REMO INTERNATIONAL COLLEGE

BSC – AVIATION
LECTURE NOTES

FLIGHT OPERATIONS
UNIT 5
Dilip Fernandez
APPLICATIONS OF FLIGHT PLANNING.
Weather Charts: Weather charts are graphical representations of various
atmospheric conditions and phenomena that are important for flight planning and
navigation. These charts provide pilots with critical information about weather
patterns, such as pressure systems, fronts, wind patterns, precipitation, and
turbulence. They are essential tools for pilots to assess the current and forecasted
weather conditions along their intended flight route.

Some common types of weather charts used in flight planning include:

1. Surface Analysis Chart: This chart depicts the current weather conditions at
the Earth's surface, including the locations of high and low-pressure
systems, fronts, and areas of precipitation.

2. Upper-Level Charts: These charts show atmospheric conditions at various

altitudes above the surface, typically at different pressure levels. Examples
include the 500-millibar chart, which represents conditions at approximately
18,000 feet above sea level, and the 250-millibar chart, representing
conditions at around 34,000 feet. Can be detected by Radiosonde and PIREPs
(Pilo Weather Reports). Can go upto 100000 feet and above giving data such
as Temperature, humidity, pressure and wind.

3. Radar and Satellite Imagery: Radar and satellite images provide real-time
information on precipitation, clouds, and storm systems. Pilots use these
images to identify areas of potential turbulence, thunderstorms, and other
hazardous weather conditions. Can be detected by TDWR (Terminal Doppler
Weather Radar).

4. Winds and Temperatures Aloft Forecast (FB): These charts provide forecasts
of wind speed, direction, and temperature at various altitudes above the
surface. Pilots use this information to plan routes that take advantage of
favorable winds and avoid areas of strong headwinds or turbulence.

5. SIGMETs (Significant Meteorological Information): SIGMETs are advisories

issued by meteorological agencies to warn pilots of significant weather
phenomena that could affect flight safety, such as severe turbulence, icing, or
volcanic ash clouds.

6. Convective Outlooks: These charts provide forecasts of the likelihood and

intensity of thunderstorm activity within a specified area and time frame.
Pilots use convective outlooks to plan routes that minimize the risk of
encountering hazardous weather conditions associated with thunderstorms.

METARs:

Surface aviation weather observations Surface aviation weather observations

(METARs) are a compilation of weather elements of the current weather at ground
stations across the United States. The network is made up of government run
facilities and privately contracted facilities that provide up-to-date weather
information. Automated weather sources such as automated weather observing
systems (AWOS) and automated surface observing systems (ASOS), as well as
other automated facilities, also play a major role in the gathering of surface
observations. Surface observations provide local weather conditions and other
relevant information. This information includes the type of report, station identifier,
date and time, modifier (as required), wind, visibility, runway visual range (RVR),
weather phenomena, sky condition, temperature/dew point, altimeter reading, and
applicable remarks. The information gathered for the surface observation may be
from a person, an automated station, or an automated station that is updated or
enhanced by a weather observer. In any form, the surface observation provides
valuable information about airports around the country.

All of these data can be acquired by :

Service outlets:

Service outlets are government or private facilities that provide aviation weather
services. Several different government agencies, including the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA), National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA),
and the National Weather Service (NWS) work in conjunction with private aviation
companies to provide different means of accessing weather information.

Transcribed Information Briefing Service (TIBS):

The Transcribed Information Briefing Service (TIBS) is a service which is prepared

and disseminated by selected Automated Flight Service Stations. It provides
continuous telephone recordings of meteorological and aeronautical information.
Specifically, TIBS provides area and route briefings, airspace procedures, and
special announcements. It is designed to be a preliminary briefing tool and is not
intended to replace a standard briefing from an FSS specialist.

Direct User Access Terminal Service (DUATS):

The Direct User Access Terminal Service, which is funded by the FAA, allows any
pilot with a current medical certificate to access weather information and file a
flight plan via computer. Two methods of access are available to connect with
DUATS.

Enroute Flight Advisory Service A service specifically designed to provide timely

enroute weather information upon pilot request is known as the enroute flight
advisory service (EFAS), or Flight Watch. EFAS provides a pilot with weather
advisories tailored to the type of flight, route, and cruising altitude. EFAS can be one
of the best sources for current weather information along the route of flight.

Hazardous In-flight Weather Advisory (HIWAS):

HIWAS is a national program for broadcasting hazardous weather information

continuously over selected navaids. The broadcasts include advisories such as
AIRMETS, SIGMETS, convective SIGMETS, and urgent PIREPs. These broadcasts are
only a summary of the information, and pilots should contact an FSS or EFAS for
detailed information.

Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB):

A transcribed weather broadcast is a weather report transmitted continuously over

selected navaids. On a sectional chart, a “T” in the upper right-hand corner of the
navaid box indicates TWEB availability. TWEB weather usually consists of route-
orientated data including route forecasts, forecast outlook, winds aloft, and other
selected weather reports for an area within 50 nautical miles (NM) of the FSS or for
a 50-mile-wide corridor along a specific route. A TWEB forecast is valid for 12 hours
and is updated four times a day.

Standard briefing:

A standard briefing is the most complete report and provides the overall weather
picture. This type of briefing should be obtained prior to the departure of any flight
and should be used during flight planning. A standard briefing provides the
following information in sequential order if it is applicable to the route of flight.

Adverse Conditions:

This includes information about adverse conditions that may influence a decision to
cancel or alter the route of flight. Adverse conditions includes significant weather,
such as thunderstorms or aircraft icing, or other important items such as airport
closings.

VFR Flight NOT RECOMMENDED:

If the weather for the route of flight is below VFR minimums, or if it is doubtful the
flight could be made under VFR conditions due to the forecast weather, the briefer
may state that VFR is not recommended. It is the pilot’s decision whether or not to
continue the flight under VFR, but this advisory should be weighed carefully.
Current Conditions:

This portion of the briefing contains the current ceilings, visibility, winds, and
temperatures. If the departure time is more than 2 hours away, current conditions
will not be included in the briefing.

En Route Forecast:

The en route forecast is a summary of the weather forecast for the proposed route
of flight.

Destination Forecast:

The destination forecast is a summary of the expected weather for the destination
airport at the estimated time of arrival (ETA).

Winds and Temperatures Aloft:

Winds and temperatures aloft is a report of the winds at specific altitudes for the
route of flight. However, the temperature information is provided only on request.

Notices to Airmen:

This portion supplies NOTAM information pertinent to the route of flight which has
not been published in the Notice to Airmen publication. Published NOTAM
information is provided during the briefing only when requested. ATC Delays— This
is an advisory of any known air traffic control (ATC) delays that may affect the flight.

Other Information: At the end of the standard briefing, the FSS specialist will
provide the radio frequencies needed to open a flight plan and to contact en route
flight advisory service (EFAS). Any additional information requested is also provided
at this time.
Weather Forecast:

The following types of forecast are regularly used in aviation:

• Aerodrome Forecast,

• Area or Route Forecast,

• Special Forecasts.

Aerodrome Forecast

An aerodrome forecast (TAF) consists of a concise statement of the expected

meteorological conditions at an aerodrome for a specified period (ICAO Annex 3).
Aerodrome forecasts are issued in the TAF code form and include the following
information in the order indicated: a) Code name TAF/TAF AMD; b) Location indicator
(ICAO 4-letter code); c) Date and time of origin of forecast; d) Date and period of
validity of forecast; e) Surface Wind; f) Visibility; g) Weather; h) Cloud; and i)
Expected significant changes to one or more of these elements during the period of
validity.

Route of Area Forecasts:

Area and route forecasts contain upper winds, upper-air temperatures, and
significant en-route weather phenomena and associated clouds. Other elements
may be added as required. This information covers the flight operations for which
they are intended in respect of time, altitude and geographical extent.

Special Forecasts:

A special report or forecast (SPECI) is issued whenever significant changes have

occurred or are expected to occur to the published report or forecast. These are
published in the SPECI code format. The SPECI code is similar to the METAR/TAF
code.

SIGMET:

SIGMET information is issued by a meteorological watch office concerning the

occurrence or expected occurrence of specified en-route weather phenomena
which may affect the safety of high level operations of aircraft. (ICAO Annex 3:
Meteorology) A SIGMET gives a concise description of the phenomena in
abbreviated plain language.

The following are examples of weather phenomena that may be described in a

SIGMET:

• Thunderstorms

• Cyclones (Tropical Revolving Storms)

• Severe turbulence

• Severe icing

• Severe Mountain Waves

• Dust or Sandstorms

• Volcanic Ash

AIRMET:

An AIRMET is a message containing information issued by a meteorological watch

office concerning the occurrence or expected occurrence of specified en-route weather
phenomena which may affect the safety of low-level aircraft operations, and which was
not already included in the forecast issued for low-level flights in the flight information
region concerned. In this context, low-level operations mean flight below FL100 (or
below FL150 or higher in mountainous areas).

Surface wind speed above 30 kt

• Surface visibility below 5000 m

• Thunderstorm • Mountain obscuration

• Broken or overcast Cloud with base below 1000 ft

• Cumulonimbus (Cb) clouds

• Moderate or severe icing

• Moderate or severe turbulence

• Moderate or severe Mountain Waves

VOLMET:

VOLMET reports are broadcast principally over high frequency (HF) radio by a few civil
and military stations located around the world. This global network is divided into
regions with each region having several VOLMET broadcast stations which all broadcast
on the same frequency(s). VHF stations normally broadcast their information in a
continuous loop updating the information as changes occur.

