Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

INTRODUCTION

A short list of the most important achievements in the historical evolution of helicopters

is the following:

1843: Sir George Cayley (considered the inventor of the airplane) published a paper, where he

gives some scientific details about the vertical flight of the aircraft;

1860: Ponton d‖Amecourt of France built a number of small steam-powered helicopter models;

1874: Wilheim von Achenbach of Germany built a single rotor model and he had the idea to

create a sideward thrusting tail rotor in order to counteract the main rotor torque reaction;

1880: Thomas Alva Edison tested several rotor configurations powered by an electric motor;

Four years after Orville Wright first successful powered flight, which took place in December

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

17, 1903, a French, named Paul Cornu constructed a helicopter and flew for the first time in the

world in November 13, 1907;

1907: the French brothers Louis and Jaques Breguet built a helicopter (quad rotor, in the form of

a horizontal cross) powered by a 40-hp. engine. This helicopter did not fly completely free due to

its lack of stability;

1909: Igor Ivanovitch Sikorsky built a nonpiloted coaxial helicopter prototype;

1912: Boris Yuriev tried to build a helicopter with a single main rotor and tail rotor

configuration. He proposed the concept of cyclic pitch for rotor control;

1914: the Danish Jen C. Ellehammer designed a helicopter with coaxial rotors. The aircraft made

several short hops but never made a properly flight;

1917: Stephan Petroczy (Austrian) build and flew a coaxial rotor helicopter;

1919: Henry Berliner (USA) built a counter-rotating coaxial helicopter;

1920: Raul Pescara (Argentina) built a coaxial helicopter;

1922: Georges des Bothezat (USA) designed and built a helicopter for the USA army. He was

the first specialist who described the helicopter autorotation;

1939: Igor Ivanovitch Sikorsky built the helicopter VS-300 which flew in May 13, 1940. He

could be considered the most important person in the helicopter design.

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

A helicopter is an aircraft that is lifted and propelled by one or more horizontal rotors,

each rotor consisting of two or more rotor blades. Helicopters are classified as rotorcraft or

rotary-wing aircraft to distinguish them from fixed-wing aircraft, because the helicopter derives

its source of lift from the rotor blades rotating around a mast. The word ―helicopter‖ is adapted

from the French hélicoptère, coined by Gustave de Ponton d‘Amécourt in 1861. It is linked to the

Greek words helix/helikos (―spiral‖ or ―turning‖) and pteron (―wing‖). The basic flight

regimes of helicopter include hover, climb, descent, and forward flight. Hovering is when the

helicopter is flown so that it maintains a constant position over the ground. It is the main

capability which differentiates helicopters from airplanes.

As an aircraft, the primary advantages of the helicopter are due to the rotor blades that

revolve through the air, providing lift without requiring the aircraft to move forward. This lift

allows the helicopter to hover in one area and to take off and land vertically without the need for

runways. For this reason, helicopters are often used in congested or isolated areas where fixed-

wing aircraft are not able to take off or land.

Although helicopters were developed and built during the first half-century of flight,

some even reaching limited production; it was not until 1942 that a helicopter designed by Igor

Sikorsky reached full-scale production, with 131 aircraft built. Even though most previous

designs used more than one main rotor, it was the single main rotor with an anti- torque tail rotor

configuration that would come to be recognized worldwide as the helicopter.

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

Turbine Age:

Reliable helicopters capable of stable hover flight were developed decades after fixed-

wing aircraft. This is largely due to higher engine power density requirements than fixed- wing

aircraft. Improvements in fuels and engines during the first half of the 20th century were critical

factors in helicopter development. The availability of lightweight turbo-shaft engines in the

second half of the 20th century led to the development of larger, faster, and higher-performance

helicopters. While smaller and less expensive helicopters still use piston engines, turboshaft

engines are the preferred power plant for helicopters today.

The turbine engine has the following advantages over a reciprocating engine:

• Less vibration

• Increased aircraft performance

• Reliability

• Ease of operation

BASIC FEATURES

Helicopters come in a variety of sizes and shapes, but most share the same major

components. Knowing how the components and systems work on the helicopter enables the pilot

to more easily recognize malfunctions and possible emergency situations. Understanding the

relationship of these systems allows the pilot to make an informed decision and take the

appropriate corrective action should a problem arise.

