be operated on 220 V, 50 Hz supply mains. Calculate value of : (i)non inductive resistance (ii)pure
inductance which are connected in series with lamp in order that lamp should operate on correct voltage.
Ans

P
Current in bulb I 
V
 60 W
I   0 . 5 Amp.
120 V
(i) If impedance is non inductive resistance
 Resistance and bulb are connected in series so current will be same in each
so, I = 0.5 Amp.
Voltage drop across Resistance = 220 – 120 = 100V
V 100
so, R    200 
I 0.5
(ii) If impedance is pure inductance then VL = 184.4
V 184 . 4
X L
   368 .8
I 0.5
X 368 . 8
X L  2 fL or L  L
  1 . 174 H.
2 f 2    50

ANALYSIS OF RLC SERIES CIRCUIT

CIRCUIT WITH RESISTANCE, INDUCTANCE AND CAPACITOR IN SERIES
Let these three elements are joined in series and V = RMS value of the applied voltage, I = RMS value of the resultant current,
VR = IR voltage drop across R (in phase with I), VL = I.XL voltage drop across inductor (ahead of I by 90°) and VC = I.XC voltage
drop across capacitor (lags behind of I by 90°)

In voltage triangle of given Fig. OA represents VR, AB and AC represent the inductive and capacitive drops respectively. It will be
seen that VL and VC are 180° out of phase with each other i.e. they are in direct opposition to each other. Subtracting BD (= AC)
from AB, we get the net reactive drop AD = (VL − VC). The applied voltage V is represented by OD which is the vector sum of OA
and AD. So
2 2 2 2
OD = OA +OD or V = (IR) +(IXL-IXC) = I* Z,
2 2
where Z is known as impedance of RLC series circuit given by Z = (R) +(XL-XC) Ω.
Here XL - XC = XNet, known as net reactance of the circuit.
-1 XL-XC -1 X
Phase angle of the circuit is given by Φ = tan ( ) = tan ( Net )
R R
If the expression of applied voltage is v = Vm Sin ωt then the circuit current expression is given by i = Im Sin(ωt±Φ)
where the sign of phase angle depends on following cases
Case 1: The + ve sign is to be used when current leads or XNet is negative i.e. XC > XL.
Case 2: The - ve sign is to be used when current lags or XNet is positive i.e. XL > XC.
Case 3: The value of phase angle Φ is zero when voltage and current are in same phase or XNet is zero i.e XL = XC.

SUMMARRY OF RESULTS FOR SERIES AC CIRCUITS

 RESONANCE IN RLC SERIES CIRCUIT
A RLC series circuit is said to be in electrical resonance when the net reactance of the circuit becomes zero and the frequency at
which this happens is known as resonating frequency (fo) of the circuit. At resonance the voltage drops across inductor (VL = IXL)
and capacitor (VC = IXC) are equal and opposite to each other so they cancel out each other and net supply voltage is dropped
across circuit resistance (VR =V). The two reactance’s taken together act as a short-circuit since no voltage develops across them.
The phasor diagram of series resonating circuit is shown in figure.

The frequency at which the net reactance of the series circuit is zero is called the resonant frequency (fo). At resonance

XNet = 0 or XL - XC = 0
i.e ωo L = 1/ (ωo C)
1
ωo = LC rad/sec or fo = Hz
2π LC
The expression for fo shows that circuit resistance has no effect on the value of resonating frequency of the circuit. When a series R-
L-C circuit is in resonance, it possesses minimum impedance Z = R. Hence, circuit current is maximum, it being limited by value of R
alone. The current at resonance is given by
V V
Io = = A in phase with the
Z0 R
applied voltage.
Since circuit current is maximum, it produces large voltage drops across L and C. Magnitudes of these voltage drops (VL or VC) is
much larger than supply voltage and that’s why series resonance is also known as voltage resonance. But these drops being equal and
opposite, cancel each other when consider together. L and C from a part of circuit across which there is no voltage drop, however,
large current is flowing. A series resonant circuit is sometimes called acceptor circuit because they offer minimum impedance to the
frequency signal at which they resonates.