HF VOLMET stations generally broadcast on a published schedule with five-minute

intervals allocated to each station, thus preventing overlapping transmission on the
same frequency.
Distribution of Weather Forecasts

Two principal methods are used for the distribution of weather forecasts:

• Written Forecasts are available on request from meteorological offices and

typically contain the following information, valid for the period of the expected flight:
Map showing weather forecast in specified are or along specified route; Map
showing forecast upper air winds and temperatures; Aerodrome forecasts for
departure and destination airports as well as selected en-route and alternate
aerodromes; Actual weather reports for departure, destination and en-route
aerodromes.

• Electronic Transmission of aerodrome actual weather reports and forecasts.

These are transmitted on published RTF frequencies using the TAF/METAR code and
are updated at regular intervals or when significant changes (SIGMETs) occur.
FILING OF FLIGHT PLAN:

Filing a flight plan with Air Traffic Control (ATC) is a crucial step for pilots before
conducting a flight, especially for flights operating under instrument flight rules
(IFR).

Some of the Important Steps to be followed are:

1. Flight Planning: Before filing a flight plan, pilots must conduct thorough flight
planning. This includes determining the route, calculating fuel requirements,
checking weather conditions along the route, and ensuring that all necessary
equipment and documents are onboard.

2. Accessing Flight Service: Pilots can access flight planning services through
various channels, including online flight planning tools, flight planning
software, or by contacting a flight service station (FSS) via phone or radio.
Many aviation apps and websites provide tools for creating and filing flight
plans electronically.

3. Completing the Flight Plan Form: Pilots need to fill out a flight plan form with
relevant details about the flight. This typically includes information such as
the aircraft identification (tail number), aircraft type, departure airport,
destination airport, route of flight, planned altitude, estimated time en route,
fuel onboard, and alternate airports. Pilots also need to indicate whether the
flight will be conducted under visual flight rules (VFR) or IFR.

4. Filing the Flight Plan: Once the flight plan form is completed, pilots submit it
to the appropriate authority. For IFR flights in controlled airspace, this
usually means filing the flight plan with the appropriate ATC facility, such as
a Flight Service Station or Center. For VFR flights or flights departing from
uncontrolled airports, pilots may file the flight plan with a Flight Service
Station or directly with ATC.

5. Receiving Clearance: For IFR flights, after filing the flight plan, pilots must
obtain a clearance from ATC before departing. This clearance will include the
assigned route, altitude, and any other instructions from ATC.

6. Activating the Flight Plan: Once ready to depart, pilots must activate their
flight plan with ATC. For IFR flights, this typically occurs when contacting
clearance delivery or ground control for taxi instructions. For VFR flights,
pilots may activate their flight plan by radio or by contacting Flight Service.

7. Monitoring and Communication: Throughout the flight, pilots must maintain

communication with ATC and adhere to any instructions provided by ATC. This
includes providing position reports, altitude changes, and any deviations from
the planned route.
 8. Closing the Flight Plan: Upon reaching the destination airport, pilots must
close their flight plan to inform ATC that the flight has concluded safely.
Failure to close a flight plan can trigger search and rescue procedures
unnecessarily.

Completion of the ICAO flight plan form is quite simple and is only a matter of
inserting the requested information in the appropriate boxes. The white boxes on
the form relate to required information about the flight and are to be completed by
the pilot or dispatcher while the shaded boxes indicate the information that is to be
inserted by appropriate ATS and COM services. It is very important to adhere closely
to the prescribed formats and manner of specifying data.

When completing a flight plan the following rules apply:

DATE OF FLIGHT:

Six-digit date format “YYMMDD”, where “YY” is the last two digits of the year, “MM” is
a two-digit representation of the month, and “DD” is a two-digit representation of
the calendar day (all with leading zeroes where necessary). i.e. 121015, 130122...

AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION

Aircraft registration letters/tail number or an ICAO agency designator with Flight

number. ICAO 2012 strictly enforces that THIS should be letters and numbers only,
devoid of dashes, spaces, or other punctuation. i.e. N123B, GCABC, KLM672,
SWIFT45...

FLIGHT RULES

Denotes the category of flight rules: “I” for IFR, “V” for VFR, “Y” for when the flight
will be initially IFR followed by one or more subsequent rules changes, and “Z” for
VFR with any number of subsequent changes. When a “Y” or “Z” flight is prepared,
“VFR” or “IFR must be entered in the route string wherever the transitions/changes
to the flight rules are planned to occur.

i.e. Departing VFR, cruising IFR, and landing VFR? File Z.

TYPE OF FLIGHT

Denotes the type of flight as follows: “S” for Scheduled Air Service, “N” for Non-
scheduled Air Transport Operation, “G” for General Aviation, “M” for Military, and “X”
for everything else.
NUMBER

Number of aircraft in sight, if more than one. This figure is omitted if the flight is
only a solo aircraft movement.