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

The Major components are

• Airframe

• Fuselage

• Main Rotor System

• Semi rigid Rotor System

• Rigid Rotor System

• Landing Gear

• Tail Rotor System

• Power Plant

• Transmission system

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

Rotor System:

The helicopter rotor system is the rotating part of a helicopter that generates lift. A rotor

system may be mounted horizontally, as main rotors are, providing lift vertically; and it may be

mounted vertically, such as a tail rotor, to provide lift horizontally as thrust to counteract torque

effect. In the case of tilt rotors, the rotor is mounted on a nacelle that rotates at the edge of the

wing to transition the rotor from a horizontal mounted position, providing lift horizontally as

thrust, to a vertical mounted position providing lift exactly as a helicopter. The rotor consists of a

mast, hub, and rotor blades.

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

The mast is a hollow cylindrical metal shaft which extends upwards from and is driven

by the transmission. At the top of the mast is the attachment point for the rotor blades called the

hub. The rotor blades are then attached to the hub by several different methods. Main rotor

systems are classified according to how the main rotor blades are attached and move relative to

the main rotor hub.

There are three basic classifications: semi-rigid, rigid, or fully articulated, although some

modern rotor systems use an engineered combination of these types. With a single main rotor

helicopter, a torque effect is created as the engine turns the rotor. This torque causes the body of

the helicopter to turn in the opposite direction of the rotor (Newton‘s Third Law: Every action

has an equal and opposite reaction. To eliminate this effect, some sort of anti-torque control must

be used with a sufficient margin of power available to allow the helicopter to maintain its

heading and prevent the aircraft from moving unsteadily. The three most common controls used

today are the traditional tail rotor, Fenestron (also called a fantail), and the NOTAR®.

TYPES OF ROTOR

Most helicopters have a single, main rotor but require a separate rotor to overcome

torque which is a turning or twisting force. This is accomplished through a variable pitch, anti-

torque rotor or tail rotor. This is the design that Igor Sikorsky settled on for his VS-300

helicopter shown in Figure 1-5. It has become the recognized convention for helicopter design,

although designs do vary. Helicopter main rotor designs from different manufacturers rotate in

one of two different directions (clockwise or counter-clockwise when viewed from above). This

can make it confusing when discussing aerodynamic effects on the main rotor between different

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

designs, since the effects may manifest on opposite sides of each aircraft. For clarity, throughout

this handbook, all examples use a counter-clockwise rotating main rotor system when viewed

from above.

Tandem Rotor

Tandem rotor (sometimes referred to as dual rotor) helicopters have two large horizontal

rotor assemblies, instead of one main assembly and a smaller tail rotor. [Figure 1-6] Single rotor

helicopters need a tail rotor to neutralize the twisting momentum produced by the single large

rotor. Tandem rotor helicopters, however, use counter-rotating rotors, each canceling out the

other’s torque. Counter-rotating rotor blades will not collide with and destroy each other if they

flex into the other rotor’s pathway. This configuration has the advantage of being able to hold

more weight with shorter blades, since there are two blade sets. Also, all the power from the

engines can be used for lift, whereas a single rotor helicopter must use some power to counter

main rotor torque. Because of this, tandem helicopters make up some of the most powerful and

fastest rotor system aircraft.

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

Coaxial Rotors

Coaxial rotors are a pair of rotors turning in opposite directions, but mounted on a mast,

with the same axis of rotation, one above the other. This configuration is a noted feature of

helicopters produced by the Russian Kamov helicopter design bureau. [Figure 1-7]

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

Intermeshing Rotors

Intermeshing rotors on a helicopter are a set of two rotors turning in opposite directions,

with each rotor mast mounted on the helicopter with a slight angle to the other so that the blades

intermesh without colliding. [Figure 1-8] This arrangement allows the helicopter to function

without the need for a tail rotor. It has high stability and powerful lifting capability. This

configuration is sometimes referred to as a synchropter. The arrangement was developed in

Germany for a small anti-submarine warfare helicopter, the Flettner Fl 282 Kolibri. During the

Cold War the American Kaman Aircraft company produced the HH-43 Huskie, for USAF

firefighting purposes. The latest Kaman K-MAX model is a dedicated sky crane design used for

construction work.

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

TAIL ROTOR

The tail rotor is a smaller rotor mounted vertically or near vertically on the tail of a

traditional single-rotor helicopter. The tail rotor either pushes or pulls against the tail to counter

the torque. The tail rotor drive system consists of a drive shaft powered from the main

transmission and a gearbox mounted at the end of the tail boom. [Figure 1-9] The drive shaft

may consist of one long shaft or a series of shorter shafts connected at both ends with flexible

couplings. The flexible couplings allow the drive shaft to flex with the tail boom.