Figure shows the graphical representation of various circuit parameter of RLC Series circuit with variable supply frequency by
keeping all other factors constant. The figure gives an idea that how various circuit parameters are changing above and below
resonating frequency.
RESONANCE CURVE The curve, between circuit current and the frequency of the applied voltage, is known as resonance curve. The
shapes of resonance curve, for different values of R is shown in fig. For smaller values of R, the resonance curve is sharply peaked
and such a circuit is said to be sharply resonant or highly selective. However, for larger values of R, resonance curve is flat and is
said to have poor selectivity. The ability of a resonant circuit to discriminate one particular frequency from the band of applied
frequencies is called its selectivity. The selectivity or sharpness of resonance curve is inversely proportional to circuit resistance.

BANDWIDTH (Δf) It is defined as the band of frequencies which lies on either side of resonating frequency where the circuit
current reduces to 1/√2 times its value at resonance. Narrower is the bandwidth, higher the selectivity of the circuit and vice versa.
The bandwidth is also known as half power bandwidth as at the corner points the power consumption of circuit becomes half of its
value at resonance. At the corner points of a band width the net reactance of circuit is equal to the circuit resistance. We can derive
the expression of corner frequencies as follows:
At lower corner frequency f1 the nature of circuit is capacitive. Also net reactance is equal to circuit resistance, so at corner frequency
f1 we get
1
XC – XL = R or - ω1L = R
ω1C
2 R 1
or ω1 + ω1 - =0
L LC
which is a quadratic equation.
2
R R 4
- ± ( )+ 2
L L LC R R 1
So writing its roots ω1 = or ω1 = - ± ( )+ .
2 2L 2L LC
R 1
Now put α = & ω0 = and considering only positive root we get
2L LC
2 2
ω1 = - α+ α +ω0 ……………….(i) .
Similarly at upper corner frequency f2 we get
1
XL – XC = R or ω2L - = R
ω2C
2 R 1
or ω2 - ω2 - =0
L LC
which is a quadratic equation.
2 2
On solving we get ω2 = α+ α +ω0 ……………….(ii)
Now in equation (i) and (ii) neglecting the term α2 as its magnitude is very small so we get
R
ω1 = ω0 - α or ω1 = ω0 - rad/sec ;
2L
R
Similarly we get ω2 = ω0 + rad/sec
2L
R
and Δω = ω2 - ω1 = rad/sec
L
R R
Now corner frequencies can be written as f 1 = f0 - Hz & f 2 = f0 + Hz
4πL 4πL
R
The bandwidth can be obtained as Δf = f2 - f1 = Hz
2πL
On multiplication of equation (i) and (ii) we get
2 2 2 2
ω1 * ω2 = (- α+ α +ω0 ) (α+ α +ω0 ) or ω0 = ω1ω2 or f0 = f1f2
Thus we can show that resonating frequency is geometric mean of corner frequencies.
QUALITY FACTOR (Q- FACTOR)
Quality factor for a coil is defined as the ratio of reactance to resistance of the coil. It is a unit less quantity. For a pure inductive
coil the value of quality factor is infinite. As the resistance of coil increases the value of quality factor of coil decreases. It is given
by
XL ω0L
Q= = = tan ɸ where ɸ is the power
R R
factor angle of the coil.
The Q-factor of a series resonating circuit can be defined in the following different ways.
(i) it is given by the voltage magnification produced by the circuit at resonance.