TYPE OF AIRCRAFT

If no designator exists for your aircraft, or there is more than one type of aircraft in
your flight, enter “ZZZZ” here and specify number and type(s) in 18 OTHER
INFORMATION preceded by “TYP/” tags. i.e. P46T, EA50, C182...

WAKE TURBULENCE CAT.

Wake turbulence category of aircraft as specified in ICAO Doc 8643 or based on

weight and the following options: “L” for Light (< 7,000 kg), “M” for Medium (7,000 to
136,000 kg), “H” for Heavy (> 136,000 kg), and “J” for Jumbo (exceptionally heavy
aircraft such as the Airbus A380-800).

EQUIPMENT

The ICAO 2012 amendment includes extensive changes to the COM/NAV equipment
codesused in the FPL message format. These changes and Euro FPL’s helpful ICAO
2012 Equipment Wizard.

DEPARTURE AERODROME

Four-character location indicator of the departure aerodrome, “AFIL” if filled in the

air, or “ZZZZ” if no official designator exists in ICAO Doc 7910. In the latter cases,
ICAO 2012 strictly states that the aerodrome name or primary flx with location
(degrees and minutes ddmmNdddmmE format preferred) be entered in 18 OTHER
INFORMATION preceded by a “DEP/” tag. i.e. EKRK, BIKF, LFPG, CYYR, ZZZZ...

TIME

Planned time of departure (UTC) in 24-hour “HHMM” format, where “HH” is a two-
digit representation of the hour, and “MM” is a two-digit representation of the
minutes past thehour (with leading zeroes where necessary). i.e. 0615, 1342, 2305...

CRUISING SPEED

True airspeed for the initial or whole cruise segment of the flight, indicated as: “N”
for Knots, followed by a four-digit figure, “M” for Mach number followed by a three-
digit representation of ratio, or “K” for Kilometers/hour followed by a four-digit
number. i.e. K0830, N0485, M082...

LEVEL

Planned cruising level for the initial or whole cruise segment of the flight, indicated
as: “F” for Flight Level in 100s of feet, “A” for plain altitude in 100s of feet (both three-
digit), “S” for Standard Metric Level in tens of metres, “M” for plain altitude in tens of
metres (both four-digit), or “V” for uncontrolled VFR i.e. F330, M0840, A045...

EQUIPMENT

VHF RTF/VOR/ILS (S) - Standard COM/NAV Setup

GBAS (A) - Ground Based Augmentation System

LPV (APV/SBAS) (B) - Localizer Performance with

Vertical Guidance (Infers Satt.-Based Augmentation)

LORANC (C) - LORAN-C Radio navigation

DME (D) - Distance Measurement Equipment

ADF (F) - Automatic Direction Finder

GNSS (G) - Global Navigation Satellite System

HF RTF (H) - HF Radiotelephone

INERTIAL NAV (I) - Aircraft Inertial Guidance

CPDLC (Multiple) - Controller-Pilot Data Link

ATC RTF SATCOM (Multiple) - Radiotelephone Satt.

MLS (K) - Microwave Landing System

ILS (L) - Instrument Landing System

VOR (O) - VHF Omnidirectional Radio Range

PBN (R) - Performance-Based Navigation

TACAN (T) - Tactical Air Navigation System

UHF RTF (U) - UHF Radiotelephone

VHF RTF (V) - VHF Radiotelephone

RVSM (W) - Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum

MNPS (X) - Minimum Navigation Performance Spec.

VHF 8.33 (Y) - 8.33 kHz Radio Channel Spacing

OTHER (Z) - Other Item(s) Not Listed Above

MODE A (A) - Mode A Transponder

MODE S (S) - Mode S Transponder

ADS-B/1090 MHz (Multiple) -1090 MHz Out/In

ADS-B/UAT (Multiple) - Universal Access Trans. Out/In

ADS-B/VDL M4 (Multiple) - VHF Digital Mode 4 Out/In

ADS-C/FANS 1/A (D1) - Sur. Contract Future Air Nav.

ADS-C/ATN (G1) - Sur. Contract Aeronautical Telecom

MODE A/C (C) - Mode A Transponder with Mode C

S/[...] (Multiple) - Mode S Transponder with or without...

ID - Aircraft Identification

ADS-B - Surveillance Broadcast DLINK - Data Link

PALT - Pressure Altitude

ACARS (Multiple) - Addressing and Reporting System

ROUTE

A string of points (and connecting airways or DCTs where applicable) describing an

ATS route or path of flaxes no more than 30 minutes flflying time or 200nm apart,
including those points where a change of speed, level, track, or flight rules is
planned. Points can be listed by their coded designator.

DESTINATION AERODROME

Four-character location indicator of the destination aerodrome or “ZZZZ” if no oflcial

designator exists in ICAO Doc 7910. In the latter case, ICAO 2012 strictly states that
the aerodrome name or with location (degrees and minutes ddmmNdddmmE format
preferred) be entered in 18 OTHER INFORMATION preceded by a “DEST/” tag. i.e.
EKRK, BIKF, LFPG, CYYR, ZZZZ...