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

The gearbox at the end of the tail boom provides an angled drive for the tail rotor and

may also include gearing to adjust the output to the optimum rotational speed typically measured

in RPM for the tail rotor. On some larger helicopters, intermediate gearboxes are used to angle

the tail rotor drive shaft from along the tail boom or tail cone to the top of the tail rotor pylon,

which also serves as a vertical stabilizing airfoil to alleviate the power requirement for the tail

rotor in forward flight. The pylon (or vertical fin) may also provide limited anti-torque within

certain airspeed ranges if the tail rotor or the tail rotor flight controls fail.

HELICOPTER FLIGHT CONTROLS

A helicopter has four primary flight controls:

• Cyclic

• Collective

• Anti-torque pedals

• Throttle

Cyclic

The cyclic control is usually located between the pilot’s legs and is commonly called the

“cyclic stick” or simply “cyclic.” On most helicopters, the cyclic is similar to a joystick;

however, Robinson helicopters have unique T-bar cyclic control systems. A few helicopters have

cyclic controls that descend into the cockpit from overhead while others use side cyclic controls.

The control is called the cyclic because it can vary the pitch of the rotor blades

throughout each revolution of the main rotor system (i.e., through each cycle of rotation) to

develop unequal lift (thrust). The result is to tilt the rotor disk in a particular direction, resulting
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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

in the helicopter moving in that direction. If the pilot pushes the cyclic forward, the rotor disk

tilts forward, and the rotor produces a thrust in the forward direction. If the pilot pushes the

cyclic to the side, the rotor disk tilts to that side and produces thrust in that direction, causing the

helicopter to hover sideways. [Figure 1-10]

Collective

The collective pitch control, or collective, is located on the left side of the pilot’s seat

with a pilot-selected variable friction control to prevent inadvertent movement. The collective

changes the pitch angle of all the main rotor blades collectively (i.e., all at the same time) and

independently of their positions. Therefore, if a collective input is made, all the blades change

equally, increasing or decreasing total lift or thrust, with the result of the helicopter increasing or

decreasing in altitude or airspeed.

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

Anti-torque Pedals

The anti-torque pedals are located in the same position as the rudder pedals in a fixed-

wing aircraft and serve a similar purpose, namely to control the direction in which the nose of the

aircraft is pointed. Application of the pedal in a given direction changes the pitch of the tail rotor

blades, increasing or reducing the thrust produced by the tail rotor, causing the nose to yaw in the

direction of the applied pedal. The pedals mechanically change the pitch of the tail rotor, altering

the amount of thrust produced.

Throttle

Helicopter rotors are designed to operate at a specific rpm. The throttle controls the

power produced by the engine, which is connected to the rotor by a transmission. The purpose of

the throttle is to maintain enough engine power to keep the rotor rpm within allowable limits to

produce enough lift for flight. In single-engine helicopters, if so equipped, the throttle control is

typically a twist grip mounted on the collective control, but it can also be a lever mechanism in

fully governed systems. Multi-engine helicopters generally have a power lever or mode switch

for each engine. [Figure 1-11].

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

DRAG

The force that resists the movement of a helicopter through the air and is produced when

lift is developed is called drag. Drag must be overcome by the engine to turn the rotor. Drag

always acts parallel to the relative wind. Total drag is composed of three types of drag: profile,

induced, and parasite.

Profile Drag

Profile drag develops from the frictional resistance of the blades passing through the air.

It does not change significantly with the airfoil’s AOA but increases moderately when airspeed

increases. Profile drag is composed of form drag and skin friction. Form drag results from the

turbulent wake caused by the separation of airflow from the surface of a structure. The amount of

drag is related to both the size and shape of the structure that protrudes into the relative wind.

[Figure 2-9]

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

Skin friction is caused by surface roughness. Even though the surface appears smooth, it

may be quite rough when viewed under a microscope. A thin layer of air clings to the rough

surface and creates small eddies that contribute to drag.

Induced Drag

Induced drag is generated by the airflow circulation around the rotor blade as it creates

lift. The high-pressure area beneath the blade joins the low-pressure area above the blade at the

trailing edge and at the rotor tips. This causes a spiral, or vortex, which trails behind each blade

whenever lift is being produced. These vortices deflect the airstream downward in the vicinity of

the blade, creating an increase in downwash. Therefore, the blade operates in an average relative

wind that is inclined downward and rearward near the blade. Because the lift produced by the

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

blade is perpendicular to the relative wind, the lift is inclined aft by the same amount. The

component of lift that is acting in a rearward direction is induced drag. [Figure 2-10]

As the air pressure differential increases with an increase in AOA, stronger vortices form,

and induced drag increases. Since the blade’s AOA is usually lower at higher airspeeds, and

higher at low speeds, induced drag decreases as airspeed increases and increases as airspeed

decreases. Induced drag is the major cause of drag at lower airspeeds.