VL V I XL XL
Voltage magnification ratio = = L = = = = tan ɸ
VSupply VR IR R

where ɸ is the power factor angle of the coil formed by series combination of resistance and inductance present in the circuit.
(ii) The Q-factor may also be defined as the energy gain of the circuit. it is given by
1 2 1 2
LI L( 2I)
Maximum energy stored 2 m 2
Q- factor = 2π = 2π 2 = 2πf0 2
Energy dissipated per cycle I R T0 IR
L ω0L
= 2πf0 = = tan ɸ .
R R
1 1 L
(iii) As we know that ω0 = so using this we get Q- factor = . This relation is used to find the value of Q factor
LC R C
in terms of component of RLC series circuit.
(iv) In the case of series resonance, higher Q-factor means not only higher voltage magnification but also higher selectivity of the
tuning coil. The Q factor can also be written as
ω0 ω0 ω0 f f
Q- factor = = = = 0 = 0
R Δω ω2-ω1 Δf f2-f1
L
Q. A series R-L-C circuit has R=10, L = 0.1 H and C = 8 F. Determine.
(i) resonant frequency
(ii) Q-factor of the circuit at resonance
(iii) the half power frequencies
Ans Given R = 10, L = 0.1 H and C = 8F
1
Resonation Frequency fr  fr  177 . 94 Hz
6
2 0.1  8  10
X L r L 2 f r L
(ii) Q factor Q r   
R R R
2    177 . 94 0.1
Q r   11 . 18
10

R
(iii) Lower half power frequency f1  fr   177 . 94  7 . 95  169 . 99 Hz
4 L

R
Higher half power frequency f2  fr   177 . 94  7 . 95  185 . 89 Hz
4 L

ANALYSIS OF PARALLEL CIRCUIT

The following methods can be used to solve parallel circuits
VECTOR OR PHASOR METHOD
Consider the circuits shown in Fig. Here, two impedances A and B have been joined in parallel across an r.m.s. supply of V volts. The
voltage across two parallel branches A and B is the same, but currents through them are different.
2 2 V R
For Branch A : Z1 = R1 +XL ; I1 = ; cos ф1 = 1
Z1 Z1

Also ф1 = cos
-1

()
R1
Z1
Current I1 lags behind the applied voltage V
by angle ф1

2 2 V R
For Branch B : Z2 = R2+XC ; I2 = ; cos ф2 = 2
Z2 Z2
Also

voltage V by angle ф2
ф2 = cos
-1

() R2
Z2

The resultant circuit current I is the vector sum of the branch currents I1 and I2 and can be found by using parallelogram law of
Current I2 leads the applied

vectors. If I is the resultant current and ɸ its phase, then

I cos ɸ = (I1 cos ф1 + I2 cos ф2) and I sin ɸ = (I2 sin ф2 – I1 cos ф1).
2 2
The total circuit current is given by I = (I cos ɸ) +(I sin ɸ) and
-1 I sinɸ
The phase angle of this current is given by ɸ = tan ( )
I cosɸ
Q. The parallel circuit shown in figure is connected across a single phase 100V, 50Hz ac supply. Calculate
(i) The branch currents
(ii) The total current
(iii) The supply power factor
(iv) The active and reactive power supplied by the supply.

Ans. Let the current and impedance for branches (i) and (ii) are I1 , Z1 and I2 , Z2 respectively. Also total current is IT
(i) For branch (i) :
100
Z 1  (8  j6 )   10 37  And I1   10   37  A
10 37 
100
For branch (ii) : Z  (6  j8 )   10   53  I   10   53  A
2 And 2
10 37 
(ii) Total current, I T  I 1  I 2  10   37   10 53   14 . 14 8 . 13  A
(iii) Supply power factor; cos   cos( 8 . 13 )  0 . 989
(iv) Active power applied; VI cos   100 ( 14 . 14 ) cos( 8 . 13 )  1 . 397 KW

Reactive power supplied; VI sin   100 ( 14 . 14 ) sin( 8 . 13 )  199 . 97 VAR

ADMITTANCE METHOD
1
We defined admittance as the reciprocal of impedance. It is represented by Y where Y= Ω-1 or mho. As the impedance Z of a
Z
circuit has two components X and R similarly, admittance Y also has two components as shown in Fig. The X-component is known as
conductance (G) and Y-component as susceptance (B). Fig. shows the impedance triangle for a RL circuit along with its admittance
triangle.
For a RL circuit the impedance is written as Z= R + jXL Ω. The corresponding value of admittance can be calculated as
1 1 1 (R-JXL ) R XL
Y= = Ω-1 or = * = 2 2 -j 2 2 = G – j B ;
Z R+jXL R+jXL (R-JXL ) R +XL R +XL
where G is conductance and B is susceptance of the circuit.
R 1 R
Here G = 2 2 = * = Ycos ɸ . So we define conductance as the real component of admittance whose value is equal to
R +XL Z Z
the reciprocal of circuit resistance provided circuit reactance should be zero.
XL 1 XL
Also B = 2 = =
2 * = YSin ɸ . So we define susceptance as the reactive component of admittance whose value is equal
R +XL Z Z
to the reciprocal of circuit reactance provided circuit resistance is zero. Here one more thing to consider that opposite to the
reactance the inductive susceptance is considered negative and capacitive susceptance is considered to be positive. The advantage with
admittance is that they can be added when they are connected in parallel.

Consider the 3-branched circuit of Fig. Total conductance is found by merely adding the conductances of three branches. Similarly,
total susceptance is found by algebraically adding the individual susceptances of different branches.
G = g1 + g2 + g3 ;
2 2 -1
and ( ) ( )
B = -b1 + -b2 + (b3)
Total admittance Y = G +B Ω , Total current I = VY ; Power factor cos ɸ = G/Y.
This method is more useful in case of large number of parallel branches.
Q. The following figure shows a series parallel circuit find.
(i) Admittance of each parallel branch
(ii) Total circuit impedance
(iii) Supply current and power factor
(ii) Total power supplied by the source

Ans. (i) Z2 = 4 + j3 Z2 = 5 36.86

1 1
Admittance ( Y 2 )   or Y2 = 0.2  36.86

Z 2 5 36 . 86
Z3 = 6  j8 Z3 = 10–53.13
1 1
Admittance (Y3)   or Y3 = 0.153.13

Z 3 10   53 . 13
Z 2Z
(ii) Total Impedance (Z)  Z 1  3
Z 2 Z3
Z = 6 + j8
Z = 1053.13 
V 100
(iii) Supply current (I)    10 A
Z 10
Power factor (cos) = cos 53.13 = 0.6 P.F.
 2
2  100 
(iv) Power Supplied = I R   6 = 600 watt.
 10 
RESONANCE IN PARALLEL CIRCUIT
Consider a coil in parallel shown in Fig. Such a circuit is said to be in electrical resonance when the reactive (or wattless) component
of line current becomes zero and the frequency at which this happens is known as resonant frequency. The phasor diagram for this
circuit is also shown in figure.

Net reactive component of circuit current is IC - ILsinф .

V V XL
At resonance IC - ILsinф = 0 or IC = ILsinф or =
XC Zcoil Zcoil

2
R + XL =
L 2
2
Zcoil = XL * XC = ωo L *

or
( )
1
ωo C
=
L
C
2
(2πfo L) =
………………………………………… (i)
L 2
-R
C C
2 2
1 R 1 1 R
2πfo = - or fo = - 2 ……………………….. (ii)
LC L2 2π LC L
Equation (ii) is the resonant frequency and is given in Hz, R is in ohm, L is the henry and C is the farad. If R is the negligible,
1
then resonating frequency is given by fo = same as series circuit.
2π LC
CURRENT AT RESONANCE
As the reactive component of circuit current is zero so the total circuit current is in phase with the applied voltage which is given by
V R VR VR
Io = ILcosф = * = 2 = ……………………by equation (i)
Zcoil Zcoil Zcoil L
C
V V
So Io = = where Zo =
L Zo
CR
L
CR
known as dynamic impedance of parallel resonating circuit. It should be noted that impedance is ‘resistive’ only. Since current is
minimum at resonance, L/CR must represent the maximum impedance of the circuit. In fact, parallel resonance is a condition of
maximum impedance or minimum admittance. Current at resonance is minimum, hence in such a circuit (when used in radio work) is also
known as rejector circuit because it rejects (or takes minimum current of) the frequency to which it resonates. This resonance is often
referred to as current resonance because the current circulating between the two branches is greater than the line current taken from
the supply.
Q –FACTOR FOR PARALLEL CIRCUIT
It is defined as the ratio of current circulating between branches to the line current taken from supply. In other words it is defined
Branch current I
as the current magnification ratio of the circuit. It is given as Qo = = C or
Supply current Io
V L
XC Zo CR ωoL
Qo = = = = = tanф
V XC 1 R
Zo ωoC
where ф is the power factor angle of coil

COMPARISON OF SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE

Q.. For the circuit shown below, determine :
(i) Resonant Frequency
(ii) Total impedance of the circuit of resonance.
(iii) Band width
(iv) Quality factor

2
1 1 R
ANS. Ans8. (i) Resonance Frequency ( fr )  
2 LC L
2

2
1 1 ( 25 )
fr  6
 fr = 100.39 Hz
2  3 . 14 0.5  5  10 ( 0.5 )
2

L
(ii) Total impedance at resonance Z 
RC
0.5
Z  Z = 4K
6
25  5  10
R 25
(iii) Band width   = 7.96 Hz.
2 L 2  3 . 14  0 . 5
1 L 1 0.5
(iv) Quality factor (Q)   = 12.65
6
R C 25 5  10

THREE PHASE AC CIRCUIT

There are two types of system available in electric circuit, single phase and three phase system. In single phase circuit, there will be
only one phase, i.e the current will flow through only one wire and there will be one return path called neutral line to complete the
circuit. In three phase circuit three phase voltages are send together from the generator to the load. All voltages are displaced from
each other by 120o. This type of three phase system can be developed by a set of three identical (having equal no of turns) coils,
mounted on a common shaft with a mechanical displacement of 120o from each other and placed in a common magnetic field. When
this assembly is rotated by some external means then due to rotation, an emf is induced in all the three coils. The voltages developed
in the coils will represent a balanced three phase system in which following conditions are satisfied
1. Amplitude of voltage across all the phases are same
2. Angular velocity of all the phases are same
3. All voltages are displaced from each other by 120 o
Figure shows how a balanced three phase supply system is generated. Assume the coils are rotating in anticlockwise direction then
the three phase voltages can be represented as

VA = Vm Sin t ; VB = Vm Sin( t- 120˚) ; Vc = Vm Sin ( t-240˚) OR Vm Sin( t+120˚)

ADVANTAGES
Three Phase AC system have following advantages over single phase system
(1) The rating of a machine increase with increase in number of phases or in other words size of a three phase machine is smaller
than single phase machine of same rating.
(2) Power factor of a 1- motor is lower than that of a three-phase motor of same rating.
(3) Three-phase system requires 3/4 th weight of conductor that required by single phase system to transmit the same amount of
power at a given voltage and over a given distance.
(4) Three-phase system is more reliable and capable than single phase system.
(5) Three-phase system having higher efficiency compare to single phase system.
(6) The parallel operation of three phase alternator is much easier than single phase alternator.
(7) Rotating magnetic fields can be developed with three phase supply which makes three phase motors self-starting.
Different phases of a three phase circuit can be connected as follows
1. STAR (Y) CONNECTION 2. DELTA (Δ) CONNECTION
STAR CONNECTION:
Star connections are formed by joining the similar ends of all the phase coils to form a neutral or star point and the remaining
terminals are connected to the supply lines. Some-times an additional wire is provided from neutral point and connections becomes
three phase four wire connections. In star connection, Line voltage is the voltage between any two line terminals of three phase circuit
and phase voltage is the voltage between any line terminal to the neutral. Let ER, EY and EB represent the phase voltage in figure
and ERY, EYB and EBR. be the line voltages with positive phase sequence.
In star connections from circuit diagram it is clear that current flowing in the phase windings and line terminal is same. So for star
connections we can say IR = IY = IB = IPH = IL
Also assuming load to be balanced so all voltages can be assumed as ER = EY =EB = EPH
Now from phasor diagram the line voltage ERY is given by
ERY = ER - EY = ER + (-EY)
2 2 2 2 2 2
ERY = ER+EY+2EREYcos60 = EPH+EPH+2EPHcos60 = 3EPH = 3EPH
Similarly for other two phases we can prove
EL = 3EPH and IL = IPH

DELTA CONNECTION:
In this connection the dissimilar ends of the three phase winding are joined together i.e. the ‘starting’ end of one phase is joined to
the ‘finishing’ end of the other phase and so on a closed loop is obtained. Three leads are taken out from the three junctions and
connected to the supply lines. In delta there is no neutral point. The voltage between any two line terminals is equal to the phase
voltage. So for a balanced delta connected system
ER = EY =EB = EPH = EL

Also for balance condition currents can be assumed as IR = IY = IB = IPH. Now from phasor dia the line current is given by (IR – IB)
2 2
= IR + (-IB) = IR+IB+2IRIBcos60
2 2 2
= IPH+IPH+2IPHcos60 = 3IPH
Similarly for the other phases we can prove : IL = 3IPH and EL = EPH
Note: For a given 3 phase load connected across given supply, In delta connections the value of power consumption and line current is
three times the value for star connections.
Q. A star connected three phase load has a resistance of 8 ohms and an inductive reactance of 6 ohms in each phase. It is fed
from a 400V, three phase balanced apply. Determine line current, power factor, active and reactive powers.
Ans
 Z ph 8  j6 or Z ph  10 53 .1 
VL 400
V ph   V ph  231 V and I ph  I L { star connection}
3 3

231
IL  IL  23 . 1 Amp.
10
8 
cos   0.8   36 . 86
10

Active power  3 V L I L cos   3  400  23 .1 0.8  12 . 8 KW

Reactive Power  3 V L I L sin   3  400  23 .1 0.6  9.6 KVAR

Q.A balanced delta-connected load of impedance 16 + j12  / phase is connected to a 3-phase 400V supply. Find the phase current,
line current, power factor, power, reactive VA and total VA.

Ans

In delta connection,
Phase voltage = Line voltage = 400V
2 2 2 2
Phase impedance (Z P )  R X  16  12  20 
400
Phase current (I P )   20 Ampere So Line current ( I L )  3IP  3  20  34 . 64 Ampere.
20

R P 16
Power factor (cos )    0.8
Z P 20

sin   0.6

Total power (Apparent Power)  3 VLIL  3 ( 400 ) ( 34 . 64 ) = 23999.29 VA

Power (Active)  3 V L I L cos   19 . 19943 kW

Reactive Power  3 V L I L sin   14 . 399 KVAR

Q. Three similar coils each having a resistance of 8 ohm and an inductance of 0.0191 H in series in each phase is connected across a
400V, three phase, 50Hz supply. Calculate the line current, power input, KVA and KVAR taken by the load.
Ans. If Star Connected Load:
 V Ph 400 / 3
IL  I Ph    23 . 09 A
Z Ph 10

P  3 V L I L cos 
 3  400  23 . 09 0.8  12797 . 78 W  12 . 8 KW

Reactive Power Q  3 V L I L sin 

 3  400  23 . 09 0.6  9 . 6 KVA

Apparent Power S  3V L I L  3  400  23 . 09  16 KVA

Z  R  jX L  (8  j6 ) 

| Z |  10 
8 R
cos    0.8
10 Z
sin   0.6
R 8, L  0 . 0191 H

X L  2  f L  2   50  0 . 061  6 

If Delta Connected Load:

Z 8  j 6  ; | Z |  10 
cos   0.8 ; sin   0.6
V ph 400
I ph    40 A
Z ph 10

IL  3 I ph  3  40  69 . 28 A

P  3 V L I L cos   3  400  69 . 28 0.8  38 . 4 Kw

Reactive Power Q  3 V L I L sin 

 3  400  69 . 28 0.6
 28 . 8 KVAr

Apparent Power S  3V L I L  3  400  69 . 28  48 KVA