TOTAL EET

Total estimated enroute time in “HHMM” format, where “HH” is a two-digit

representation of the hours and “MM” is a two-digit representation of minutes in
flight i.e. 0142, 0305, 0047.

ENDURANCE

Total fuel endurance in “HHMM” format, where “HH” is a two-digit representation of

the hours and “MM” is a two-digit representation of minutes of fuel.

PERSONS ON BOARD

Total number of persons including passengers and crew that will be onboard, or
“TBN” (To Be Notifed) if unknown at time of filing.
EMERGENCY RADIO

Select “UHF” here if you are able to receive and xmit at 243.0 MHz, “VHF” here if you
are able to receive and xmit at 121.5 MHz, and/or “ELBA” if an emergency location
beacon is present on the plane.

SURVIVAL EQUIPMENT

Select the appropriate items indicating what types of survival equipment, if any, are
carried.

JACKETS

Select “LIGHT” if your life jacket(s) are lighting equipped, “FLUORES” if fluorescein
equipped, and “UHF” or “VHF” if radio equipped.

DINGHIES (NUMBER)

The number of survival dinghies carried onboard. Leave blank if none.

DINGHIES (CAPACITY)

Total capacity, in persons, of all dinghies carried. Leave blank if none.

AIRCRAFT COLOR AND MARKINGS

Plain text description of aircraft color and any significant livery markings or
characteristics.

REMARKS

Indicate any other survival equipment carried and/or other remarks specifically
regarding survival equipment and search-and-rescue (SAR) information.
LOAD MANIFEST FORM

A load manifest form, also known simply as a manifest, is a document used in

aviation to record details about passengers, cargo, and baggage carried on an
aircraft for a particular flight. It serves several important purposes, including
ensuring compliance with weight and balance limitations, facilitating aircraft
loading and unloading, and providing essential information for operational and
safety purposes.

The components and importance of a load manifest form are:

1. Flight Details: The manifest begins with basic flight information, including the
flight number, date, departure airport, destination airport, and scheduled
departure and arrival times. This information helps identify the specific flight
to which the manifest pertains.

2. Aircraft Information: The manifest includes details about the aircraft being
used for the flight, such as the aircraft registration (tail number), type, and
configuration. This information ensures that the manifest is matched with the
correct aircraft and helps maintain accurate records.

3. Passenger Information: For commercial flights, the manifest includes a list of

passengers booked on the flight. Each passenger's name, seat assignment (if
applicable), and sometimes additional details such as frequent flyer status or
special requests are recorded. Passenger manifests are essential for
passenger boarding, verifying identity, and accounting for all passengers in
the event of an emergency.

4. Baggage Information: The manifest also records details about the baggage
being loaded onto the aircraft. This includes the number of checked bags,
their total weight, and any special handling instructions (e.g., fragile items).
Baggage manifests help ensure that all passenger baggage is accounted for
and properly distributed throughout the aircraft's cargo compartments.

5. Cargo Information: If the flight is carrying cargo or freight, the manifest

includes information about the type, quantity, and weight of the cargo. This
may include general cargo, mail, or specialized items such as live animals or
hazardous materials. Cargo manifests are essential for determining the
aircraft's weight and balance, as well as ensuring compliance with
regulations governing the transportation of cargo.

6. Weight and Balance Calculations: One of the most critical purposes of the
load manifest is to assist in calculating the aircraft's weight and balance. By
aggregating the weights of passengers, baggage, and cargo recorded on the
manifest, along with the weight of fuel and other operational items, flight
 crews can ensure that the aircraft's weight is within safe limits and properly
distributed for stable flight.

7. Operational and Safety Considerations: In addition to its primary functions

related to weight and balance, the load manifest may include other
operational and safety considerations. This could include special instructions
for handling particular items of cargo, notifications of hazardous materials
onboard, or information about passengers requiring special assistance or
medical attention.

8. Regulatory Compliance: Load manifests are often required by aviation

regulatory authorities as part of the documentation necessary for conducting
commercial air transportation. Compliance with manifest requirements helps
ensure that flights are conducted safely and in accordance with applicable
regulations.

The form must contatin:

(a) The weight of the aircraft, fuel and oil, cargo and baggage, passengers and
crewmembers.

(b) The maximum allowable weight for that flight that must not exceed the least of
the following weights:

(1) Maximum allowable takeoff weight for the runway intended to be used
(including

corrections for altitude and gradient, and wind and temperature conditions
existing at the takeoff time).

(2) Maximum takeoff weight considering anticipated fuel and oil consumption
that allows compliance with applicable en route performance limitations.

(3) Maximum takeoff weight considering anticipated fuel and oil consumption
that allows compliance with the maximum authorized design landing weight
limitations on arrival at the

destination airport.

(4) Maximum takeoff weight considering anticipated fuel and oil consumption that
allows compliance with landing distance limitations on arrival at the destination and
alternate airports.