Parasite Drag

Parasite drag is present any time the helicopter is moving through the air. This type of

drag increases with airspeed. Non-lifting components of the helicopter, such as the cabin, rotor

mast, tail, and landing gear, contribute to parasite drag. Any loss of momentum by the airstream,

due to such things as openings for engine cooling, creates additional parasite drag. Because of its

rapid increase with increasing airspeed, parasite drag is the major cause of drag at higher

airspeeds. Parasite drag varies with the square of the velocity; therefore, doubling the airspeed

increases the parasite drag four times.

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

Total Drag

Total drag for a helicopter is the sum of all three drag forces. [Figure 2-11] As airspeed

increases, parasite drag increases, while induced drag decreases. Profile drag remains relatively

constant throughout the speed range with some increase at higher airspeeds. Combining all drag

forces results in a total drag curve. The low point on the total drag curve shows the airspeed at

which drag is minimized. This is the point where the lift-to-drag ratio is greatest and is referred

to as L/DMAX. At this speed, the total lift capacity of the helicopter, when compared to the total

drag of the helicopter, is most favorable. This is an important factor in helicopter performance.

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

BLADE LOADING

Blade Loading (or) Disc loading is defined as the ratio of a helicopter’s gross weight to

its rotor system’s disc area. A large disc area allows the rotor system to work with more air

creating a higher efficiency in a hover. A smaller rotor system compromises hover efficiency for

speed and a compact rotor system.

An example of a production helicopter with low disc loading is the Robinson R22. This

improves the R22’s hover performance using the relatively low power of its Lycoming piston

engine. Taking the concept of low disc loading to an extreme is human-powered flight in a

helicopter. The low power output of a human requires a very large rotor system. Students at

California Polytechnic State University at San Luis Obispo designed a human powered

helicopter that weighted 250 pounds including the pilot/power source. It had a rotor diameter of

more than 100 feet and was only designed to hover. In December 1989 it flew for 7.1 seconds

reaching a height of 20 cm. It was built to compete for the Sikorsky Prize offered in 1980 by the

American Helicopter Society. The award is $250,000 to the team whose human-powered

helicopter can stay airborne for 60 seconds and reach an altitude of 3 meters. To date, the prize is

unclaimed.

In contrast, a helicopter with high-disc loading requires a lot of power to hover. For

example, the Sikorsky CH-53E Sea Stallion uses three General Electric T64-GE-416/416A

turboshaft engines producing 4,380 shp each. Its gross weight is 73,500 lbs and has a rotor

diameter of 79 feet. The CH-53’s rotor downwash in a hover is so strong that standing near it is

nearly impossible.

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

In addition, high disc loaded helicopters have rapid descent rates making them more

challenging to autorotate. Taking high disc loading even further is the V 22 Osprey tilt rotor. It

has two 38 foot diameter rotors and a max gross weight of 60,500 lbs. In order to hover it uses

two Rolls-Royce Allison T406/AE 1107C-Liberty turboshaft engines producing 6,150 hp each.

ROTOR SOLIDITY

Rotor solidity, a, has been defined previously as the ratio of total blade area to the disk

area (i. e., a = Nbc/тг R). Values of о for contemporary helicopters vary from about

0. 06 to 0.12. Smaller helicopters generally tend to have lower solidity rotors. The mean rotor lift

coefficient is given in terms of the blade loading coefficient, Ст/сг, by Ci = 6{Ct/o). Typical

values of CL for helicopters range from about 0.4 to 0.7.

Selecting the rotor solidity during the design process requires a careful consideration of

blade stall limits, that is the mean lift coefficient where the rotor performance will be stall

limited. Certification or acceptance requirements dictate the load-factors and bank angles that

must be demonstrated without the rotor stalling. Normally civil helicopters require a minimum of

1.15 g or a 30° bank angle without evidence of stall at the maximum gross weight of the

helicopter. Military requirements tend to be much more severe, however. Rotors that are

designed for high forward flight speeds and/or high maneuverability requirements require a

higher solidity for a given diameter and tip speed. Obviously, a rotor that uses airfoil sections

with high maximum lift coefficients can be designed to have a lower solidity, all other factors

being equal. Alternatively, the use of high-lift airfoil sections permits a lower tip speed for the

same solidity.

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

This ratio provides a means to measure the potential for a rotor disk to provide thrust and

lift. The mathematical calculations needed to calculate the solidity ratio for each helicopter may

not be of importance to most pilots but what should be are the capabilities of the rotor disk to

produce and maintain lift.

Many helicopter accidents are caused from the rotor disk being overloaded. Simply put,

pilots attempt maneuvers that require more lift than the rotor disk can produce or more power

than the helicopter’s powerplant can provide. Trying to land with a nose high attitude along with

any other unfavorable condition (i.e., high gross weight or wind gusts) is most likely to end in

disaster.

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

NUMBER OF BLADES

The greater number of blades in a helicopter enables it to produce more lift, hence

heavier helicopters, such as Sikorsky CH-53 has more blades.

However, there will be trade offs from having more blades. The helicopter blades

produce a wake of turbulence behind them, reducing the efficiency of the subsequent ones,

resulting in a need to space them out sufficiently to prevent the turbulent wake from affecting the

performance of the other blades to much. Furthermore, a greater number of blades will also

complicate the hub, and overall increasing the cost. Hence it is not effective to increase the

number of blades in small helicopters.

In order to further increase lift, the blades can be rotated at higher velocity. Then why

can't heavier helicopters just rotate their blades faster? This is due to the tip of the blades limited

to subsonic speeds, as supersonic blade tips will create extremely large amounts of drag and

turbulence, greatly reducing efficiency. Furthermore, even before the blades reach supersonic

speeds, there would be formation of local pockets of supersonic airflow, which also creates a

large amount of drag.

Hence, due to turbulence created by the blades, and the inefficiency of supersonic tips,

there is a need for more blades in heavier helicopters. Small helicopters are better off with lesser

blades to reduce the need for a complicated hub, as well as to save cost.

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

BLADE FORM

Probably the single most important rotor design parameter is its Lift/Drag ratio, which should be

as high as possible.

This ratio depends on the design of the aerofoil , and before we go on to discuss a number of

types, we will first introduce the fineness ratio. This is the thickness of the airfoil as a percentage

of the chord length. A blade with a good L/D performance has a fineness ratio of about 15%,

with its maximum chamber being a quarter of the way back from the leading edge. A typical L/D

value for a helicopter blade is 30:1.

The types of aerofoils used with a rotorblade differ (figure below). For a long time, most of them

were symmetrical. However, a higher L/D ratio is possible with non-symmetrical versions. Due

to the greater internal forces occurring in these types of blades, they only came into existence

when the appropriate composite materials were developed. These can cope with the high internal

strain, while their weight is kept low.

Blade twist and tapper

When a blade rotates, each point on it travels at a different speed. The further away from

the root, the higher the velocity. This means that the contribution to lift and drag of every point

on the blade differs, with each aspect getting larger when moving closer to the rotor tip. Clearly,

the lift distribution over the blade is not constant. This is not a desirable situation, because the

contribution diminishes when getting closer to the root. To change this distribution, blades are

twisted and, sometimes, also tapered. The twist is such that the angle of attack increases when

travelling towards the root, producing more lift. Tapering the blade also contributes to achieving

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

a more evenly spaced lift distribution. With blade tapering, the blade's surface gets larger when

travelling towards its root. Both tapering and twisting can be observed when looking carefully at

rotorblades at rest. Note that blade tapering is not always used (especially on metal blades

because of a more complicated fabrication process).

Blade root cut out

Blade twist and taper leads to large angles of attack and large blade surfaces at the root.

However, close to the root, the blade is travelling over the hull, so the generated downwash does

not contribute to helicopter thrust. For this reason, rotorblades are often cut out near the root.

Another reason for rotor blade cut out is to reduce the effects of potential reverse flow (on the

retreating rotorblade) when flying at high speeds.

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

Twisting moments

Rotorblades are constantly strained by moments that try to twist them. This twisting has its

origins in the moments which exist between the centre of pressure (due to the aerodynamic

forces) and the mass centroid over the chord line. The blade designer must take these twisting

moments into account by designing a blade with high torsional stiffness. He must also ensure

that the mass centroid is located ahead of the centre of pressure for all blade angles (in its

operational range). In this way, lift tends to lower the angle of attack: a stable condition.