(c) The total weight computed under approved procedures.

(d) Evidence that the aircraft is loaded according to an approved schedule that
ensures that the center of gravity is within approved limits.
(e) Names of passengers unless such information is maintained by other means by
the certificate holder.
Computerized Flight Plan:

A computerized flight plan refers to a flight plan that is created, managed, and
processed electronically using computer software or applications specifically
designed for aviation purposes. These computerized systems have largely replaced
traditional paper-based flight planning methods due to their efficiency, accuracy,
and ability to integrate real-time data and automated calculations.

The flight plans usually work with :

Flight Planning Software:

There are various types of software and applications available for creating
computerized flight plans. These range from standalone desktop applications to
web-based platforms and mobile apps. Examples include ForeFlight, Jeppesen
FliteDeck, Garmin Pilot, and many others. These tools provide pilots with features
for route planning, weather analysis, weight and balance calculations, and filing
flight plans electronically.

Route Planning:

Computerized flight planning software allows pilots to input the departure and
destination airports, as well as any intermediate waypoints, air routes, or fixes
along the route of flight. The software typically offers graphical interfaces for
visualizing the planned route on a map, along with options for adjusting the route
based on factors such as airspace restrictions, weather conditions, and preferred
routings.

Weather Integration:

One of the significant advantages of computerized flight planning is the ability to

integrate real-time weather data into the planning process. Flight planning software
can display current and forecasted weather conditions along the route, including
information on wind speed and direction, turbulence, icing, thunderstorms, and
visibility. This allows pilots to make informed decisions about route selection,
altitude adjustments, and fuel planning to optimize safety and efficiency.

Performance Calculations:

Computerized flight planning software includes features for calculating aircraft

performance parameters, such as fuel consumption, time en route, and expected
arrival times. These calculations take into account factors such as aircraft weight,
altitude, winds aloft, and atmospheric conditions to provide accurate predictions of
flight parameters.

Weight and Balance:

Flight planning software often includes tools for performing weight and balance
calculations to ensure that the aircraft's weight is within safe limits and properly
distributed. Pilots can input the weight of passengers, baggage, cargo, and fuel, and
the software will calculate the aircraft's center of gravity and stability
characteristics.

Flight Plan Filing:

Once the flight plan is complete, pilots can use computerized flight planning
software to file the flight plan electronically with the appropriate authorities, such
as Air Traffic Control (ATC) or Flight Service Stations (FSS). The software interfaces
with relevant filing systems to transmit the flight plan data securely and efficiently.

Integration with Avionics:

Many modern avionics systems are compatible with computerized flight planning
software, allowing pilots to transfer flight plans directly from their computers or
mobile devices to the aircraft's navigation systems. This integration streamlines the
flight planning process and ensures consistency between the planned route and the
onboard navigation systems.
Objects and Methods of Flight Planning:\

Flight planning involves various objects and methods to ensure safe and efficient
flight operations.

Objects of Flight Planning:

Aircraft: The aircraft itself is the primary object of flight planning. Its performance
characteristics, including maximum range, cruising speed, fuel capacity, and weight
limits, dictate the parameters of the flight plan.

Crew: The flight crew, including pilots and other personnel involved in flight
operations, are essential objects in flight planning. Crew qualifications, rest
requirements, and duty limitations must be considered when planning flight
schedules and rest periods.

Passengers and Cargo: The people and cargo being transported on the aircraft are
significant objects of flight planning. Passenger and cargo loads affect the aircraft's
weight and balance, fuel requirements, and other operational considerations.

Weather: Weather conditions along the planned route and at the departure and
destination airports are critical objects in flight planning. Weather forecasts and
observations influence route selection, altitude planning, fuel reserves, and other
aspects of the flight plan.

Airspace: The airspace structure, including controlled airspace, restricted areas,

and special-use airspace, is an important object of flight planning. Pilots must
adhere to airspace regulations and restrictions when planning their routes and
obtaining necessary clearances.
Methods of Flight Planning:

Route Planning: Route planning involves selecting the most efficient and safe path
from the departure airport to the destination airport. Factors considered in route
planning include airspace restrictions, terrain, weather conditions, navigational
aids, and air traffic flow.

Performance Calculations: Performance calculations involve determining the

aircraft's expected performance characteristics for the planned flight, including fuel
consumption, time en route, and cruising altitude. These calculations take into
account factors such as aircraft weight, atmospheric conditions, and wind aloft.

Weather Analysis: Weather analysis involves interpreting weather forecasts and

observations to assess the potential impact of weather on the planned flight. Pilots
must consider factors such as turbulence, icing, thunderstorms, visibility, and winds
aloft when planning their flights.

Fuel Planning: Fuel planning involves calculating the amount of fuel required for the
planned flight, taking into account factors such as aircraft performance, weather
conditions, alternate airports, and regulatory requirements. Pilots must ensure that
they carry sufficient fuel reserves to safely complete the flight and handle
unforeseen contingencies.