Blade tip speed and noise reduction

When the blades are very long or the helicopter is designed with a high rotor RPM, the

blade tip speed can become extremely high. When the tip speed reaches the sound of speed,

pressure waves come into existence, which causes rotor drag. A high tip speed is also the single

most important design parameter influencing generated noise levels. It is, therefore, logical to

expect more designs with lower RPM and very efficient (larger L/D ratio) performance blades.

In this way, blade efficiency is traded off for noise reduction instead of better flight performance.

Construction

Some important design requirements for blades are high torsional stiffness and a good

L/D ratio. Note that the weight of the rotor also has important consequences for both the

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

necessary engine power and stored kinethic energy (important for good auto-rotation

performance).

The early designs of rotorblades, which resemble early classic wing design, consisted of

long steel tube spars, wooden ribs and some light surface material attached to them. From the

1960s onwards, all metal aluminium alloy blades were introduced. These were constructed from

long hollow leading edge D-spar extrusions, allied with some light (probably aluminium) trailing

edge constructions. The use of extrusions made blade taper difficult to produce. Honeycomb

constructions were added to achieve a stiff and light construction.

These days, composite materials like fibreglass and carbon fibre are used for the

fabrication of rotorblades. Stainless steel leading edge spars are also used, and all composite spar

designs exist too. The fatigue life properties of composite materials are far better than those of

metals. Fibreglass is used for its strength and chemical inertness. Carbon fibre layers,

sandwiched at right angles, are used to add stiffness. A sample design might look like the figure

below. Generally, composite blades also have some extra added weight (for example, at the

blade's tip) in order to achieve desirable inertial characteristics. At the leading edge, an (often

metal) erosion shield is used.

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

When using modern composite materials, lightning strikes have to be considered because

these are more dangerous to composite constructions. This is because of the much greater

electrical resistance of composite materials compared to all metal blades. A lightning strike on

composite materials produces a lot of heat along the current’s path, which can damage the blade

significantly. In order to provide a low resistance electrical path, the solution is to have an

outside skin that possesses low electrical resistance and connects all of the rotor segments.

POWER LOSSES

Power is defined as the rate of doing work, or the ratio of the work done to the time taken.

Power = Work/Time

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

Power = (Drag x Distance)/ Time = Drag x Velocity (Since Distance / Time = Velocity)

We know that drag depends on velocity. D = ½ρV2SCD

Therefore Power = (K)V3 (Other than velocity rest are constant with respect to altitude)

The resistance, or drag, of a body moving through the air will vary as the square of the

speed, but the power required to balance the drag will vary as the cube of the speed. Power is

normally expressed in terms of kilowatts (1 kw is equal to 737.6 foot pounds force/sec). The

power required by the rotor to maintain level flight throughout the helicopter’s speed range can

be attained by overcoming few losses. They are:

1. Profile Drag

The Power require to overcome the loss due to Profile drag is called Profile Power(Po)

2. Induced Drag

The Power require to overcome the loss due to Induced drag is called Induced Power (Pi)

3. Parasite Power Loss

The Power require to overcome the loss due to Parasite drag is called Parasite Power (Pp)

In addition, the main rotor cannot get all the power developed from the engine, as part of

it is spent for other purposes and does not go to the main rotor. For rotating of the tail rotor about

8% is lost from the consumed power of the engine, for fan rotation about 5%, for friction about

7% in transmission, for auxiliary drive units about 1%, and for blowing parts of the helicopter

about 2%.

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Principles of Rotorcraft Unit 1 Introduction to Rotorcraft

By overcoming all these losses mentioned above, the helicopter should be able to produce

enough additional power which in turns used as LIFT & THRUST by the main rotor blades to do

cyclic & collective control.

ROTOR EFFICIENCY

The efficiency of the rotor is defined as the ratio between the actual power (Rotor Power

Available) and the ideal power (Rotor Power Required) of the Helicopter Engine.

Rotor Efficiency = Rotor Power Available / Rotor Power Required

For a given airspeed, as density altitude is increased collective pitch must be increased to

maintain total rotor thrust. When collective pitch is increased induced power increases but rotor

profile power reduces. There will be an optimum altitude where the total power required from

the rotor is at a minimum. This occurs when rotor profile power has reduced more than the

induced power has increased. This is the altitude at which the rotor is most efficient and can be

obtained from the Operating Data Manual (ODM) for the aircraft. Any further increase in height

above the optimum will decrease rotor efficiency.

R.Ravichandran
Assistant Professor