Weight and Balance Calculations: Weight and balance calculations involve ensuring
that the aircraft's weight is within safe limits and properly distributed for stable
flight. Pilots must calculate the combined weight of passengers, cargo, fuel, and
other items onboard the aircraft and determine the aircraft's center of gravity.

Flight Plan Filing: Flight plan filing involves submitting a formal flight plan to the
appropriate authorities, such as Air Traffic Control (ATC) or Flight Service Stations
(FSS). The flight plan includes details such as the planned route, departure and
destination airports, expected departure time, aircraft identification, and other
relevant information.
Advanced Flight Operations:

The following will be studied

1. PBN
2. RNAV
3. RNP
4. ETOPS

PBN:

PBN stands for Performance-Based Navigation. It's a method of navigation that

allows aircraft to fly more precise routes using satellite navigation systems, such
as GPS (Global Positioning System) and other global navigation satellite systems
(GNSS). PBN enables more efficient and flexible flight operations by allowing
aircraft to navigate using performance requirements rather than relying solely on
ground-based navigation aids.

The key components and concepts associated with PBN are:

Navigation Specifications:

PBN specifies various navigation performance requirements, known as navigation

specifications, that aircraft must meet to operate within defined airspace. These
specifications define the accuracy, integrity, continuity, and availability of navigation
systems required for specific types of operations.

RNAV (Area Navigation):

RNAV is a type of PBN that allows aircraft to navigate along a desired path between
waypoints using onboard navigation systems. RNAV routes are defined by a series
of waypoints, which can be defined in terms of latitude and longitude or referenced
to fixed navigation aids.

RNP (Required Navigation Performance):

RNP is another type of PBN that specifies a specific level of navigation performance
necessary for aircraft operations within a defined airspace. RNP includes both
lateral and vertical navigation performance requirements and ensures that aircraft
can navigate within a specified containment area around a desired path.
GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System):

GNSS, such as GPS, is a key enabler of PBN. These satellite-based navigation

systems provide accurate position information to aircraft, allowing for precise
navigation along desired flight paths.

Benefits:

PBN offers several benefits compared to traditional ground-based navigation

systems. It allows for more direct routing, reducing flight distances and fuel
consumption. It also increases airspace capacity by enabling more efficient use of
airspace and reducing reliance on ground-based navigation aids.

Implementation:

PBN implementation involves defining navigation specifications and procedures for

specific airspace areas and routes. This may include the establishment of RNAV and
RNP procedures, the development of PBN routes and procedures, and the
installation of necessary ground infrastructure to support PBN operations.

Regulatory Framework:

PBN is regulated by aviation authorities such as the International Civil Aviation

Organization (ICAO) and national aviation authorities. These organizations define
standards and requirements for PBN implementation and ensure that operators
comply with PBN regulations.

PBN Helps with:

• Reduces the need to maintain sensor specific routes and costs.

• Avoids the need for development of sensor specific operations with
technological advancements.
• Allows for better airspace usage.
• Helps facilitate RNAV AND RNP.
• Gives continuous indication of location.
• Display of distance to active waypoint
• Display Ground speed and time to active waypoint.

Components of the PBN Concept:

 PBN is one of several enablers of an Airspace Concept. The others are
Communications, ATS Surveillance and ATM. The PBN Concept is comprised of three
components: The Navigation Specification, the Navaid Infrastructure and the
Navigation Application.

The Navigation Specification: It prescribes the performance requirements in terms

of accuracy, integrity, continuity for proposed operations in a particular Airspace.
The Navigation Specification also describes how these performance requirements
are to be achieved i.e., which navigation functionalities are required to achieve the
prescribed performance. Associated with the navigation specification are
requirements related to pilot knowledge and training and operational approval.

A Navigation Specification is either an RNP specification or an RNAV specification.

An RNP specification includes a requirement for on-board self-contained
performance monitoring and alerting while an RNAV specification does not.

The Navaid Infrastructure: It relates to ground- or space-based navigation aids that

are called up in each Navigation Specification. The availability of the navaid
infrastructure must be considered to enable the navigation application.

The Navigation Application: It refers to the application of the Navigation

Specification and Navaid Infrastructure in the context of an airspace concept to ATS
routes and instrument flight procedures.

PBN-(X)

The first concept is the basis of performance based navigation systems and how
they work. Instead of airways based on radials off of ground navaids, RNAV/RNP
Routes are designed for fixed containment areas laterally. Using GPS or other
forms of RNAV allows for reduced airway width. Navigation standards of
performance are defined by the below:

1. Deviation from course center line may not exceed (X)Nautical Miles 95% of
the time.

(X) represents the performance standard as a function of nautical miles deviation,

not the navigation capability. This standard includes Equipment Errors, Flight Crew
Navigation/Procedure Errors and what is known as “Flight Technical Errors”
(failures of the airspace or navigation system).
RNAV:

RNAV stands for Area Navigation, which is a method of aircraft navigation that
allows for navigation along a desired flight path within the coverage of navigation
aids or within a defined airspace, without the need to fly directly over ground-based
navigational aids. RNAV is a key component of Performance-Based Navigation
(PBN) and is widely used in modern aviation.

RNAV enables aircraft to navigate using onboard navigation systems, such as GPS
(Global Positioning System) or other global navigation satellite systems (GNSS), to
follow a desired path defined by a series of waypoints. These waypoints can be
defined in terms of latitude and longitude coordinates, distances and bearings from
known points, or other navigation references.

Waypoints:

RNAV routes are defined by a series of waypoints, which are specific geographic
locations or navigation fixes that define the desired flight path. Waypoints can be
defined using various methods, including coordinates, radial and distance from VOR
(VHF Omni-directional Radio Range) stations, intersections of airways, or user-
defined points.

Flexibility:

One of the key advantages of RNAV is its flexibility in defining flight paths. Aircraft
can navigate along direct routes between waypoints, allowing for more efficient
routing and avoiding the need to fly along predefined airways or ground-based
navigation routes.

Accuracy:

RNAV systems provide accurate position information to the aircraft, allowing for
precise navigation along desired flight paths. This accuracy is crucial for
maintaining separation between aircraft and for navigating in areas with limited
ground-based navigation infrastructure.

Applications:

RNAV is used for various types of flight operations, including en-route navigation,
terminal area navigation, and approach and departure procedures. RNAV
procedures enable more efficient and flexible flight operations, reduce fuel
consumption, and increase airspace capacity.

Area navigation (RNAV) specification that includes the on-board performance

control andalerting requirement, designated by the prefix RNP; e.g., RNP 4, RNP
APCH, RNP AR APCH.
An area navigation system which permits aircraft operation on any desired flight
path within the coverage of ground- or space-based navigation aids or within the
limits of the capability of self-contained aids, or a combination of these. An RNAV
system may be included as part of a Flight Management System (FMS).
RNP:

RNP stands for Required Navigation Performance. It is a type of navigation

specification that defines the level of navigation accuracy, integrity, availability, and
continuity required for aircraft operations within a defined airspace. RNP is a key
component of Performance-Based Navigation (PBN) and is used to ensure that
aircraft can navigate safely and accurately along predefined flight paths,
particularly in areas with limited ground-based navigation infrastructure or in
congested airspace.

RNP focuses on:

Navigation Performance Requirements: RNP specifies both lateral and vertical

navigation performance requirements for aircraft operations. It defines the
accuracy with which an aircraft must be able to navigate along a desired flight path,
expressed in terms of a containment radius around the intended path.

Containment Area: RNP procedures define a containment area around the desired
flight path within which the aircraft must remain at least 95% of the flight time. This
containment area ensures that the aircraft navigates within specified tolerances to
maintain separation from obstacles and other aircraft.

RNP Values: RNP specifications are expressed as RNP values, such as RNP 0.3,
RNP 1, RNP 2, etc. These values represent the lateral containment radius in nautical
miles within which the aircraft must navigate. For example, RNP 0.3 requires the
aircraft to navigate within a containment radius of 0.3 nautical miles of the intended
flight path.

Applications: RNP is used for various types of flight operations, including en-route
navigation, terminal area navigation, and approach and departure procedures. RNP
procedures enable more precise and efficient navigation, reduce the risk of
airspace congestion, and increase airspace capacity.

Advanced Procedures: RNP allows for the implementation of advanced navigation

procedures, such as curved approaches, continuous descent arrivals (CDA), and
required time of arrival (RTA) procedures. These procedures optimize flight paths,
reduce fuel consumption, and minimize environmental impact.

Regulatory Framework: RNP is regulated by aviation authorities such as the

International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) and national aviation authorities.
These organizations define standards and requirements for RNP implementation
and ensure that operators comply with RNP regulations.
RNP TYPES:

RNP 1 or less: Intended to support Terminal Area operations. Practical

implementation is not expected before 2010 in designated TMAs in the European
Airspace.
− RNP 4: Supports ATS routes and airspace design based on limited distance
between navaids and is normally associated with continental airspace.
− RNP 10: Supports navigation in oceanic and remote areas where the availability of
navigation aids is limited (based on IRS only navigation for a limited time period of
6.2 hours).
− RNP 12.6: Supports limited optimised routing in areas with a reduced level of
navigation facilities.
− RNP 20: Describes the minimum capability considered acceptable to support ATS
route separations and is expected to be met by any aircraft in any controlled
airspace at any time.

Some States have implemented RNP 5 (Europe: BRNAV) for an interim period as a
derivative of RNP 4, in order to permit the continued operation of present navigation
equipment without modification of existing route structures.

RNP DURING PHASES OF FLIGHT

Evolution of PBN: