CALCULUS I

Differentiation, DERIVATIVE
Introduction
• Average rate of change
If 𝑓(𝑥) is defined on [𝑥1 , 𝑥2 ], then the average rate of
change is defined as
𝑓(𝑥2 ) − 𝑓(𝑥1 )
𝐴. 𝑅. = Average Rate = .
𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Example:
If 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 + 2 𝑥 + 1, is defined on [0, 3].
Solution:
𝑓(3) − 𝑓(0)
𝐴. 𝑅. =
3−0
(32 + 2 ∗ 3 + 1) − (02 + 2 ∗ 0 + 1)
=
3−0
9 + 6 + 1 − 1 15
= = = 5.
3 3
I. Note that:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim
ℎ→0 𝑥+ℎ−𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ
= 𝑠𝑙𝑜𝑝 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 (= 𝑚𝑥 )
Then if 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥)
𝑑𝑦
∴ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑦 ′ = = 𝐷𝑦 = 𝐷𝑓 .
𝑑𝑥
Example:
If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 2 𝑥 + 1, find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥).
Solution:
Since 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = (𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 2 (𝑥 + ℎ) + 1,
⇒ 𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) = 𝑥 2 + 2 𝑥 ℎ + ℎ2 + 2 𝑥 + 2ℎ + 1

′ (𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑥 2 + 2 𝑥 ℎ + ℎ2 + 2 𝑥 + 2ℎ + 1 − 𝑥 2 − 2 𝑥 − 1
⇒𝑓 = lim = lim
ℎ→0 (𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑥 ℎ→0 ℎ
ℎ(2 𝑥 + 2 + ℎ )
= lim = lim (2 𝑥 + 2 + ℎ) = 2𝑥 + 2 + 0 = 2 𝑥 + 2.
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0

Page 1 of 54
Example:
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 𝑥 2 + 3 𝑥 + 1, find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) at 𝑥 = 2.
Solution:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 2(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 3(𝑥 + ℎ) + 1 − 2 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
2 𝑥 + 4 𝑥 ℎ + 2 ℎ + 3 𝑥 + 3 ℎ + 1 − 2 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 − 1
2 2
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ
ℎ(4 𝑥 + 3 + 2ℎ )
= lim = lim (4 𝑥 + 3 + ℎ) = 4𝑥 + 3 + 2 ∗ 0 = 4 𝑥 + 3.
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0

At 𝑥 = 2,
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4 ∗ 2 + 3 = 11 ⋅

Example:
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥, find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥), 𝑚𝑠 at 𝑥 = 1, equations of tangent and its normal line.
Solution:
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) √𝑥 + ℎ − √𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
Multiply by conjugate

√𝑥 + ℎ − √𝑥 √𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim ∗
ℎ→0 ℎ √𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥
𝑥+ℎ−𝑥 1 1
= lim = lim = ,
ℎ→0 ℎ(√𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥) ℎ→0 √𝑥 + ℎ + √𝑥 2 √𝑥
1
∴ 𝑚𝑠 = , 𝑎𝑡 𝑥 = 1
2
The tangent equation is defined as
𝑦 − 𝑦0
= 𝑚𝑠
𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜
𝑦−1 1
⇒ = ⇒ 2𝑦 − 2 = 𝑥 − 1 ⇒ 2𝑦 − 𝑥 − 1 = 0,
𝑥−1 2
1
While the slope of the normal line on this tangent is − = −2
𝑚𝑠

Then the equation of the normal line is defined as

𝑦 − 𝑦0 1
=−
𝑥 − 𝑥𝑜 𝑚𝑠
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 𝑦−1
⇒ = −2 ⇒ 𝑦 − 1 = −2𝑥 + 2 ⇒ 𝑦 + 2𝑥 − 3 = 0,
𝑥−1
Example:
𝑥
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = , find 𝑓 ′ (𝑥).
𝑥−1

Solution:
𝑥+ℎ 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) −
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = lim = lim 𝑥 + ℎ − 1 𝑥 − 1
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
(𝑥 + ℎ)(𝑥 − 1) − 𝑥(𝑥 + ℎ − 1)
= lim
ℎ→0 ℎ(𝑥 + ℎ − 1)(𝑥 − 1)
𝑥 2 + 𝑥ℎ − 𝑥 − ℎ − 𝑥 2 − 𝑥ℎ + 𝑥 −1
= lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ(𝑥 + ℎ − 1)(𝑥 − 1) ℎ→0 (𝑥 + ℎ − 1)(𝑥 − 1)
−1
= .
(𝑥 − 1)2
If 𝑓 ′ = −1
⇒ (𝑥 − 1)2 = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 − 1 = ±1 ⇒ 𝑥 = 2 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 = 0,
the points on 𝑓(𝑥) are (2,2), (0,0).

Continuity and differentiability of the function

Example:
5𝑥 − 3, 𝑥 < 1
If 𝑓(𝑥) = { , study cont. and diff. at 𝑥 = 1.
𝑥 2 + 1, 𝑥 ≥ 1
Solution:
𝑥 2 + 1, 𝑥 > 1
𝑓(𝑥) = { 𝑥 2 + 1, 𝑥 = 1
5𝑥 − 3, 𝑥 < 1
at 𝑥 = 1 ⇒ 𝑓(1) = 2, (direct substitution.)
Right limit:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 𝑥 2 + 1 = 2,
𝑥→1+ 𝑥→1

left limit:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ 5𝑥 − 3 = 2,
𝑥→1− 𝑥→1

since

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 lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim− 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(1) = 2,
𝑥→1+ 𝑥→1

hence the function is continuous at 𝑥 = 1, i.e. lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 2.

𝑥→1

(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 1 − 𝑥 2 − 1
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) lim , 𝑥 ≥1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
= lim = ℎ→0 ℎ
ℎ→0 ℎ 5(𝑥 + ℎ) − 3 − 5𝑥 + 3
lim
{ℎ→0 , 𝑥 <1
ℎ
𝑥 2 + ℎ2 + 2𝑥ℎ + 1 − 𝑥 2 − 1
lim , 𝑥≥1 2𝑥, 𝑥≥1
= {ℎ→0 ℎ ={ ,
5𝑥 + 5ℎ − 3 − 5𝑥 + 3 5, 𝑥<1
lim , 𝑥<1
ℎ→0 ℎ
∴ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 → 1+ ) = 2𝑥 = 2,
∴ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 → 1− ) = 5,
Hence 𝑓(𝑥) is not differentiability at 𝑥 = 1.

Example:
If 𝑓(𝑥) = |𝑥|, discuss cont. and at 𝑥 = 0.
Solution:
Redefine
−𝑥, 𝑥<0
𝑓(𝑥) = { ,
𝑥, 𝑥≥0
at 𝑥 = 0 ⇒ 𝑓(0) = 0, (direct substitution.)
Right limit:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑥 = 0,
𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0

left limit:
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim+ −𝑥 = 0,
𝑥→0− 𝑥→0

since
lim 𝑓(𝑥) = lim 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑓(0) = 0,
𝑥→0+ 𝑥→0

hence the function is continuous at 𝑥 = 0.

But,
(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑥
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) lim , 𝑥≥0
′ (𝑥) ℎ→0 ℎ 1, 𝑥 ≥ 1
𝑓 = lim ={ ={
ℎ→0 ℎ −(𝑥 + ℎ) + 𝑥 −1, 𝑥 < 1
lim , 𝑥<0
ℎ→0 ℎ
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 ∴ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 → 0+ ) = 1,
∴ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥 → 0− ) = −1,
Hence 𝑓(𝑥) is not differentiability at 𝑥 = 0.

Vertical tangent line

If 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑓 ′ (𝑎) = ±∞, we get the vertical
tangent line of 𝑓(𝑥) at 𝑥 = 0.
Example:
If
1
𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥, ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) =
2 √𝑥
at 𝑥 = 0,
𝑓 ′ (0) = ∞

Rules of differentiation
1. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑐, s.t. 𝑐 = constant, then 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0.
2. If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 𝑛 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑛𝑥 𝑛−1 .
3. If 𝑓(𝑥), 𝑔(𝑥) are two functions, then
• [𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥)]′ = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) + 𝑔′ (𝑥),
• [𝑓(𝑥) ∗ 𝑔(𝑥)]′ = 𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥) + 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥), (product rule),
𝑓(𝑥) ′ 𝑓′ (𝑥)𝑔(𝑥)−𝑓(𝑥)𝑔′ (𝑥)
• [ ] = ,
𝑔(𝑥) [𝑔(𝑥)]2
• [𝑐 𝑓(𝑥)]′ = 𝑐 𝑓 ′ (𝑥).

Exercises
1. Find the first derivative of the following functions
i. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3.
ii. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 10
iii. 𝑓(𝑥) = 6𝑥 3
iv. 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 6 + 5𝑥 4 + 8
v. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 5)(𝑥 10 − 𝑥 + 1)
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 3𝑥 2 +1
vi. 𝑓(𝑥) = .
𝑥 2 −3
1 1
vii. 𝑓(𝑥) = +
2𝑥 3𝑥 5
3 𝑥+1
viii. 𝑓(𝑥) =
2√𝑥
2. Find the equation of tangent line to the curve.
1 1 −1
𝑦 = ( − 2) at 𝑝(2, 4).
𝑥 𝑥

Solutions of Exercises
1.
i. 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0.
ii. 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 10 𝑥 9 .
iii. 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 18 𝑥 2 .
iv. 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 6𝑥 5 + 20𝑥 3 .
v. 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = (𝑥 2 + 𝑥 + 5)(10 𝑥 9 − 1) + (2 𝑥 + 1)(𝑥 10 − 𝑥 + 1).
6𝑥 (𝑥 2 −3)−2 𝑥 (3𝑥 2 +1)
vi. (𝑥 2 −3)2
.
−1 5
vii. 𝑓 ′(𝑥) = 2 − 6.
2𝑥 3𝑥
1
6√𝑥−(3𝑥+1)( )
′ (𝑥) √𝑥
viii. 𝑓 = .
4𝑥
2.
1𝑥2 ′
2 𝑥 (𝑥 − 1) − 𝑥 2 𝑥 2 − 2 𝑥 𝑥(𝑥 − 2)
𝑦= = ⇒𝑦 = = =
1 1 (𝑥 − 1) (𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 − 1)2 (𝑥 − 1)2
(𝑥 − 2 )
𝑥
at 𝑝(2, 4) put 𝑥 = 2
∴ 𝑦 ′ = 0 = 𝑚𝑠
Then the equation of tangent line is
𝑦 − 𝑦0 𝑦−4
= 𝑚𝑠 ⇒ = 0 ⇒ 𝑦 = 4.
𝑥 − 𝑥0 𝑥−2

Page 6 of 54
 Trigonometric Functions and their derivatives
Introduction
Angles are measured in radians or degrees
𝑺( 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 )
𝜽(𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔) = ,
𝒓 ( 𝐮𝐧𝐢𝐭𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐠𝐭𝐡 )

𝟐𝝅 𝒓𝒂𝒅𝒊𝒂𝒏𝒔 (𝒓𝒂𝒅) = 𝟑𝟔𝟎° ,

𝟏𝟖𝟎 °
𝟏 𝒓𝒂𝒅 = ( ) ≈ 𝟓𝟕. 𝟑° ,
𝝅

𝜋
1° = 𝑟𝑎𝑑 ≈ 0.017 𝑟𝑎𝑑.
180

Graphs of The Trigonometric Functions

A graph of 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙, is generated as a point moves around the unit circle.

𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙, where |𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙| ≤ 𝟏, 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒏 𝝅 = 𝟎, 𝒏 is integer number.

Graphs of 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 and 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 over one period of length 𝟐𝝅.

Periodic Function: A function 𝒇(𝒙) is called periodic with period 𝑻 if 𝒇(𝒙 + 𝑻) = 𝒇(𝒙)
(for all 𝒙) and 𝑻 is the smallest positive number with this property.
➢ The sine and cosine functions are periodic with period 𝑻 = 𝟐𝝅 since angles that differ
by an integer multiple 2𝜋𝑘 correspond to the same point on the unit circle.

Page 7 of 54
 ➢ The functions 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 and 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 are defined for all real numbers 𝜽. We often write sin 𝑥
and 𝐜𝐨 𝐬 𝒙 instead of 𝜃 depending on the application.
II. Recall that there are four other standard trigonometric functions, each defined in terms
of 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 and 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙.
sin 𝑥 𝑏 cos 𝑥 𝑎
tan 𝑥 = = , cot 𝑥 = = ,
cos 𝑥 𝑎 sin 𝑥 𝑏

1 𝑐 1 𝑐
sec 𝑥 = = , csc 𝑥 = = .
cos 𝑥 𝑎 sin 𝑥 𝑏
Trigonometric Identities
sin(𝑥 + 𝑦) = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + cos 𝑥 sin 𝑦 … … (1)
sin(𝑥 − 𝑦) = sin 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − cos 𝑥 sin 𝑦 … … (2)
cos(𝑥 + 𝑦) = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦 − sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦 … … (3)
cos(𝑥 − 𝑦) = cos 𝑥 cos 𝑦 + sin 𝑥 sin 𝑦 … … (4)
cos 2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 = 1 … … … … … … … … … … … … . (5)
1 + tan2 𝑥 = sec 2 𝑥 … … … … … … … … … … … … (6)
1 + cot 2 𝑥 = csc 2 𝑥 … … … … … … … … … … … … (7)
1
cos 2 𝑥 = [ 1 + cos(2𝑥)] … … … … … … … … … . (8)
2
Page 8 of 54
 1
sin2 𝑥 = [ 1 − cos(2𝑥)] … … … … … … … … … … . (9)
2
sin(2𝑥) = 2 sin 𝑥 cos 𝑥 … … . … … … … … … … … . (10)
2 tan 𝑥
tan(2𝑥) = … … . … … … … … … … … . (11)
1 − tan2 𝑥
Prove that:
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
1. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝟏,
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙−𝟏
2. 𝐥𝐢𝐦 = 𝟎.
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙
proof:
sin 𝑥 0
lim = (Indeterminate Form)
𝑥→0 𝑥 0
Apply 𝐋’𝐇𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥’𝐬 rule
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 cos 𝑥
𝑙𝑖𝑚
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 1.
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 1
cos 𝑥 − 1 0
lim = (Indeterminate Form)
𝑥→0 𝑥 0

cos 𝑥 − 1 cos 𝑥 − 1 cos 𝑥 + 1

lim = lim ( )( )
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 1
sin2 𝑥
cos 𝑥 − 1 2
− sin 𝑥 − 2
2
= lim ( ) = lim ( ) = lim ( 𝑥 cos 𝑥𝑥 + 𝑥 )
𝑥→0 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 cos 𝑥 + 𝑥 𝑥→0
𝑥2
sin2 𝑥 𝑥
= − (lim ) (lim )
𝑥→0 𝑥2 𝑥→0 cos 𝑥 + 1
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 𝑥 0
= − (𝑙𝑖𝑚 ) (𝑙𝑖𝑚 ) (lim ) = −(1)(1) ( ) = 0.
𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 𝑥 𝑥→0 cos 𝑥 + 1 2
Derivatives of sine and cosine functions
𝑑
To find (sin 𝑥) by using definition of derivative (by using limits)
𝑑𝑥

𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥 sin 𝑥 cos ℎ + cos 𝑥 sin ℎ − 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑥

(sin 𝑥)′ = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
sin 𝑥 (cos ℎ − 1) + cos 𝑥 sin ℎ
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
ℎ→0 ℎ
sin 𝑥 (cos ℎ − 1) cos 𝑥 sin ℎ
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 + 𝑙𝑖𝑚
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
(cos ℎ − 1) sin ℎ
= (sin 𝑥) (𝑙𝑖𝑚 ) + (cos 𝑥) (𝑙𝑖𝑚 ) = (sin 𝑥)(0) + (cos 𝑥)(1)
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
= cos 𝑥.

Page 9 of 54
 𝑑
Also, (cos 𝑥) by using definition of derivative
𝑑𝑥

cos(𝑥 + ℎ) − cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos ℎ − sin 𝑥 sin ℎ − cos 𝑥

(cos 𝑥)′ = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = 𝑙𝑖𝑚
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
cos 𝑥 (cos ℎ − 1) − sin 𝑥 sin ℎ
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚
ℎ→0 ℎ
cos 𝑥 (cos ℎ − 1) sin 𝑥 sin ℎ
= 𝑙𝑖𝑚 − 𝑙𝑖𝑚
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
(cos ℎ − 1) sin ℎ
= (cos 𝑥) (𝑙𝑖𝑚 ) − (sin 𝑥) (𝑙𝑖𝑚 ) = (cos 𝑥)(0) − (sin 𝑥)(1)
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
= − sin 𝑥.

The derivatives of the other Trigonometric functions are

𝑑 𝑑
(tan 𝑥) = sec 2 𝑥 , (cot 𝑥) = −csc 2 𝑥,
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑 𝑑
(sec 𝑥) = sec 𝑥 tan 𝑥 , (csc 𝑥) = − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥
𝑑
Example: Verify the formula (tan 𝑥) = sec 2 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥

Solution:
Use the Quotient Rule and the identity cos 2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 = 1:
𝑑 𝑑 sin 𝑥 cos 2 𝑥 + sin2 𝑥 1
(tan 𝑥) = ( )= 2
= 2
= sec 2 𝑥.
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥 cos 𝑥

Examples
1) Given 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + 𝒙𝟑 , find 𝒇′ (𝒙).
Answer:
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 𝑥 ( − sin 𝑥) + cos 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 2 = −𝑥 sin 𝑥 + cos 𝑥 + 3 𝑥 2 .
𝒙𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
2) Given 𝒇(𝒙) = find 𝒇′ (𝒙).
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙−𝒙
Answer:
′ (𝑥)
(cos 𝑥 − 𝑥)(𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 + 2 𝑥 sin 𝑥) + (𝑥 2 sin 𝑥)( sin 𝑥 + 1)
𝑓 = .
(cos 𝑥 − 𝑥)2
𝟏− 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
3) Given 𝒇(𝒙) = find 𝒇′ (𝒙).
𝒙
Answer:
(𝑥 sin 𝑥) − (1 − cos 𝑥)
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = .
𝑥2
𝝅
4) Find the equation of the tangent line to the curve 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙 + 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 at 𝒙 =
𝟒
Page 10 of 54
 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
Answer: since 𝑥 = ⟹ 𝑦 = 𝑓 ( ) = csc + cot = √2 + 1.
4 4 4 4
𝜋
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) == − csc 𝑥 cot 𝑥 −csc 2 𝑥 ⟹ 𝑚𝑠 = 𝑓 ′ ( ) = −√2 − 2.
4
Then the equation of tangent line is
𝑦 − (√2 + 1) 𝜋
𝜋 = −(√2 + 2) ⟹ 𝑦 = −(√2 + 2) (𝑥 − ) + (√2 + 1).
𝑥− 4
4

Higher Order Derivatives

Higher derivatives are obtained by repeatedly differentiating a function 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙). If 𝒇′ (𝒙)
is differentiable, then the second derivative, denoted 𝒇′′ or 𝒚′′ , is the derivative
𝒅 ′
𝒇′′ (𝒙) = [𝒇 (𝒙)]
𝒅𝒙
The second derivative is the rate of change of 𝒇′ (𝒙). The process of differentiation can be
continued, provided that the derivatives exist. The third derivative, denoted 𝒇′′′ (𝒙) is the
derivative of 𝒇′′ (𝒙). More generally the nth derivative 𝒇(𝒏) (𝒙) is the derivative of the
(𝒏 – 𝟏)𝒔𝒕 derivative.

Example: Calculate 𝑓 ′′′ (−1) for 𝑓(𝑥) = 3𝑥 5 – 2𝑥 2 + 7𝑥 −2 .

Answer:
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 15 𝑥 4 − 4 𝑥 − 14 𝑥 −3
⟹ 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 60 𝑥 3 − 4 + 42 𝑥 −4
⟹ 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥) = 180 𝑥 2 − 168 𝑥 −5
at 𝑥 = −1, ⟹ 𝑓 ′′′ (−1) = 180 + 168 = 348.
Example: Calculate 𝑓 ′′ (0) for 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 cos 𝑥 .
Answer:
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 4𝑥 3 cos 𝑥 − 𝑥 4 sin 𝑥
⟹ 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 12 𝑥 2 cos 𝑥 − 4 𝑥 3 sin 𝑥 − 4𝑥 3 sin 𝑥 − 𝑥 4 cos 𝑥.
at 𝑥 = 0, ⟹ 𝑓 ′′ (0) = 0.

The Chain Rule

Let 𝒖 = 𝒈(𝒙) and 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒖).
⟹ The derivative of the composite function 𝒚 = 𝒇( 𝒈(𝒙)) can be expressed as
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢
= version(1).
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥
Or
Page 11 of 54
 𝑑
𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑔(𝑥)) . 𝑔′ (𝑥) version(2).
𝑑𝑥
1
Example: Find 𝑦 ′ . If 𝑦 = (𝑥 2 + 5𝑥)3 .
1
Answer: let 𝑢 = 𝑥 2 + 5𝑥 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑢3
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑢 1 −2 1 −2
= = 𝑢 3 (2 𝑥 + 5) = (𝑥 2 + 5𝑥) 3 (2 𝑥 + 5).
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑥 3 3
−2
1
Another way: 𝑦 ′ = (𝑥 2 + 5𝑥) 3 (2 𝑥 + 5).
3

The General Power Rule

𝑑𝑦
If 𝑦 = [ 𝑢(𝑥 )]𝑛 Then = 𝑛 [ 𝑢(𝑥)]𝑛−1 ∙ 𝑢′ (𝑥).
𝑑𝑥

Exercises
1. If 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟑𝒙, prove that 𝒚′′ + 𝟗𝒚 = 𝟎.
𝟏
2. If 𝒚 = (𝟐 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝒙 + 𝟓)𝟐 , find 𝒚′ .
𝟏
3. If 𝒚 = 𝟑 , find 𝒚′ .
( 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑)𝟐
𝒙+𝟏
4. If 𝒚 = √ , find 𝒚′ .
𝒙−𝟏

5. If 𝒚 = (𝒙𝟐 + 𝟓)𝟏𝟎 √𝒙𝟑 + 𝟕, find 𝒚′ .

6. Find the equation of tangent line to
I. 𝒚 = (𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟐𝟎 , at (𝟎, 𝟏).
𝟑 + 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙
II. 𝒇(𝒙) = , at (𝟎, 𝟏).
𝟒 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙
𝟏 𝒙+𝟏
7. If 𝒚 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 (
𝒙 𝒙−𝟏
), find 𝒚′ .
8. Find the equations of tangent and normal lines to the curve 𝒚 = 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟑 at
(𝟎, 𝟑).

Page 12 of 54
 Inverse Trigonometric Functions
The six trigonometric functions are not 1-1. However, we can restrict their domains to
intervals on which they are one-to-one. So that they can have inverse functions.
𝛑 𝛑
𝐲 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝐱 or 𝐲 = 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐱 ⟺ 𝐱 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚 where − 𝟏 ≤ 𝐱 ≤ 𝟏 , − ≤ 𝐲 ≤ ,
𝟐 𝟐
𝐲 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 −𝟏 𝐱 or 𝐲 = 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐱 ⟺ 𝐱 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 where − 𝟏 ≤ 𝐱 ≤ 𝟏 , 𝟎 ≤ 𝐲 ≤ 𝛑,
𝛑 𝛑
𝐲 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝐱 or 𝐲 = 𝐚𝐫𝐜𝐭𝐚 𝐧 𝐱 ⟺ 𝐱 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒚 where − ∞ < 𝐱 < ∞ , − ≤ 𝐲 ≤ ,
𝟐 𝟐

Derivatives of Inverse trigonometric functions

𝒅
𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝒙 ??
𝒅𝒙
Let
𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝒙 ⟺ 𝒙 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝟏
⇒ 𝟏 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 ⇒ =
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚

𝟐
From the identity 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒚 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝒚 = 𝟏 ⇒ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 = √𝟏 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚 = √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐

Therefore
𝒅𝒚 𝒅 −𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
= (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙) = = ,
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐

𝒅
𝐜𝐨𝐬−𝟏 𝒙 ??
𝒅𝒙
Let
𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬−𝟏 𝒙 ⟺ 𝒙 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 −𝟏
⇒ 𝟏 = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚 ⇒ =
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚

Page 13 of 54
From the identity 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒚 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝒚 = 𝟏 ⇒ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚 = √𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝟐 𝒚 = √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐

Therefore
𝒅𝒚 𝒅 −𝟏 −𝟏
= (𝐜𝐨𝐬−𝟏 𝒙) = = ,
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐

𝒅
𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝒙 ??
𝒅𝒙
Let
𝒚 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝒙 ⟺ 𝒙 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒚
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝟏
⇒ 𝟏 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒚 ⇒ =
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒚

From the identity 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝒚 + 𝟏 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒚 ⇒ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒚 = 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐

Therefore
𝒅𝒚 𝒅 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝒙 = =
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒚 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐
𝟐

𝒅
𝐜𝐨𝐭 −𝟏 𝒙 ??
𝒅𝒙
Let
𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 −𝟏 𝒙 ⟺ 𝒙 = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒚
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 −𝟏
⇒ 𝟏 = − 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒚 ⇒ =
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒚

From the identity 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐 𝒚 + 𝟏 = 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒚 ⇒ 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒚 = 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐

Therefore
𝒅𝒚 𝒅 −𝟏 −𝟏
= 𝐜𝐨𝐭−𝟏 𝒙 = 𝟐 =
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒚 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐

𝒅
𝐬𝐞𝐜 −𝟏 𝒙 ??
𝒅𝒙
Let
𝒚 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 −𝟏 𝒙 ⟺ 𝒙 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒚
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝟏
⇒ 𝟏 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒚 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒚 ⇒ =
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒚 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒚

From the identity 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝒚 + 𝟏 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒚 ⇒ 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝟐 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒚 − 𝟏 ⇒ 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒚 = √𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏

Therefore
𝒅𝒚 𝒅 𝟏 𝟏
= 𝐬𝐞𝐜−𝟏 𝒙 = =
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒚 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒚 𝒙 √𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏
Page 14 of 54
 𝒅
𝐜𝐬𝐜 −𝟏 𝒙 ??
𝒅𝒙
Let
𝒚 = 𝐜𝐬𝐜 −𝟏 𝒙 ⟺ 𝒙 = 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒚
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 −𝟏
⇒ 𝟏 = − 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒚 ⇒ =
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒚

From the identity 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐 𝒚 + 𝟏 = 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒚 ⇒ 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝟐 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒚 − 𝟏 ⇒ 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒚 = √𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏

Therefore
𝒅𝒚 𝒅 −𝟏 −𝟏
= 𝐬𝐞𝐜−𝟏 𝒙 = =
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒙 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒚 𝒙 √𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏

The general formulas of the derivative of

inverse trigonometric functions
𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇′ (𝒙)
𝟏
𝐬𝐢𝐧 −𝟏
𝒖(𝒙) 𝒖′ 𝐬. 𝐭. |𝒖| < 𝟏
√𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐
−𝟏
𝐜𝐨𝐬−𝟏 𝒖(𝒙) 𝒖′ 𝐬. 𝐭. |𝒖| < 𝟏
√𝟏 − 𝒖𝟐
𝟏
𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝒖(𝒙) 𝒖 ′
𝟏 + 𝒖𝟐
−𝟏
𝐜𝐨𝐭 −𝟏 𝒖(𝒙) 𝒖 ′
𝟏 + 𝒖𝟐
𝟏
𝐬𝐞𝐜 −𝟏 𝒖(𝒙) 𝒖′ 𝐬. 𝐭. |𝒖| > 𝟏
|𝒖| √𝒖𝟐 − 𝟏
−𝟏
𝐜𝐬𝐜 −𝟏 𝒖(𝒙) 𝒖′ 𝐬. 𝐭. |𝒖| > 𝟏
|𝒖| √𝒖𝟐 − 𝟏
Examples
𝒙
1. 𝒚 = 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒚′ = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝒙 + ,
√𝟏−𝒙𝟐
𝟐𝒙 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙𝟐
𝟐
2. 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐭 −𝟏 (𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙𝟐 ) ⇒ 𝒚′ = ,
𝟏+(𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙𝟐 )𝟐

Page 15 of 54
 𝟏 𝟏
3. 𝒚 = √𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 √𝒙 ⇒ 𝒚′ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 √𝒙 + ,
𝟐√𝒙 𝟐(𝟏+𝒙)
𝟏+𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝒙 𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝒙 𝟏+𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝒙
4. 𝒚 = ⇒ 𝒚′ = [ − ],
𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝒙 (𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝒙) 𝟐 𝟏+𝒙𝟐 √𝟏−𝒙𝟐
𝒙+𝟐 −𝟏 −𝟑
5. 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬−𝟏 ( ) ⇒ 𝒚′ = [(𝒙−𝟏)𝟐 ],
𝒙−𝟏 𝒙+𝟐 𝟐
√𝟏−( )
𝒙−𝟏
𝟏 𝟑 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟑𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝟑𝒙
6. 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 √𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟑𝒙 ⇒ 𝒚′ = [ ],
√𝟏−𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟑𝒙 𝟐 √𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟑𝒙
𝟏
7. 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟒 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒚′ = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝟒
+ 𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟑 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝒙,
√𝟏−𝒙𝟐

8. If 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐬𝐜 −𝟏 √𝒙 + 𝐬𝐞𝐜 −𝟏 √𝒙 , prove that 𝒚′ = 𝟎.

Solution:
𝟏 𝟏
𝒚′ = − + = 𝟎.
𝟐 𝒙 √𝒙 − 𝟏 𝟐 𝒙 √𝒙 − 𝟏
𝒙𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
9. Given 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬−𝟏 𝒙 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧−𝟏 𝒙 − 𝒙 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 show that 𝒚′ = 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬−𝟏 𝒙.
𝟐 𝟒 𝟒
Solution:
′
𝒙𝟐−𝟏
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝟏 𝟏
𝒚 = 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 − ( )+ ( )+ ( ) − √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐
𝟐 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 𝟒 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 𝟒 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 𝟒
′ −𝟏
𝒙𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝟏
⇒ 𝒚 = 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 − ( )+ ( )+ ( )
𝟐 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 𝟒 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 𝟒 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐
− ( )
𝟒 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐
′ −𝟏
𝒙𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝟏
⇒ 𝒚 = 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 − ( )+ ( )+ ( )
𝟐 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 𝟒 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 𝟒 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝒙𝟐 𝟏
− ( )+ ( )
𝟒 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐 𝟒 √𝟏 − 𝒙𝟐
⇒∴ 𝒚′ = 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬−𝟏 𝒙.

Parametric and implicit differentiation

Parametric differentiation
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒙
If 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒕) and 𝒙 = 𝒈(𝒕), then = ⁄ ⇒ = ( )⁄ 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒙

Examples
𝒅𝒚
1. If 𝒙 = 𝒕𝟐 𝒆𝒕 and 𝒚 = 𝒕𝟐 𝐥𝐧 𝒕 find at 𝒕 = 𝟏.
𝒅𝒙
Solution:
𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒚
= (𝟐 + 𝒕)𝒕 𝒆𝒕 , = (𝟐 𝐥𝐧 𝒕 + 𝟏) 𝒕
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Page 16 of 54
 𝒅𝒚 (𝟐 𝐥𝐧 𝒕 + 𝟏) −𝒕 𝒅𝒚 𝟏
⇒ = 𝒆 ⇒ (𝒕 = 𝟏) = 𝒆−𝟏 .
𝒅𝒙 (𝟐 + 𝒕) 𝒅𝒙 𝟑
′′
2. 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐 𝒕 , 𝒙 = 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒕 find 𝒚 .
Solution:
𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒙
= − 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒕 , = − 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒕
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒚 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒕
⇒ = = 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒕 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒕
𝒅𝒙 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒕
𝒅𝒚
⇒ = 𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟑 𝒕.
𝒅𝒙
Since
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒙
= ( )⁄
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒕
Then
𝒅 𝒅𝒚
( ) = 𝟏𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒙
𝟐
𝒅 𝒚 𝟏𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕
∴ 𝟐
=− = −𝟏𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟒 𝒕.
𝒅𝒙 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒕
3. Given 𝒙 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 , 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 − 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽, find 𝒚′′ .
Solution:
𝒅𝒙
= − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 + 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 = 𝜽 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽,
𝒅𝜽
𝒅𝒚
= 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽 + 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝜽 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽,
𝒅𝜽
𝒅𝒚
⇒ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝜽 .
𝒅𝒙
Since
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝒙
= ( )⁄
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒙 𝒅𝒕
Then
𝒅 𝒅𝒚
( ) = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝜽
𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒙
𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟑 𝜽
∴ 𝟐= .
𝒅𝒙 𝜽
𝒕−𝟏 𝒕+𝟏
4. 𝒙 = 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝒚 = show that 𝒚′′ = 𝟐 𝒚𝟑 .
𝒕+𝟏 𝒕−𝟏
Solution:
𝒅𝒙 𝟐 𝒅𝒚 −𝟐
= 𝐚𝐧𝐝 =
𝒅𝒕 (𝒕 + 𝟏)𝟐 𝒅𝒕 (𝒕 − 𝟏)𝟐
𝒅𝒚 (𝒕 + 𝟏)𝟐 𝒕+𝟏 𝟐
∴ =− = −( ) = −𝒚𝟐 .
𝒅𝒙 (𝒕 − 𝟏)𝟐 𝒕−𝟏
Page 17 of 54
 𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚
∴ = −𝟐𝒚 = 𝟐𝒚𝟑 .
𝒅𝒙𝟐 𝒅𝒙
Implicit differentiation
Fortunately, we don’t need to solve an equation for 𝑦 in terms of 𝑥 in order to find the
derivative of 𝑦. Instead we can use the method of Implicit differentiation. This consists of
differentiating both sides of the equation with respect to 𝑥 and then solving the resulting
equation for 𝑦 ′ .
Examples
1. 𝒚𝟐 = 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 𝒚 find 𝒚′ .
Solution: differentiation w. r. t. 𝒙 :
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝟐 𝒚 𝒚′ = (𝒙 𝒚′ + 𝒚) ⇒ 𝒚′ (𝟐𝒚 − ) =
𝒙𝒚 𝒚 𝒙
𝟐
𝟐𝒚 −𝟏 𝟏 𝒚 𝒚
⇒ 𝒚′ ( )= ⇒ 𝒚′ = 𝟐
= .
𝒚 𝒙 𝒙(𝟐 𝒚 − 𝟏) 𝟐 𝒙 𝒚𝟐 − 𝒙
2. If 𝒚 = 𝒆(𝒙+𝒚) , find 𝒚′ .
Solution:
𝒚′ = (𝟏 + 𝒚′ )𝒆(𝒙+𝒚) = (𝟏 + 𝒚′ ) 𝒚 ⇒ 𝒚′ (𝟏 − 𝒚) = 𝒚
𝒚
⇒ 𝒚′ =
𝟏−𝒚
3. If 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 = 𝒙 + 𝒆𝒚 , find 𝒚′ .
Solution:
𝟏 ′ 𝒚 ′ ′
𝟏 − 𝒚 𝒆𝒚 𝒚
𝒚 =𝟏+𝒆 𝒚 ⇒ 𝒚 ( ) = 𝟏 ⇒ 𝒚′ = .
𝒚 𝒚 𝟏 − 𝒚 𝒆𝒚
𝝅
4. Find the equation of the tangent of the curve 𝒙 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬−𝟏 𝒚 = 𝒙 𝒚 at (− , 𝟎).
𝟐
Solution:
𝒚′ 𝟏
𝟏− = 𝒚 + 𝒙 𝒚′ ⇒ 𝒚′ (𝒙 + )=𝟏−𝒚
√𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐 √𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐

(𝟏 − 𝒚) (√𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐 )
′
⇒ 𝒚 =
𝒙 √𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟏
𝝅 𝟏 𝟐
⇒ 𝒎𝒔 = 𝒚′ (𝒙 = − , 𝒚 = 𝟎) = =
𝝅 𝟐− 𝝅
𝟐 𝟏−
𝟐
Then the equation of the tangent is
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟎 𝒚 𝟐 𝝅 𝟐
= 𝒎𝒔 ⇒ 𝝅 = ⇒ 𝒚 = (𝒙 + ) ( )
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 𝒙+ 𝟐 − 𝝅 𝟐 𝟐 − 𝝅
𝟐
Page 18 of 54
 𝟐𝒙 + 𝝅
⇒𝒚=( ).
𝟐− 𝝅
5. Given 𝒙𝟏+𝒚 + 𝒚𝟏+𝒙 = 𝟏, find 𝒚′ .
Solution:
𝟏 (𝟏+𝒚)
Put 𝒚𝟏 = 𝒙𝟏+𝒚 ⇒ 𝐥𝐧 𝒚𝟏 = (𝟏 + 𝒚) 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒚′𝟏 = + 𝒚′ 𝐥𝐧 𝒙
𝒚𝟏 𝒙
(𝟏 + 𝒚)
⇒ 𝒚′𝟏 = (𝒙𝟏+𝒚 ) ( + 𝒚′ 𝐥𝐧 𝒙)
𝒙
𝟏 (𝟏+𝒙)
Put 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒚𝟏+𝒙 ⇒ 𝐥𝐧 𝒚𝟐 = (𝟏 + 𝒙) 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 ⇒ 𝒚′𝟐 = 𝒚′ + 𝐥𝐧 𝒚
𝒚𝟐 𝒚
(𝟏 + 𝒙) ′
⇒ 𝒚′𝟐 = (𝒚𝟏+𝒙 ) ( 𝒚 + 𝐥𝐧 𝒚)
𝒚
Then
𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟏, ⇒ 𝒚′𝟏 + 𝒚′𝟐 = 𝟎
(𝟏 + 𝒚) (𝟏 + 𝒙) ′
⇒ (𝒙𝟏+𝒚 ) ( + 𝒚′ 𝐥𝐧 𝒙) + (𝒚𝟏+𝒙 ) ( 𝒚 + 𝐥𝐧 𝒚) = 𝟎
𝒙 𝒚
′ (𝒙𝟏+𝒚 )
(𝒚𝟏+𝒙 ) (𝟏 + 𝒙) 𝟏+𝒙
(𝒙𝟏+𝒚 ) (𝟏 + 𝒚)
⇒𝒚 [ 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 + ] + [(𝒚 ) 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 + ]=𝟎
𝒚 𝒙

(𝒙𝟏+𝒚 ) (𝟏 + 𝒚)
[(𝒚𝟏+𝒙 ) 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 + 𝒙 ]
′
⇒𝒚 =−
(𝒚𝟏+𝒙 ) (𝟏 + 𝒙)
[(𝒙𝟏+𝒚 ) 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 + 𝒚 ]

Page 19 of 54
 Exponential Functions and Logarithmic
Functions
Exponential functions
The function 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙 ; 𝒙 is a real number, 𝒂 > 𝟎, 𝒂 ≠ 𝟏, is called the exponential function,
base 𝑎.

𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙 , 𝟎 < 𝒂 < 𝟏 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙 𝒂 > 𝟏

The domain is 𝒙 ∈ ] − ∞ , ∞[ The domain is 𝒙 ∈ ] − ∞ , ∞[
The range is 𝒚 ∈ ]𝟎 , ∞[ The range is 𝒚 ∈ ]𝟎 , ∞[
The Natural Exponential Function
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙
which has the base, 𝒆 ≈ 2.718281828459 …
Among all exponential functions 𝑦 = 𝑎 𝑥 , the base 𝑒 is the
unique base for which the slope of the tangent line to the
graph of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑥 at the point (0,1) is equal to 1. (i.e.
𝑓 ′ (0) = 1).
We shall show later that

𝟏 𝒏
𝒆 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 + ) .
𝒏→∞ 𝒏
Logarithmic functions
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙 has an inverse 𝒇−𝟏 , which is called the logarithmic function with base 𝒂 and is
denoted by log 𝑎 .
Then we have
y = log 𝑎 𝑥 ⟺ 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑦

Page 20 of 54
Thus, if 𝒙 > 𝟎, then log 𝑎 𝑥 is the exponent to which the base 𝑎 must be raised to give 𝑥.

For 𝑥 > 0 , 𝑎 > 0, 𝑎 ≠ 1. The logarithmic function has domain ]0, ∞[ and range ] − ∞, ∞[.

Inverse Properties for 𝑎 𝑥 𝐚𝐧𝐝 log 𝑎 𝑥

• log 𝑎 𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥 , for every 𝑥 ∈ ℝ,
• 𝑎log𝑎 𝑥 = 𝑥, for every 𝑥 > 0.

Natural Logarithms

log 𝑒 𝑥 = ln 𝑥
𝑦 = ln 𝑥 ⟺ 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑦
ln 𝑒 = 1
ln 𝑒 𝑥 = 𝑥 , 𝑥 ∈ ℝ,
𝑒 ln 𝑥 = 𝑥, 𝑥 > 0.

Page 21 of 54
Change of base formula
Every logarithmic function is a constant multiple of the natural logarithm

𝐥𝐧 𝒙
𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝒂 𝒙 =
𝐥𝐧 𝒂
For 𝑎, 𝑏 > 0 and 𝑐 any real number

• ln(𝑎 𝑏) = ln 𝑎 + ln 𝑏.
𝑎
• ln (𝑏) = ln 𝑎 − ln 𝑏.
• ln(𝑎𝑐 ) = 𝑐 ln 𝑎.

Derivative of the exponential function (𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙 )

′ (𝑥)
𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) 𝑒 𝑥+ℎ − 𝑒 𝑥
𝑓 = lim = lim
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ

′ (𝑥)
𝑒𝑥𝑒ℎ − 𝑒𝑥 𝑥
𝑒ℎ − 1
𝑓 = lim = 𝑒 (lim ) = 𝑒𝑥
ℎ→0 ℎ ℎ→0 ℎ
𝑑 𝑥
∴ 𝑒 = 𝑒𝑥
𝑑𝑥
𝑑
In general, 𝑒 𝑢(𝑥) = 𝑒 𝑢(𝑥) 𝑢′ (𝑥).
𝑑𝑥

Derivative of the exponential function (𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙 )

𝒙
∵ 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒂𝒙 = (𝒆𝐥𝐧 𝒂 ) = 𝒆𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒂

⇒ 𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒂 𝐥𝐧 𝒂 = 𝒂𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒂 (using chain rule)

Derivative of the logarithmic function (𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐧 𝒙)

∵ 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒆𝒚 = 𝒙
𝟏
⇒ 𝒆𝒚 𝒚′ = 𝟏 ⇒ 𝒚′ =
𝒆𝒚
𝒅 𝟏
(𝐥𝐧 𝒙) =
𝒅𝒙 𝒙
In general,
𝒅 𝟏
[𝐥𝐧 𝒖(𝒙)] = 𝒖′(𝒙)
𝒅𝒙 𝒖(𝒙)

Examples
1) 𝒚 = 𝒙 𝒆𝒙 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒆𝒙 ⇒ 𝒚′ = 𝒆𝒙 + 𝒙 𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆𝒙 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒆𝒙 .
Page 22 of 54
 𝟏+ 𝒆𝒙 𝒙 𝒆𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙−(𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙+𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙)(𝟏+𝒆𝒙 )
2) 𝒚 = ⇒ 𝒚′ = .
𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒙
𝟒𝒙 𝟏
3) 𝒚 = 𝒆 + 𝒆𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 + 𝒆√𝒙 ⇒ ′
𝒚 =𝟒𝒆 𝟒𝒙
+ 𝒆𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 (𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙) + 𝒆√𝒙 .
𝟐√𝒙
𝟐 +𝟏
4) 𝒚 = 𝒙 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒙 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝒆𝒙 )
𝟐 +𝟏 𝟐 +𝟏
⇒ 𝒚′ = 𝟏 + 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 (𝒆𝒙 ) (𝟐 𝒙 𝒆𝒙 ).
𝟏
5) 𝒚 = 𝒙 𝒆𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧(𝒆𝟐𝒙 ) + (𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒙 + 𝒆𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 )𝟒
⇒ 𝒚′ = 𝒆𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 + 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝒆𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
𝟏 𝟐
𝟑
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 −𝟒
+ (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 + 𝒆 ) (𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝒆𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 )
𝟒
(𝒙+𝒚)
6) 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒙 𝒚) = 𝒆 ⇒ 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒙 𝒚) (𝒚 + 𝒙 𝒚′ ) = 𝒆(𝒙+𝒚) (𝟏 + 𝒚′ )
⇒ 𝒚′ [𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒙 𝒚) − 𝒆(𝒙+𝒚) ] = [𝒆(𝒙+𝒚) − 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒙 𝒚)]
[𝒆(𝒙+𝒚) − 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒙 𝒚)]
′
⇒𝒚 =
[𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒙 𝒚) − 𝒆(𝒙+𝒚) ]
𝟐 𝟐
7) 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒚 = 𝒆𝒚 + 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒚′ 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒚 𝒚′ 𝒆𝒚 + 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙
𝟐 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙
⇒ 𝒚′ [𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒚 − 𝟐𝒚 𝒆𝒚 ] = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒚′ = 𝟐
[𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒚 − 𝟐𝒚 𝒆𝒚 ]
𝝅
8) Find equation of tangent line at (𝟎, ) to the curve 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒚 = 𝒆𝒙 + 𝒙.
𝟒
Solution:
′ 𝟐 𝒙
𝒆𝒙 + 𝟏 ′
𝝅 ′
𝒚 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒚 = 𝒆 + 𝟏 ⇒ 𝒚 = ⇒ 𝒚 (𝟎, ) = 𝟏.
𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒚 𝟒
𝝅
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟎 𝒚−
∴ = 𝒎𝒔 ⇒ 𝟒 = 𝟏 ⇒ 𝒚 = 𝒙 + 𝝅.
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 𝒙−𝟎 𝟒
𝟏
9) 𝒚 = 𝟓𝒙 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝟓𝒙 ⇒ 𝒚′ = 𝟓𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝟓 + (𝟓𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝟓).
𝟏+(𝟓𝒙 )𝟐
10) 𝒚 = 𝒙 𝟐𝒙 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟑𝒙 ) ⇒ 𝒚′ = 𝒙 𝟐 𝐥𝐧 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟑𝒙 ) 𝟑𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝟑.
𝒙
𝟐 𝟐
11) 𝒚 = 𝟐𝒙 ⇒ 𝒚′ = 𝟐𝒙 𝟐𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝟐.
−𝟏 𝒙 −𝟏 𝒙 𝟏
12) 𝒚 = 𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧 + 𝟑𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒚′ = 𝟐𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐥𝐧 𝟐 ( ) + 𝟑𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝟑 (𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙).
𝟏+𝒙𝟐
𝟏
13) 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟐 𝟏𝟎√𝒙 ⇒ 𝒚′ = 𝟐𝒙 𝟏𝟎√𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 𝟏𝟎√𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝟏𝟎
𝟐 √𝒙
𝒙 √𝒙𝟐 +𝟏 𝒙 √𝒙𝟐 +𝟏
14) 𝒚= (𝒙+𝟏)𝟓 √𝒙+𝟒
⇒ 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐧 ((𝒙+𝟏)𝟓 )
√𝒙+𝟒

⇒ 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐧 (𝒙 √𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏) − 𝐥𝐧((𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟓 √𝒙 + 𝟒)

⇒ 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 + 𝐥𝐧 √𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 − 𝐥𝐧(𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟓 − 𝐥𝐧 √𝒙 + 𝟒
𝟏 𝟏
⇒ 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 + 𝐥𝐧(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏) − 𝟓 𝐥𝐧(𝒙 + 𝟏) − 𝐥𝐧(𝒙 + 𝟒)
𝟐 𝟐

Page 23 of 54
 𝒚′ 𝟏 𝒙 𝟓 𝟏
= + 𝟐 − −
𝒚 𝒙 (𝒙 + 𝟏) (𝒙 + 𝟏) 𝟐(𝒙 + 𝟒)
′
𝒙 √𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏 𝟏 𝒙 𝟓 𝟏
∴𝒚 =( )( + 𝟐 − − )
(𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟓 √𝒙 + 𝟒 𝒙 (𝒙 + 𝟏) (𝒙 + 𝟏) 𝟐(𝒙 + 𝟒)
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
15) 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟐 𝒙 + 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 + 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒚′ = + +
𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝟐 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝟏𝟎 𝒙
𝟐𝒙
16) 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 𝟓 (𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏) ⇒ 𝒚′ = (𝒙𝟐
+𝟏) 𝐥𝐧 𝟓
𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙
17) 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐨𝐠 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙) ⇒ 𝒚′ = (𝐭𝐚𝐧
𝒙) 𝐥𝐧 𝟏𝟎
18) If 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐥𝐧 𝒙) + 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐥𝐧 𝒙) proof that 𝒙𝟐 𝒚′′ + 𝒙 𝒚′ + 𝒚 = 𝟎.
Solution:
𝟏 𝟏
𝒚′ = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐥𝐧 𝒙) + 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐥𝐧 𝒙) ⇒ 𝒙 𝒚′ = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐥𝐧 𝒙) + 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐥𝐧 𝒙)
𝒙 𝒙
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒚′′ = − 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐥𝐧 𝒙) + 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐥𝐧 𝒙) − 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒍𝒏 𝒙) − 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐥𝐧 𝒙)
𝒙 𝒙 𝒙 𝒙
𝟐 ′′
⇒ 𝒙 𝒚 = −𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐥𝐧 𝒙)
⇒ 𝒙𝟐 𝒚′′ + 𝒙 𝒚′ + 𝒚
= −𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐥𝐧 𝒙) − 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐥𝐧 𝒙) + 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐥𝐧 𝒙) + 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐥𝐧 𝒙) + 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐥𝐧 𝒙)
= −𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐥𝐧 𝒙) + 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝐥𝐧 𝒙) = 𝟎.
𝟏
19) 𝒚 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (𝐥𝐧 𝒆[𝐭𝐚𝐧 √𝒙] ) prove that 𝒚 𝒚′ =
𝟐
Solution
𝒚 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (𝐥𝐧 𝒆[𝐭𝐚𝐧 √𝒙] ) = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (𝐭𝐚𝐧 √𝒙) = √𝒙
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
𝒚′ = ⇒ 𝒚′ √ 𝒙 = ⇒ 𝒚′ 𝒚 =
𝟐 √𝒙 𝟐 𝟐
20) If 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐧 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 proof that 𝒚′′ + 𝒆−𝟐 𝒚 = 𝟎.
Solution:
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
𝒚′ = − = − 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒚′′ = − 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
Since
𝒚 = 𝐥𝐧 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒆𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒆−𝒚 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒆−𝟐𝒚 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙
∴ 𝒚′′ = −𝒆−𝟐𝒚 ⇒ 𝒚′′ + 𝒆−𝟐𝒚 = 𝟎.
𝒆−𝒙
21) 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬−𝟏 (𝟏 − 𝒆−𝒙 ) ⇒ 𝒚′ =
√𝟏−(𝟏−𝒆−𝒙 )𝟐
𝟏 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 √𝒙
22) 𝒚 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (𝒆𝐭𝐚𝐧 √𝒙 ) ⇒ 𝒚′ = (𝒆𝐭𝐚𝐧 √𝒙 ) ( )
𝟏+𝒆𝟐 𝐭𝐚𝐧 √𝒙 𝟐 √𝒙
23) 𝒚 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒆𝟐 𝒙 ) ⇒ 𝒚′ = 𝟐 𝒆 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒆
𝟐𝒙 𝟐 𝒙)
′
⇒ 𝒚′ = 𝟒 𝒆𝟐 𝒙 [𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒆𝟐 𝒙 ) − 𝒆𝟐 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒆𝟐 𝒙 )]
⇒ 𝒚′ ′′ = 𝟖 𝒆𝟐 𝒙 [𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒆𝟐 𝒙 ) − 𝒆𝟐 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒆𝟐 𝒙 )]
− 𝟖 𝒆𝟐 𝒙 [𝟐 𝒆𝟐 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒆𝟐 𝒙 ) + 𝒆𝟒 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒆𝟐 𝒙 )].

Page 24 of 54
24) 𝒚 = 𝒙𝟑 𝒆𝟓𝒙 ⇒ 𝒚′ = 𝟑 𝒙𝟐 𝒆𝟓𝒙 + 𝟓𝒙𝟑 𝒆𝟓𝒙
′
⇒ 𝒚′ = 𝟔 𝒙𝒆𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏𝟓𝒙𝟐 𝒆𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏𝟓 𝒙𝟐 𝒆𝟓𝒙 + 𝟐𝟓 𝒙𝟑 𝒆𝟓𝒙
𝒙
25) Find the equation of the tangent line to 𝒚 = 𝟓 𝒆(𝟐) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 at 𝒙 = 𝟎.
Solution:
𝟓 𝒙 𝒙
𝒚′ = 𝒆(𝟐) 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎 𝒆(𝟐) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟐𝒙 ⇒ 𝒚′ (𝒙 = 𝟎) = 𝟏𝟎
𝟐
𝒚𝟎 = 𝟏
𝒚 − 𝒚𝟎 𝒚−𝟏
= 𝒎𝒔 ⇒ = 𝟏𝟎 ⇒ 𝒚 = 𝟏𝟎 𝒙 + 𝟏.
𝒙 − 𝒙𝟎 𝒙−𝟎
26) Given (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙)𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 = (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚)𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 find 𝒚′ .
𝐥𝐧(𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙)𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐧(𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚)𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 ⇒ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 𝐥𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 ′
⇒ −𝒚′ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚 𝐥𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝒚
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
⇒ 𝒚′ ( + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚 𝐥𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚 +
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
(𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚 + 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒚 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙)
⇒ 𝒚′ =
(𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚 𝐥𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 + 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚)

Page 25 of 54
 Hyperbolic and Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
Hyperbolic Functions
The hyperbolic functions are formed by taking combinations of the two exponential
functions 𝑒 𝑥 and 𝑒 −𝑥 . The hyperbolic functions simplify many mathematical expressions
and occur frequently in mathematical and engineering applications.

Definition Hyperbolic sine and cosine

Hyperbolic sine
𝒆𝒙 − 𝒆−𝒙
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 =
𝟐
Hyperbolic cosine
𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒙
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 =
𝟐
Definition Another hyperbolic sine and cosine
Hyperbolic tangent
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝒆𝒙 − 𝒆−𝒙
𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙 = =
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒙

Hyperbolic cotangent
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒙
𝐜𝐨𝐭𝐡 𝒙 = =
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝒆𝒙 − 𝒆−𝒙

Hyperbolic secant
𝟏 𝟐
𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐡 𝒙 = = 𝒙
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 𝒆 + 𝒆−𝒙
Hyperbolic cosecant
𝟏 𝟐
𝐜𝐬𝐜𝐡 𝒙 = = 𝒙
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝒆 − 𝒆−𝒙

Page 26 of 54
 hyperbolic Identities
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡(𝒙 + 𝒚) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒚 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒚 … … (𝟏)
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡(𝒙 − 𝒚) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒚 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒚 … … (𝟐)
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡(𝒙 + 𝒚) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒚 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒚 … … (𝟑)
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡(𝒙 − 𝒚) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒚 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒚 … … (𝟒)
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡𝟐 𝒙 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡𝟐 𝒙 = 𝟏 … … … … … … … … … … … … . (𝟓)
𝟏 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡𝟐 𝒙 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐡𝟐 𝒙 … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝟔)
𝐜𝐨𝐭𝐡𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟏 = 𝐜𝐬𝐜𝐡𝟐 𝒙 … … … … … … … … … … … … (𝟕)
𝟏
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡𝟐 𝒙 = [ 𝟏 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡(𝟐𝒙)] … … … … … … … … … . (𝟖)
𝟐
𝟏
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡𝟐 𝒙 = [𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡(𝟐𝒙) − 𝟏] … … … … … … … … … … . (𝟗)
𝟐
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡(𝟐𝒙) = 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 … … . … … … … … … … … . (𝟏𝟎)
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡(𝟐𝒙) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡𝟐 𝒙 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡𝟐 𝒙 … … … … … … … … . (𝟏𝟏)

𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡(𝟐𝒙) 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 𝟐 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙

𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡(𝟐𝒙) = = = … . (𝟏𝟐)
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡(𝟐𝒙) 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡𝟐 𝒙 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡𝟐 𝒙 𝟏 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡𝟐 𝒙
(𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙)𝒏 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒏𝒙 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒏𝒙

𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡(−𝒙) = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 , 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡(−𝒙) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 , 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡(−𝒙) = − 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙

Examples
𝟒
1. Given 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡(𝒙) = , find all other hyperbolic functions.
𝟓
Solution:
𝟒 𝟓
∵ 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡(𝒙) = ⇒ 𝐜𝐨𝐭𝐡 𝒙 =
𝟓 𝟒
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟏𝟔
∵ 𝟏 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙 = 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐡 𝒙 ⇒ 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐡 𝒙 = 𝟏 −
𝟐𝟓
𝟐 𝟗
⇒ 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐡 𝒙 =
𝟐𝟓
𝟑 𝟓
⇒ 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐡 𝒙 =⇒ 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 =
𝟓 𝟑
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝟓 𝟏𝟔
∵ 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 = 𝟏 ⇒ 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 = −𝟏=
𝟗 𝟗
𝟒 𝟑
⇒ 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 = ⇒ 𝐜𝐬𝐜𝐡 𝒙 =
𝟑 𝟒
2. Solve the equation
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 = 𝟐
Page 27 of 54
 Solution:
𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒙
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 = = 𝟐 ⇒ 𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒙 = 𝟒 ⇒ (𝒆𝒙 )𝟐 − 𝟒 𝒆𝒙 + 𝟏 = 𝟎
𝟐
𝒙
−(−𝟒) ± √(−𝟒)𝟐 − 𝟒 (𝟏)(𝟏) 𝟒 ± √𝟏𝟐
⇒𝒆 = = = 𝟐 ± √𝟑
𝟐 (𝟏) 𝟐
⇒ 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐧(𝟐 ± √𝟑).

3. Solve the equation

𝟓 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 − 𝟒 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 = 𝟑

Solution:
𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒙 𝒆𝒙 − 𝒆−𝒙
𝟓( ) − 𝟒( ) = 𝟑,
𝟐 𝟐
𝟓 (𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒙 ) − 𝟒(𝒆𝒙 − 𝒆−𝒙 ) = 𝟔,
⇒ 𝒆𝒙 + 𝟗 𝒆−𝟐𝒙 − 𝟔 = 𝟎,
⇒ (𝒆𝒙 )𝟐 + 𝟗 − 𝟓 𝒆𝒙 = 𝟎,
⇒ (𝒆𝒙 − 𝟑)𝟐 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝒆𝒙 − 𝟑 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝒆𝒙 = 𝟑
⇒ 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐧 𝟑.
4. Solve the equation
𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝟐𝒙 = 𝟓

Solution:
𝒆𝟐𝒙 + 𝒆−𝟐𝒙 𝒆𝟐𝒙 − 𝒆−𝟐𝒙
𝟐( ) + 𝟏𝟎 ( ) = 𝟓,
𝟐 𝟐
⇒ 𝟔 𝒆𝟐𝒙 − 𝟒 𝒆−𝟐𝒙 − 𝟓 = 𝟎,
⇒ 𝟔 (𝒆𝟐𝒙 )𝟐 − 𝟒 − 𝟓 𝒆𝟐𝒙 = 𝟎

𝟐𝒙
−(−𝟓) ± √(−𝟓)𝟐 − 𝟒 (𝟔)(−𝟒)
⇒𝒆 =
𝟐 (𝟔)
𝟓 + 𝟏𝟏
⇒ 𝒆𝟐𝒙 = (𝒆𝟐𝒙 > 𝟎)
𝟏𝟐
𝟒 𝟒 𝟏 𝟒
⇒ 𝒆𝟐𝒙 = ⇒ 𝟐𝒙 = 𝐥𝐧 ( ) ⇒ 𝒙 = 𝐥𝐧 ( )
𝟑 𝟑 𝟐 𝟑
5. Solve the equation
𝟏 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙
𝐥𝐧 ( )=𝟓
𝟏 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙
Solution: since

Page 28 of 54
 𝒙 −𝒙
𝒆𝒙 − 𝒆−𝒙
𝒆 −𝒆 𝟏 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝟏 + 𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒙 (𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒙 ) + (𝒆𝒙 − 𝒆−𝒙 )
𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙 = ⇒ = =
𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒙 𝟏 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝒆𝒙 − 𝒆−𝒙 (𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒙 ) − (𝒆𝒙 − 𝒆−𝒙 )
𝟏− 𝒙
𝒆 + 𝒆−𝒙
𝟏 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝟐𝒆𝒙
⇒ = = 𝒆𝟐𝒙
𝟏 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝟐 𝒆−𝒙
𝟏 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙
⇒ 𝐥𝐧 ( ) = 𝐥𝐧(𝒆𝟐𝒙 ) = 𝟐𝒙
𝟏 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙
𝟏 + 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝟓
∵ 𝐥𝐧 ( ) = 𝟓 ⇒ 𝟐𝒙 = 𝟓 ⇒ 𝒙 =
𝟏 − 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝟐

Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

𝑑 𝑑 𝒆𝒙 − 𝒆−𝒙 𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒙
[sinh 𝑥] = [ ]= = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝟐 𝟐
𝑑 𝑑 𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒙 𝒆𝒙 − 𝒆−𝒙
[cosh 𝑥] = [ ]= = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 𝟐 𝟐
𝑑 𝑑 sinh 𝑥 cosh2 𝑥 − sinh2 𝑥 𝟏
[tanh 𝑥] = [ ]= 2
= 2
= sech2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 cosh 𝑥 cosh 𝑥 cosh 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 cosh 𝑥 sinh2 𝑥 − cosh2 𝑥 −𝟏
[coth 𝑥] = [ ]= = = − csch2 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 sinhh 𝑥 sinh2 𝑥 sinh2 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 1 − sinh2 𝑥
[sech 𝑥] = [ ]= = − sech 𝑥 tanh 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 cosh 𝑥 cosh2 𝑥
𝑑 𝑑 1 − cosh2 𝑥
[csch 𝑥] = [ ]= = − csch 𝑥 coth 𝑥
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 sinhh 𝑥 sinh2 𝑥

The general formulas of the Derivatives of

Hyperbolic Functions
In general, let 𝑢 be a differentiable function of 𝑥.
𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇′ (𝒙)
𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒖 [𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒖] 𝒖′
𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒖 [𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒖] 𝒖′
𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒖 [𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐡𝟐 𝒖] 𝒖′
𝐜𝐨𝐭𝐡 𝒖 [− 𝐜𝐬𝐜𝐡𝟐 𝒖] 𝒖′
𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐡 𝒖 [− 𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐡 𝒖 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒖] 𝒖′
𝐜𝐬𝐬𝐡 𝒖 [− 𝐜𝐬𝐬𝐡 𝒖 𝐜𝐨𝐭𝐡 𝒖]𝒖′

Page 29 of 54
 Examples
Find the first derivative of each function:
𝒙−𝟏
1. 𝒚 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 ( )
𝒙+𝟏
Solution:
′
𝒙−𝟏 𝒙+𝟏−𝒙+𝟏
𝟐 𝟐
𝒙−𝟏 𝟐
𝒚 = [𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐡 ( )] [ ] = [𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐡 ( )] [ ]
𝒙+𝟏 (𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟏 (𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟐
2. 𝒚 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡𝟐 𝒙
Solution:
𝒚′ = 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝟐𝒙
3. 𝒚 = 𝟑 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡(𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏)
Solution:
𝒚′ = 𝟏𝟓 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡(𝟓𝒙 + 𝟏)

−𝟏 𝒙
4. 𝒚 = 𝟐𝐭𝐚𝐧 + 𝒙𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙
Solution:
−𝟏 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙 −𝟏
𝒚 = 𝟐𝐭𝐚𝐧+ 𝒆𝐥𝐧[𝒙𝒙 ]
= 𝟐𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 + 𝒆(𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙) 𝐥𝐧[𝒙]
−𝟏 𝟏 (𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙) 𝐥𝐧[𝒙]
𝟏
⇒ 𝒚′ = 𝟐𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝟐 ( ) + 𝒆 [𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐡 𝟐
𝒙 𝐥𝐧[𝒙] + ( ) 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙]
𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒙
−𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
⇒ 𝒚′ = 𝟐𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝟐 ( ) + 𝒙 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙
[𝐬𝐞𝐜𝐡 𝟐
𝒙 𝐥𝐧[𝒙] + ( ) 𝐭𝐚𝐧𝐡 𝒙].
𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒙

Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

Because the hyperbolic functions are defined in terms of exponential functions, it is not
surprising to find that the inverse hyperbolic functions can be written in terms of logarithmic
functions.

Page 30 of 54
 Examples
Show that:
1. sinh−1 𝑥 = ln(𝑥 + √𝑥 2 + 1)
Solution: Let
−1
𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑦
𝑦 = sinh 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑥 = sinh 𝑦 =
2
𝑦 −𝑦 𝑦 2 𝑦
⇒2𝑥 =𝑒 −𝑒 ⇒ (𝑒 ) − 2 𝑥 𝑒 − 1 = 0
𝑦
2 𝑥 ± √4 𝑥 2 + 4
⇒𝑒 = = 𝑥 ± √ 𝑥2 + 1
2
𝑦
⇒ 𝑒 = 𝑥 + √ 𝑥2 + 1 (𝑒 𝑦 > 0)
⇒ 𝑦 = ln (𝑥 + √ 𝑥 2 + 1)
⇒ sinh−1 𝑥 = ln (𝑥 + √ 𝑥 2 + 1)
2. cosh−1 𝑥 = ln[𝑥 ± √𝑥 2 − 1]
Solution: Let
−1
𝑒 𝑦 + 𝑒 −𝑦
𝑦 = cosh 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑥 = cosh 𝑦 =
2
⇒ 2 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑦 + 𝑒 −𝑦 ⇒ (𝑒 𝑦 )2 − 2 𝑥 𝑒 𝑦 + 1 = 0
2 𝑥 ± √4 𝑥 2 − 4
⇒ 𝑒𝑦 = = 𝑥 ± √ 𝑥2 − 1
2
𝑦
⇒ 𝑒 = 𝑥 ± √ 𝑥2 − 1
⇒ 𝑦 = ln (𝑥 ± √ 𝑥 2 − 1)
⇒ cosh−1 𝑥 = ln (𝑥 ± √ 𝑥 2 − 1)

1 1+𝑥
3. tanh−1 𝑥 = ln ( )
2 1−𝑥
Solution: Let
−1
𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑦
𝑦 = tanh 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑥 = tanh 𝑦 = 𝑦
𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑦
𝑦 −𝑦 𝑦 −𝑦
⇒ 𝑥 (𝑒 + 𝑒 ) = 𝑒 − 𝑒
⇒ 𝑥 (𝑒 𝑦 )2 + 𝑥 = (𝑒 𝑦 )2 − 1
⇒ 1 + 𝑥 = (𝑒 𝑦 )2 (1 − 𝑥)
1+𝑥 1 1+𝑥
⇒ 𝑒 2𝑦 = ⇒ 𝑦 = ln ( )
1−𝑥 2 1−𝑥
1 1+𝑥
⇒ tanh−1 𝑥 = ln ( ).
2 1−𝑥
1 𝑥+1
4. coth−1 𝑥 = ln ( )
2 𝑥−1
Solution: Let
−1
𝑒 𝑦 + 𝑒 −𝑦
𝑦 = coth 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑥 = coth 𝑦 = 𝑦
𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑦
𝑦 −𝑦 𝑦 −𝑦
⇒ 𝑥 (𝑒 − 𝑒 ) = 𝑒 + 𝑒
Page 31 of 54
 ⇒ 𝑥 (𝑒 𝑦 )2 − 𝑥 = (𝑒 𝑦 )2 + 1
⇒ 1 + 𝑥 = (𝑒 𝑦 )2 (𝑥 − 1)
𝑥+1 1 𝑥+1
⇒ 𝑒 2𝑦 = ⇒ 𝑦 = ln ( )
𝑥−1 2 𝑥−1
1 𝑥+1
⇒ coth−1 𝑥 = ln ( ).
2 𝑥−1

1+ √ 1−𝑥 2
5. sech−1 𝑥 = ln [ ]
𝑥
Solution: Let
2
𝑦 = sech−1 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑥 = sech 𝑦 =
𝑒 𝑦 + 𝑒 −𝑦
2 2
⇒ = 𝑒 𝑦 + 𝑒 −𝑦 ⇒ (𝑒 𝑦 )2 − ( ) 𝑒 𝑦 + 1 = 0
𝑥 𝑥
2
2 √ 2 2
(𝑥 ) ± (𝑥 ) − 4 1 ± √ 1 − 𝑥2
⇒ 𝑒𝑦 = =
2 𝑥
1+ √1−𝑥 2
⇒ 𝑒𝑦 =
𝑥
1 + √ 1 − 𝑥2
⇒ 𝑦 = ln ( )
𝑥
1 + √ 1 − 𝑥2
⇒ sech−1 𝑥 = ln ( )
𝑥

1+ √ 1+𝑥 2
6. csch−1 𝑥 = ln [ ]
𝑥
Solution: Let
2
𝑦 = csch−1 𝑥 ⇔ 𝑥 = csch 𝑦 = 𝑦
𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑦
2 2
⇒ = 𝑒 𝑦 − 𝑒 −𝑦 ⇒ (𝑒 𝑦 )2 − ( ) 𝑒 𝑦 − 1 = 0
𝑥 𝑥
2
2 √ 2 2
(𝑥 ) ± (𝑥 ) + 4 1 ± √ 1 + 𝑥2
⇒ 𝑒𝑦 = =
2 𝑥
1+ √1+𝑥 2
⇒ 𝑒𝑦 =
𝑥
1 + √ 1 + 𝑥2
⇒ 𝑦 = ln ( )
𝑥
1 + √ 1 + 𝑥2
⇒ csch−1 𝑥 = ln ( )
𝑥

Page 32 of 54
 Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
𝑑
[sinh−1 𝑥] =? ?
𝑑𝑥
let
𝑦 = sinh−1 𝑥 ⟺ 𝑥 = sinh 𝑦
derivative w. r. t. 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1
cosh 𝑦 =1⇒ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 cosh 𝑦

∵ cosh2 𝑦 − sinh2 𝑦 = 1 ⇒ cosh2 𝑦 = 1 + 𝑥 2 ⇒ cosh 𝑦 = √1 + 𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑 1
⇒ = ⇒ [sinh−1 𝑥] =
𝑑𝑥 √1 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 √1 + 𝑥 2

𝑑
[cosh−1 𝑥] =? ?
𝑑𝑥
let
𝑦 = cosh−1 𝑥 ⟺ 𝑥 = cosh 𝑦
derivative w. r. t. 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1
sinh 𝑦 =1⇒ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 sinh 𝑦

∵ cosh2 𝑦 − sinh2 𝑦 = 1 ⇒ sinh2 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 1 ⇒ sinh 𝑦 = √𝑥 2 − 1

𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑 1
⇒ = ⇒ [cosh−1 𝑥] =
𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 1 𝑑𝑥 √𝑥 2 − 1

𝑑
[tanh−1 𝑥] =? ?
𝑑𝑥
let
𝑦 = tanh−1 𝑥 ⟺ 𝑥 = tanh 𝑦
derivative w. r. t. 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 1
sech2 𝑦 =1⇒ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 sech2 𝑦
∵ 1 − tanh2 𝑦 = sech2 𝑦 ⇒ sech2 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑 −1
1
⇒ = ⇒ [tanh 𝑥] =
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑥2
Page 33 of 54
 𝑑
[coth−1 𝑥] =? ?
𝑑𝑥
let
𝑦 = coth−1 𝑥 ⟺ 𝑥 = coth 𝑦
derivative w. r. t. 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 −1
− csch2 𝑦 =1⇒ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 csch2 𝑥
∵ coth2 𝑦 − 1 = csch2 𝑦 ⇒ csch2 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 1
𝑑𝑦 1 𝑑 −1
1
⇒ = ⇒ [coth 𝑥] =
𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑥2 𝑑𝑥 1 − 𝑥2

𝑑
[sech−1 𝑥] =? ?
𝑑𝑥
let
𝑦 = sech−1 𝑥 ⟺ 𝑥 = sech 𝑦
derivative w. r. t. 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 −1
− sech 𝑦 tanh 𝑦 =1⇒ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 sech 𝑦 tanh 𝑦

∵ 1 − sech2 𝑦 = tanh2 𝑦 ⇒ tanh2 𝑦 = 1 − 𝑥 2 ⇒ tanh 𝑦 = √1 − 𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦 −1 𝑑 −1
⇒ = ⇒ [sech−1 𝑥] =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2

𝑑
[csch−1 𝑥] =? ?
𝑑𝑥
let
𝑦 = csch−1 𝑥 ⟺ 𝑥 = csch 𝑦
derivative w. r. t. 𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦 −1
− csch 𝑦 coth 𝑦 =1⇒ =
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥 − csch 𝑦 coth 𝑦

∵ 1 + csch2 𝑦 = coth2 𝑦 ⇒ coth2 𝑦 = 1 + 𝑥 2 ⇒ coth 𝑦 = √1 + 𝑥 2

𝑑𝑦 −1 𝑑 −1
⇒ = ⇒ [sech−1 𝑥] =
𝑑𝑥 𝑥 √1 + 𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 𝑥 √1 + 𝑥 2

Page 34 of 54
 The general formulas of the derivative of
Inverse Hyperbolic Functions
𝑓(𝑥) 𝑓 ′ (𝑥)
1
sinh−1 𝑢(𝑥) 𝑢′
√1 + 𝑢2
1
cosh−1 𝑢(𝑥) 𝑢′ s. t. 𝑢 > 1
√ 𝑢2 − 1
1
tanh−1 𝑢(𝑥) 𝑢′ s. t. |𝑢| < 1
1 − 𝑢2
1
coth−1 𝑢(𝑥) 2
𝑢′ s. t. |𝑢| > 1
1−𝑢
−1
sech−1 𝑢(𝑥) 𝑢′ s. t. 0 < 𝑢 > 1
|𝑢| √1 − 𝑢 2

−1
csch−1 𝑢(𝑥) 𝑢′ s. t. 𝑢 ≠ 0
2
|𝑢| √𝑢 + 1
Examples
Find the derivative of each function
1. 𝑦 = cosh−1 (𝑥 2 + 1)
Solution
1
𝑦′ = ∙ (2𝑥)
√(𝑥 2 + 1)2 −1
𝑥2
2. 𝑦 = 𝑒 sech−1 √𝑥
Solution
2 2 1 1
𝑦 ′ = 𝑒 𝑥 ∙ (2𝑥) ∙ sech−1 √𝑥 − 𝑒 𝑥 [ ( )]
√𝑥 √1 − 𝑥 2√𝑥
3. Solve the equation
−1 𝑥
𝑒 cosh =2
Solution:
−1 𝑥
𝑒 cosh = 2 ⇒ cosh−1 𝑥 = ln 2 ⇒ 𝑥 = coth(ln 2)
𝑒 ln 2 + 𝑒 −ln 2
⇒𝑥=
2
1
2+
⇒ 𝑥= 2⇒ 𝑥=5
2 4

Page 35 of 54
 L’HopitaL Rule
Suppose that 𝒇 and 𝒈 are differentiable on the interval ]𝒂, 𝒃[, except possibly at the point
𝑐 ∈ ] 𝑎, 𝑏 [ and that 𝒈′(𝒙) ≠ 𝟎 on ]𝒂, 𝒃[ , except possibly at 𝒄.
Suppose further that
𝒇(𝒙) 𝟎 ∞
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )= 𝐨𝐫 =
𝒙→𝒄 𝒈(𝒙) 𝟎 ∞
and that,
𝒇′(𝒙)
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝑳 (𝐨𝐫 ± ∞)
𝒙→𝒄 𝒈′(𝒙)

Then,
𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇′(𝒙)
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )
𝒙→𝒄 𝒈(𝒙) 𝒙→𝒄 𝒈′(𝒙)

Remark:
𝒇(𝒙)
The conclusion also holds if 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝒈(𝒙)) is replaced with any of the limits
𝒙→𝒄
𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇(𝒙) 𝒇(𝒙)
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ), 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( ), 𝐥𝐢𝐦− ( ), 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ), 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )
𝒙→𝒄 𝒈(𝒙) 𝒙→𝒄 𝒈(𝒙) 𝒙→𝒄 𝒈(𝒙) 𝒙→∞ 𝒈(𝒙) 𝒙→−∞ 𝒈(𝒙)
Indeterminate Forms
𝟎 ∞
, , 𝟎 ∙ ∞, ∞ − ∞ , 𝟏∞ , ∞𝟎 , 𝟎𝟎 .
𝟎 ∞
𝟎
Examples: indeterminate form
𝟎
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
1. Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙
Solution: Apply 𝐋’𝐇𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥’𝐬 rule
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )= =𝟏
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝟏 𝟏
√𝒙+𝟏−𝟏
2. Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )
𝒙→𝟎 √𝒙+𝟒−𝟐
Solution: Apply 𝐋’𝐇𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥’𝐬 rule
𝟏
) (
√𝒙 + 𝟏 − 𝟏 𝟐√ 𝒙 + 𝟏 √𝒙 + 𝟒 𝟐
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )= =𝟐
𝒙→𝟎 √𝒙 + 𝟒 − 𝟐 𝒙→𝟎 𝟏 𝒙→𝟎 √𝒙 + 𝟏 𝟏
( )
𝟐√ 𝒙 + 𝟒
𝟓 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒕
3. Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )
𝒕→𝝅 𝟏+𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕
Solution: Apply 𝐋’𝐇𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥’𝐬 rule
𝟓 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒕 𝟏𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒕 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕 𝟏𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝟏𝟎.
𝒕→𝝅 𝟏 + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕 𝒕→𝝅 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒕 𝒕→𝝅 −𝟏
Page 36 of 54
 𝒙 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
4. Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙𝟑
Solution: Apply 𝐋’𝐇𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥’𝐬 rule
𝒙 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝟎
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) =
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙𝟑 𝒙→𝟎 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝟎
Apply 𝐋’𝐇𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥’𝐬 rule
𝒙 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝟎
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) =
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙𝟑 𝒙→𝟎 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒙→𝟎 𝟔𝒙 𝟎
Apply 𝐋’𝐇𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥’𝐬 rule
𝒙 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝟏 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) =
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙𝟑 𝒙→𝟎 𝟑𝒙𝟐 𝒙→𝟎 𝟔𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝟔 𝟔
∞
Examples: indeterminate form
∞
𝐥𝐧 𝒙
1. Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )
𝒙→∞ 𝒙
Solution: Apply 𝐋’𝐇𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥’𝐬 rule
𝟏
𝐥𝐧 𝒙 (𝒙 ) 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝟎
𝒙→∞ 𝒙 𝒙→∞ 𝟏 𝒙→∞ 𝒙

𝒙𝟒
2. Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )
𝒙→∞ 𝒆𝟐𝒙
Solution: Apply 𝐋’𝐇𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥’𝐬 rule
𝒙𝟒 𝟒𝒙𝟑 ∞
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝟐𝒙 ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝟐𝒙 ) =
𝒙→∞ 𝒆 𝒙→∞ 𝟐𝒆 ∞
Apply 𝐋’𝐇𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥’𝐬 rule
𝒙𝟒 𝟒𝒙𝟑 𝟏𝟐𝒙𝟐 ∞
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝟐𝒙 ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝟐𝒙 ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝟐𝒙 ) =
𝒙→∞ 𝒆 𝒙→∞ 𝟐𝒆 𝒙→∞ 𝟒𝒆 ∞
Apply 𝐋’𝐇𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥’𝐬 rule
𝒙𝟒 𝟒𝒙𝟑 𝟏𝟐𝒙𝟐 𝟐𝟒𝒙 ∞
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝟐𝒙 ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝟐𝒙 ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝟐𝒙 ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝟐𝒙 ) =
𝒙→∞ 𝒆 𝒙→∞ 𝟐𝒆 𝒙→∞ 𝟒𝒆 𝒙→∞ 𝟖𝒆 ∞
Apply 𝐋’𝐇𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥’𝐬 rule
𝒙𝟒 𝟒𝒙𝟑 𝟏𝟐𝒙𝟐 𝟐𝟒𝒙 𝟐𝟒 𝟐𝟒
𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝟐𝒙 ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝟐𝒙 ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝟐𝒙 ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝟐𝒙 ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = =𝟎
𝒙→∞ 𝒆 𝒙→∞ 𝟐𝒆 𝒙→∞ 𝟒𝒆 𝒙→∞ 𝟖𝒆 𝒙→∞ 𝟏𝟔 𝒆𝟐𝒙 ∞
𝐥𝐧 𝒙
3. Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( )
𝒙→𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙

Solution: Apply 𝐋’𝐇𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥’𝐬 rule

𝟏
𝐥𝐧 𝒙 (𝒙 ) − 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒙 𝟎
𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) =
𝒙→𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 − 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎+ 𝒙 𝟎

Page 37 of 54
Apply 𝐋’𝐇𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥’𝐬 rule
𝟏
𝐥𝐧 𝒙 (𝒙 ) − 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝟐 𝒙 − 𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( 𝟐
) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( )=𝟎
𝒙→𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 − 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝟏

Other indeterminate form

There are five additional indeterminate forms:
𝟎 ∙ ∞, ∞ − ∞ , 𝟏∞ , ∞𝟎 , 𝟎𝟎
By combination of algebra and a little cleverness we can often convert one of these
𝟎 ∞
new limit forms to either 𝒐𝒓 .
𝟎 ∞

Examples: indeterminate form ∞ − ∞

1. Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦+(𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 − 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙)
𝒙→𝟎
Solution:
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 − 𝟏 𝟎
𝐥𝐢𝐦+(𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 − 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( − ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( )=
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝟎
Apply 𝐋’𝐇𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥’𝐬 rule
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 − 𝟏 −𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝟎
𝐥𝐢𝐦+(𝐜𝐨𝐭 𝒙 − 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( )= =𝟎
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 𝟏
𝟏 𝟏
2. Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( − )
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙

Solution:
𝟏 𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 − 𝒙 𝟎
𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( − ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( )=
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝟎
Apply 𝐋’𝐇𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥’𝐬 rule
𝟏 𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 − 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 − 𝟏
𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( − ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( )
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 + 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
−𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝟎
= 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( )= =𝟎
𝒙→𝟎 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 − 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝟐
Examples: indeterminate form 𝟎 ∙ ∞
𝝅
1. Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝟏 − 𝒙) 𝐭𝐚𝐧 ( 𝒙)
𝒙→𝟏 𝟐

Solution:
𝝅 (𝟏 − 𝒙) 𝟎
𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝟏 − 𝒙) 𝐭𝐚𝐧 ( 𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝝅 =
𝒙→𝟏 𝟐 𝒙→𝟏
𝐜𝐨𝐭 ( 𝟐 𝒙) 𝟎

Apply 𝐋’𝐇𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥’𝐬 rule

Page 38 of 54
 𝝅 (𝟏 − 𝒙) −𝟏 𝟐
𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝟏 − 𝒙) 𝐭𝐚𝐧 ( 𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝝅 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝝅 𝝅 =
𝒙→𝟏 𝟐 𝒙→𝟏
𝐜𝐨𝐭 ( 𝟐 𝒙) 𝒙→𝟏 − 𝐜𝐬𝐜 𝟐 ( 𝟐 𝒙) 𝟐 𝝅

2. Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦+(𝒙𝟐 𝐥𝐧 𝒙)
𝒙→𝟎

Solution:
𝐥𝐧 𝒙 −∞
𝐥𝐢𝐦+(𝒙𝟐 𝐥𝐧 𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( )=
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝟏 ∞
𝒙𝟐
Apply 𝐋’𝐇𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥’𝐬 rule
𝟏
𝟐
𝐥𝐧 𝒙 𝒙 𝒙𝟐
𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒙) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ( ) = 𝟎
𝒙→𝟎+ 𝒙→𝟎 𝟏 𝒙→𝟎 −𝟐 𝒙→𝟎 −𝟐
𝒙𝟐 𝒙 𝟑

The forms 𝟏∞ , ∞𝟎 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟎𝟎

• Let 𝒚 = 𝒇(𝒙)𝒈(𝒙) .
• Then 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 = 𝒈(𝒙) 𝐥𝐧 𝒇(𝒙).
• Find limit of 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 = 𝑳.
• The limit of 𝒚 = 𝒆𝑳 .

Example: indeterminate form 𝟏∞

𝟏
( 𝟐)
1. Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙) 𝒙
𝒙→𝟎
Solution: let
𝟏
( 𝟐)
𝒚= (𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙) 𝒙

Then take 𝐥𝐧 for both sides

𝟏 𝟏 𝟎
⟹ ln 𝑦 = ( 𝟐 ) ln(cos 𝑥) ⟹ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ln 𝑦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝟐 ) ln(cos 𝑥) =
𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙 𝟎
Apply 𝐋’𝐇𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥’𝐬 rule
𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
(− cos 𝑥 ) 𝐭𝐚𝐧 𝒙 𝐬𝐞𝐜 𝟐 𝒙 𝟏
⟹ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ln 𝑦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (− ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (− )=−
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝟐𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝟐𝒙 𝒙→𝟎 𝟐 𝟐

𝟏 𝟏
( 𝟐) (− )
Hence, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝑦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦(𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙) 𝒙 =𝒆 𝟐
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎

Example: indeterminate form 𝟎𝟎

1. Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦+(𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙)𝒙
𝒙→𝟎
Solution: let
𝒚 = (𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙)𝒙
Page 39 of 54
 Then take 𝐥𝐧 for both sides
⟹ ln 𝑦 = (𝒙) ln(sin 𝑥)
ln(sin 𝑥) ∞
⟹ 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ln 𝑦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+(𝒙) ln(sin 𝑥) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ =−
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 1 ∞
(𝑥 )
Apply 𝐋’𝐇𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥’𝐬 rule
cos 𝑥
( sin 𝑥 ) 𝑥2 2𝑥 𝟎
⟹ 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ln 𝑦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ − = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ − = =𝟎
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎 −1 𝒙→𝟎 tan 𝑥 𝒙→𝟎 sec 2𝑥 𝟏
( 2)
𝑥
Hence, 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦+(𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙) = 𝒆𝟎 = 𝟏
𝒙
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→𝟎

Example: indeterminate form ∞𝟎

𝟏
( )
1. Evaluate 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 ) 𝐥𝐧 𝒙
𝒙→∞
Solution: let
𝟏
( )
𝒚 = (𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 ) 𝐥𝐧 𝒙

Then take 𝐥𝐧 for both sides

𝟏
) ln(𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 )
⟹ ln 𝑦 = (
𝐥𝐧 𝒙
𝟏 ∞
⟹ 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ln 𝑦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) ln(𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 ) =
𝒙→∞ 𝒙→∞ 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 ∞
Apply 𝐋’𝐇𝐨𝐩𝐢𝐭𝐚𝐥’𝐬 rule
𝟐𝒙
( 𝟐) 𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝟒𝒙
⟹ 𝐥𝐢𝐦+ ln 𝑦 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( 𝟏 + 𝒙 ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( ) = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ( )=𝟐
𝒙→𝟎 𝒙→∞ 𝟏 𝒙→∞ 𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 𝒙→∞ 𝟐 𝒙
(𝒙 )
𝟏
( )
Hence, 𝐥𝐢𝐦 𝒚 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 (𝟏 + 𝒙𝟐 ) 𝐥𝐧 𝒙 = 𝒆𝟐 .
𝒙→∞ 𝒙→∞

Page 40 of 54
 Application of the derivative
Extreme Values of Functions

Critical Point: a point (𝑎, 𝑓(𝑎)) is called critical point of 𝑓(𝑥) if 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 or undefined.
Examples:
1. 𝑓(𝑥) = 2 𝑥 3 + 𝑥 2 − 20𝑥 + 4
5
⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 6 𝑥 2 + 2𝑥 − 20 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −2 or 𝑥 =
3
5 −38
⇒ the critical points are (−2, 24) and ( , ).
3 3
2. 𝑓(𝑥) = 3 𝑥 + 5
⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 3 ≠ 0 ⇒ 𝑓(𝑥) has no critical point.
3. 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 2 − 16
𝑥
⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = = 0 ⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) not exist at 𝑥 = 0
√𝑥 2 − 16
but 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) undefined at 𝑥 = ±4 ⇒ the critical points are (4,0) and (−4,0).
1
4. 𝑓(𝑥) = (𝑥 + 5)2 (𝑥 − 4)3
(5 + 𝑥)(−19 + 7𝑥) 19
⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = −5 , 𝑥 =
3(−4 + 𝑥)2⁄3 7
but 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) undefined at 𝑥 = 4 ⇒ the critical points are (−5, 𝑓(−5)) ,
19 19
( , 𝑓( )) and (4, 𝑓(4)).
7 7
1+sin 𝑥
5. 𝑓(𝑥) =
1−sin 𝑥

2Cos[𝑥] 𝜋
⇒ 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = ± ( + 𝑛 𝜋),
(−1 + Sin[𝑥])2 2
𝜋
but 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) undefined at 𝑥 = + 2𝑛 𝜋 .
2

Page 41 of 54
Local Maximum, Local Minimum:
➢ 𝑓(𝑐) is a local maximum of 𝑓 if 𝑓(𝑐) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥) for
all 𝑥 in some open interval containing c.
➢ 𝑓(𝑐) is a local minimum of 𝑓 if 𝑓(𝑐) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) for
all 𝑥 in some open interval containing c.
The First Derivative Theorem for Local
Extreme Values
If 𝑓 has a local maximum or minimum value at an
interior point 𝑐 of its domain, and if 𝑓′ is defined
at 𝑐, then 𝑓′(𝑐) = 0.
Absolute Maximum, Absolute Minimum
➢ Let 𝑓 be a function with domain 𝐷. Then 𝑓 has an absolute maximum value on 𝐷 at a
point 𝑐 if 𝑓(𝑐) ≥ 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in 𝐷.
➢ Let 𝑓 be a function with domain 𝐷. Then 𝑓 has an absolute minimum value on 𝐷 at a
point 𝑐 if 𝑓(𝑐) ≤ 𝑓(𝑥) for all 𝑥 in 𝐷.
A Procedure for Finding the Absolute Extrema of a Continuous
Function 𝒇 on a Finite Closed Interval [𝒂, 𝒃]
Step 1. Find the critical points of 𝑓 in (𝑎, 𝑏).
Step 2. Evaluate 𝑓 at all the critical points and at the endpoints 𝑎 and 𝑏.
Step 3. The largest of the values in Step 2 is the absolute maximum value of 𝑓 on [𝑎, 𝑏] and
the smallest value is the absolute minimum.
Examples:
1. Find the absolute maximum and minimum values of the function 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏𝟓𝒙𝟐 +
𝟑𝟔𝒙 on the interval [𝟏, 𝟓], and determine where these values occur.
Solution:
The absolute extrema must occur either at endpoints of the interval or at solutions to the equation
𝑓′(𝑥) = 0 in the open interval (1, 5).
The equation 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 can be written as
6𝑥 2 − 30𝑥 + 36 = 6(𝑥 2 − 5𝑥 + 6) = 6(𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 − 3) = 0
Thus, there are stationary points at 𝑥 = 2 and at 𝑥 = 3. Evaluating 𝑓 at the endpoints, at 𝑥 = 2,
and at 𝑥 = 3 yields
Page 42 of 54
 𝑓 (1) = 2(1)3 − 15(1)2 + 36(1) = 23.
𝑓 (2) = 2(2)3 − 15(2)2 + 36(2) = 28.
𝑓 (3) = 2(3)3 − 15(3)2 + 36(3) = 27.
𝑓 (5) = 2(5)3 − 15(5)2 + 36(5) = 55.
from which we conclude that the absolute minimum of 𝑓 on [1, 5] is 23, occurring at 𝑥 = 1,
and the absolute maximum of 𝑓 on [1, 5] is 55, occurring at 𝑥 = 5.
𝟒 𝟏
2. Find the absolute extrema of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟔𝒙𝟑 − 𝟑𝒙𝟑 on the interval [−𝟏, 𝟏], and determine
where these values occur.
Solution:
we obtain
1 −2 −2 8𝑥 − 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 8𝑥 3 − 𝑥 3 =𝑥 3 (8𝑥 − 1) = 2
𝑥3
1
Thus, 𝑓′(𝑥) = 0 at 𝑥 = , and 𝑓′(𝑥) is undefined at 𝑥 = 0. Evaluating 𝑓 at these critical points
8

and endpoints yields Table

1
𝑥 -1 0 1
8
−9
𝑓(𝑥) 9 0 3
8
−9 1
from which we conclude that an absolute minimum value of occurs at 𝑥 = , and an absolute
8 8

maximum value of 9 occurs at 𝑥 = −1.

How determine a local maximum and minimum values of the function 𝒇(𝒙).
Step 1. Find the critical points of 𝑓.
Step 2. Second Derivative Test
When a function's slope is zero at 𝑐, and the second derivative at 𝑐 is:
➢ Less than 0, it is a local maximum.
➢ Greater than 0, it is a local minimum.
➢ Equal to 0, then the test fails, it is a saddle point.
When the test fails (search the sign about to sides of 𝑐 [+ → − maximum, − → + minimum]).
Examples:
𝟏 𝟏
1. Find the maximum and minimum of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟐.
𝟑 𝟐

Solution:
𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒙 − 𝟐 = 𝟎 ⇒ (𝒙 − 𝟐)(𝒙 + 𝟏) = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝒙 = 𝟐 , 𝒙 = −𝟏.
Page 43 of 54
 4 19
⇒ the critical points are (2, − ) and (−1, ).
3 6
Then
𝒇′′ (𝒙) = 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟏
4
at 𝑥 = 2, 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 3 > 0 then 𝑓(𝑥) = − is a local minimum at 𝑥 = 2.
3
19
at 𝑥 = −1, 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = −3 < 0 then 𝑓(𝑥) = is a local maximum at 𝑥 = −1.
6

2. Find the maximum and minimum of 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟐 𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏𝟓 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝟒𝒙.

Solution:
𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝟔 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟑𝟎 𝒙 + 𝟐𝟒 = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝟔(𝒙𝟐 − 𝟓 𝒙 + 𝟒𝒙) = 𝟎
⇒ (𝒙 − 𝟏)(𝒙 − 𝟒) = 𝟎 ⇒ 𝒙 = 𝟏 , 𝒙 = 𝟒.
⇒ the critical points are (1,11) and (4, −16).
Then
𝒇′′ (𝒙) = 𝟏𝟐𝒙 − 𝟑𝟎
at 𝑥 = 4, 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = 18 > 0 then 𝑓 (𝑥) = −16 is a local minimum at 𝑥 = 4.
at 𝑥 = 1, 𝑓 ′′ (𝑥) = −18 < 0 then 𝑓(𝑥) = 11 is a local maximum at 𝑥 = 1.
INCREASING AND DECREASING FUNCTIONS:
Let 𝑓 be a function that is continuous on a closed interval [𝑎, 𝑏]and differentiable on the open
interval (𝑎, 𝑏).
➢ If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) > 0 for every value of 𝑥 in, (𝑎, 𝑏), then 𝑓 is increasing on [𝑎, 𝑏].
➢ If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) < 0 for every value of 𝑥 in, (𝑎, 𝑏), then 𝑓 is decreasing on [𝑎, 𝑏].
➢ If 𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 0 for every value of 𝑥 in, (𝑎, 𝑏), then 𝑓 is constant on [𝑎, 𝑏].
Examples:
1. Find the intervals on which 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑 is increasing and the intervals on
which it is decreasing.
Solution: To confirm this, we analyze the sign of 𝑓′. The derivative of 𝑓 is
𝑓′(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 4 = 2(𝑥 − 2)
It follows that
𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) < 0 if 𝑥<2
′( )
𝑓 𝑥 >0 if 2<𝑥
Then 𝑓 is decreasing on (−∞, 2] and 𝑓 is increasing on [2, ∞)
2. Find the intervals on which 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒙𝟑 is increasing and the intervals on which it is
decreasing.
Solution: To confirm this, we analyze the sign of 𝑓′. The derivative of 𝑓 is
𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) = 3 𝑥 2
Page 44 of 54
 It follows that
𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) > 0 if 𝑥>0
𝑓 ′ (𝑥 ) > 0 if 𝑥<0
Then 𝑓 is increasing on (−∞, 0 and 𝑓 is increasing on [0, ∞) i.e. 𝑓 is increasing on this domain ℝ.
3. Find the intervals on which 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝟑𝒙𝟒 + 𝟒𝒙𝟑 − 𝟏𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐 is increasing and the
intervals on which it is decreasing.
Solution: To confirm this, we analyze the sign of 𝑓′. The derivative of 𝑓 is
𝑓 ′ (𝑥) = 12𝑥 3 + 12 𝑥 2 − 24 𝑥
It follows that the sign analysis of 𝑓′ in the next table
interval (12𝑥)(𝑥 + 2)(𝑥 − 1) 𝑓′(𝑥) conclusion
𝑥 < −2 (−)(−)(−) − 𝑓 is decreasing on (−∞, −2]
−2 < 𝑥 < 0 (−)(+)(−) + 𝑓 is increasing on [−2, 0]
0<𝑥<1 (+)(+)(−) − 𝑓 is decreasing on [0, 1]
1<𝑥 (+)(+)(+) + 𝑓 is increasing on [1, ∞)

Page 45 of 54
 Taylor and Maclaurin Series
Suppose the function f has derivatives of all orders on an interval containing the point c.
The Taylor series for 𝒇 centered at 𝒄 is
𝒇′(𝒄) 𝒇′′(𝒄) 𝟐
𝒇(𝒏) (𝒄)
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒄) + (𝒙 − 𝒄) + (𝒙 − 𝒄) + ⋯ + (𝒙 − 𝒄)𝒏 + ⋯
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝒏!
A Taylor series centered at 𝒄 = 𝟎 is called a Maclaurin series
𝒇′ (𝟎) 𝒇′′ (𝒄) 𝟐 𝒇(𝒏) (𝟎) 𝒏
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝟎) + 𝒙+ 𝒙 + ⋯+ 𝒙 +⋯
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝒏!
Examples:
➢ Find the Maclaurin series for the following functions
1. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙
Solution
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒇(𝟎) = 𝟏
′
𝒇 (𝒙) = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒇′(𝟎) = 𝟎
𝒇′′ (𝒙) = − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒇′′ (𝟎) = −𝟏
𝒇′′′ (𝒙) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒇′′′(𝟎) = 𝟎
𝒇(𝟒) (𝒙) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒇(𝟒) (𝟎) = 𝟏, … … …
Substituting in the Maclaurin series we get
𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟒 𝒙𝟔
∴ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 = 𝟏 − + − +⋯
𝟐! 𝟒! 𝟔!
2. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙
Solution
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒇(𝟎) = 𝟎
𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒇′(𝟎) = 𝟏
𝒇′′ (𝒙) = − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒇′′ (𝟎) = 𝟎
𝒇′′′ (𝒙) = − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒇′′′(𝟎) = −𝟏
𝒇(𝟒) (𝒙) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 ⇒ 𝒇(𝟒) (𝟎) = 𝟎, … … …
Substituting in the Maclaurin series we get
𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟓 𝒙𝟕
∴ 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 = 𝒙 − + − +⋯
𝟑! 𝟓! 𝟕!
𝟏
3. 𝒇(𝒙) =
𝟏−𝒙
Solution
𝟏
𝒇(𝒙) = ⇒ 𝒇(𝟎) = 𝟏
𝟏−𝒙
𝟏
𝒇′ (𝒙) = ⇒ 𝒇′(𝟎) = 𝟏
(𝟏 − 𝒙)𝟐
𝟐
𝒇′′ (𝒙) = ⇒ 𝒇′′ (𝟎) = 𝟐!
(𝟏 − 𝒙)𝟑
Page 46 of 54
 𝟐∗𝟑
𝒇′′′ (𝒙) = 𝟒
⇒ 𝒇′′′(𝟎) = 𝟐 ∗ 𝟑 = 𝟑!
(𝟏 − 𝒙)
𝟐∗𝟑∗𝟒
𝒇(𝟒) (𝒙) = 𝟓
⇒ 𝒇(𝟒) (𝟎) = 𝟐 ∗ 𝟑 ∗ 𝟒 = 𝟒!, … … …
(𝟏 − 𝒙)
Substituting in the Maclaurin series we get
𝟏
∴ = 𝟏 + 𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒙𝒏 + ⋯
𝟏−𝒙
4. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 + 𝒙)
Solution
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 + 𝒙) ⇒ 𝒇(𝟎) = 𝟎
𝟏
𝒇′ (𝒙) = ⇒ 𝒇′(𝟎) = 𝟏
𝟏+𝒙
−𝟏
𝒇′′ (𝒙) = 𝟐
⇒ 𝒇′′ (𝟎) = −𝟏
(𝟏 + 𝒙)
𝟐
𝒇′′′ (𝒙) = 𝟑
⇒ 𝒇′′′(𝟎) = 𝟐
(𝟏 + 𝒙)
−𝟔
𝒇(𝟒) (𝒙) = ⇒ 𝒇(𝟒) (𝟎) = −𝟔, … … …
(𝟏 + 𝒙)𝟒
Substituting in the Maclaurin series we get
𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟒
∴ 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 + 𝒙) = 𝒙 − + − +⋯
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
𝒙
5. 𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆
Solution
𝒇(𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙 ⇒ 𝒇(𝟎) = 𝟏
𝒇′ (𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙 ⇒ 𝒇′(𝟎) = 𝟏
𝒇′′ (𝒙) = 𝒆𝒙 ⇒ 𝒇′′ (𝟎) = 𝟏
Substituting in the Maclaurin series we get
𝒙
𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝒏
∴𝒆 =𝟏+ + + ⋯+ +⋯
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝒏!
𝟐
6. Use the Maclaurin series for 𝒆𝒙 to find the Maclaurin series for 𝒆−𝒙 , 𝒙𝟒 𝒆𝒙 , 𝒆𝒙
Solution
The Maclaurin series for 𝒆−𝒙 is obtained by replacing 𝒙 by −𝒙 in the Maclaurin
series for 𝒆𝒙
−𝒙
𝒙 𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝒏
∴𝒆 =𝟏− + − + ⋯+ +⋯
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟑! 𝒏!
The Maclaurin series for 𝒙𝟒 𝒆𝒙 is
𝟒 𝒙 𝟒
𝒙𝟓 𝒙𝟔 𝒙𝒏+𝟒
∴𝒙 𝒆 =𝒙 + + + ⋯+ +⋯
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝒏!
The Maclaurin series for 𝒆−𝒙 is obtained by replacing 𝒙 by 𝒙𝟐 in the Maclaurin
series for 𝒆𝒙
Page 47 of 54
 𝒙𝟐
𝒙𝟐 (𝒙𝟐 )𝟐 (𝒙𝟐 )𝒏
∴𝒆 =𝟏+ + + ⋯+ +⋯
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝒏!
7. Use the Maclaurin series for 𝒆𝒙 to find the Maclaurin series for 𝒆𝟏
Solution
The Maclaurin series for 𝒆𝟏 is obtained by replacing 𝒙 by 𝟏 in the Maclaurin
series for 𝒆𝒙
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
∴ 𝒆𝟏 = 𝟏 + + + +⋯=𝟏+𝟏 + + + + ⋯ ≈ 𝟐. 𝟕
𝟏! 𝟐! 𝟑! 𝟐 𝟔 𝟐𝟒
𝟏 𝒙𝟐
8. Use the Maclaurin series for to find the Maclaurin series for
𝟏−𝒙 𝟏−𝒙𝟐
Solution
𝟏
The Maclaurin series for is obtained by replacing 𝒙 by 𝒙𝟐 in the
𝟏−𝒙𝟐
𝟏
Maclaurin series for
𝟏−𝒙
𝟏
∵ = 𝟏 + 𝒙 + 𝒙𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝒙𝒏 + ⋯
𝟏−𝒙
𝟏
∴ 𝟐
= 𝟏 + (𝒙𝟐 ) + (𝒙𝟐 )𝟐 + ⋯ + (𝒙𝟐 )𝒏 + ⋯
𝟏−𝒙
Then
𝒙𝟐
𝟐
= 𝒙𝟐 [𝟏 + (𝒙𝟐 ) + (𝒙𝟐 )𝟐 + ⋯ + (𝒙𝟐 )𝒏 + ⋯ ]
𝟏−𝒙
𝒙𝟐
𝟐
= 𝒙𝟐 + (𝒙𝟐 )𝟐 + (𝒙𝟐 )𝟑 + ⋯ + (𝒙𝟐 )𝒏+𝟏 + ⋯
𝟏−𝒙
𝟏+𝒙
9. Use the Maclaurin series for 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 + 𝒙) to find the Maclaurin series for 𝐥𝐧 [ ]
𝟏−𝒙
Solution
𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟒
∵ 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 + 𝒙) = 𝒙 − + − +⋯
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
Now replacing 𝒙 by −𝒙
𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟒
∴ 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 − 𝒙) = −𝒙 − − − − ⋯
𝟐 𝟑 𝟒
𝟏+𝒙 𝒙𝟑 𝒙𝟓
𝐥𝐧 [ ] = 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 + 𝒙) − 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 − 𝒙) = 𝟐 𝒙 + 𝟐 + 𝟐 + ⋯
𝟏−𝒙 𝟑 𝟓

Page 48 of 54
 Partial derivatives
Suppose 𝒁 = 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚) is a function of the tow independent variables 𝒙 and 𝒚.
• The first partial derivative of 𝒇 with respect to 𝒙 is denoted by
𝝏𝒇 𝝏𝒁
, 𝒇𝒙 , , 𝒁𝒙
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙
and it is the function obtained by differentiating 𝒇 with respect to 𝒙, treating 𝒚 as a
constant.
Similarly,
• The first partial derivative of 𝒇 with respect to 𝒚 is denoted by
𝝏𝒇 𝝏𝒁
, 𝒇𝒚 , , 𝒁𝒚
𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚
and it is the function obtained by differentiating 𝒇 with respect to 𝒚, treating 𝒙 as a
constant.
Examples:
𝜕𝑓 𝜕𝑓
➢ Find the and for the following functions
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝒚
1. 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝒙𝟑 + 𝟒 𝒙 𝒚 +
𝒙
Solution
𝝏𝒇 𝒚 𝝏𝒇 𝟏
= 𝟑 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒 𝒚 − 𝟐 𝐚𝐧𝐝 = 𝟒𝒙 +
𝝏𝒙 𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝒙
2. 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝒙𝟓 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒙 𝒚𝟐 )
Solution
𝝏𝒇 𝝏𝒇
= −𝒙𝟓 𝒚𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒙 𝒚𝟐 ) + 𝟓 𝒙𝟒 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝒙 𝒚𝟐 ) 𝐚𝐧𝐝 = −𝟐 𝒙𝟔 𝒚 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝒙 𝒚𝟐 )
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
−𝟏 𝟐 −𝟏 𝟐
3. 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 (𝒙 𝒚 ) + 𝐭𝐚𝐧 (𝒚 𝒙 )
Solution
𝝏𝒇 𝒚𝟐 𝟐𝒙𝒚 𝝏𝒇 𝟐𝒙𝒚 𝒙𝟐
= + 𝐚𝐧𝐝 = +
𝝏𝒙 𝟏 + (𝒙 𝒚𝟐 )𝟐 𝟏 + (𝒚 𝒙𝟐 )𝟐 𝝏𝒚 𝟏 + (𝒙 𝒚𝟐 )𝟐 𝟏 + (𝒚 𝒙𝟐 )𝟐
𝟐 +𝒙𝒚)
4. 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝒆(𝒙 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚)
Solution
𝝏𝒇 𝟐
= (𝟐𝒙 + 𝒚)𝒆(𝒙 +𝒙𝒚) + 𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚)
𝝏𝒙
and
𝝏𝒇 𝟐
= 𝒙 𝒆(𝒙 +𝒙𝒚) + 𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑𝒚)
𝝏𝒚
𝒙 𝒚
( ⁄𝒙)
5. If 𝒁 = 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( ) + 𝒚 𝒆 show that 𝒙 𝒁𝒙 + 𝒚 𝒁𝒚 = 𝒁
𝒚
Solution
𝒙 𝒙 𝒙 𝒚𝟐 𝒚
( ⁄ )
𝒁𝒙 = ( ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( ) + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( ) − ( 𝟐 ) 𝒆 𝒙
𝒚 𝒚 𝒚 𝒙
Page 49 of 54
 𝒙𝟐 𝒙 𝒙 𝒚𝟐 𝒚
( ⁄ )
⇒ 𝒙𝒁𝒙 = ( ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( ) + 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( ) − ( ) 𝒆 𝒙
𝒚 𝒚 𝒚 𝒙
𝒙𝟐 𝒙 𝒚
( ⁄ ) 𝒚 (𝒚⁄ )
𝒁𝒚 = − ( 𝟐 ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( ) + 𝒆 𝒙 + ( ) 𝒆 𝒙
𝒚 𝒚 𝒙
𝒙𝟐 𝒙 𝒚
( ⁄𝒙) 𝒚𝟐 𝒚
( ⁄ )
⇒ 𝒚𝒁𝒚 = − ( ) 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( ) + 𝒚 𝒆 +( ) 𝒆 𝒙
𝒚 𝒚 𝒙
Then
𝒙 𝒚
( ⁄ )
𝒙 𝒁𝒙 + 𝒚 𝒁𝒚 = 𝒙 𝐬𝐢𝐧 ( ) + 𝒚 𝒆 𝒙 = 𝒁.
𝒚

Higher order and Mixed Partial derivatives

For a function of the tow independent variables 𝒙 and 𝒚 𝐢. 𝐞. 𝒁 = 𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚)

• The second order partial derivative of 𝒇 is denoted by
𝝏𝟐 𝒇 𝝏 𝝏𝒇 𝝏𝟐 𝒇 𝝏 𝝏𝒇
𝒁𝒙𝒙 = 𝟐 = 𝒇𝒙𝒙 = ( ) 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝒁𝒚𝒚 = 𝟐 = 𝒇𝒚𝒚 = ( )
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚
• The mixed second order partial derivative of 𝒇 is denoted by
𝝏𝟐 𝒇 𝝏 𝝏𝒇 𝝏𝟐 𝒇 𝝏 𝝏𝒇
𝒁𝒙𝒚 = = 𝒇𝒙𝒚 = ( ) 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝒁𝒚𝒙 = = 𝒇𝒚𝒙 = ( )
𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
Assuming that 𝑓 is defined on an open set 𝐷 of ℝ2 , and 𝑓𝑥𝑦 and 𝑓𝑦𝑥 are continuous
throughout 𝐷. Then 𝑓𝑥𝑦 = 𝑓𝑦𝑥 at all points of 𝐷.
Examples:
𝝏𝟐 𝒇 𝝏𝟐 𝒇 𝝏𝟐 𝒇
1. Find the , and for the following function
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝝏𝒚 𝟐 𝝏𝒙 𝝏𝒚
𝒇(𝒙, 𝒚) = 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚 𝐥𝐧 𝒙Solution
𝝏𝒇 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚 𝝏𝒇 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙
= 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 + 𝐚𝐧𝐝 = + 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚 𝐥𝐧 𝒙
𝝏𝒙 𝒙 𝝏𝒚 𝒚
Then
𝝏𝟐 𝒇 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒚
= 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒚 −
𝝏𝒙𝟐 𝒙𝟐
𝝏𝟐 𝒇 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒙
= − − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒙 𝐥𝐧 𝒙
𝝏𝒚𝟐 𝒚𝟐
𝝏𝟐 𝒇 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒙 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒚
= +
𝝏𝒚𝟐 𝒚 𝒙
𝟐 𝟐)
2. If 𝒁 = 𝐥𝐧(𝒙 + 𝒚 show that 𝒁𝒙𝒙 + 𝒁𝒚𝒚 = 𝟎.
Solution:
𝟐𝒙 𝟐 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒙𝟐
𝒁𝒙 = 𝟐 ⇒ 𝒁𝒙𝒙 = 𝟐
(𝒙 + 𝒚𝟐 ) (𝒙 + 𝒚𝟐 )𝟐
Page 50 of 54
 𝟐𝒚 𝟐 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒚𝟐
𝒁𝒚 = 𝟐 ⇒ 𝒁𝒚𝒚 = 𝟐
(𝒙 + 𝒚𝟐 ) (𝒙 + 𝒚𝟐 )𝟐
Then
𝟐 𝒚𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝟐 𝒙𝟐 − 𝟐 𝒚𝟐
𝒁𝒙𝒙 + 𝒁𝒚𝒚 = 𝟐 + 𝟐 =𝟎
(𝒙 + 𝒚𝟐 )𝟐 (𝒙 + 𝒚𝟐 )𝟐
𝒚
3. If 𝒁 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬−𝟏 ( ) show that 𝒁𝒙𝒙 + 𝒁𝒚𝒚 = 𝟎.
𝒙
Solution:
𝒚 −𝟐𝒙𝒚
𝒁𝒙 = ⇒ 𝒁 𝒙𝒙 =
(𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 ) (𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 )𝟐
−𝒙 𝟐 𝒙𝒚
𝒁𝒚 = 𝟐 ⇒ 𝒁 𝒚𝒚 =
(𝒙 + 𝒚𝟐 ) (𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 )𝟐
Then
−𝟐𝒙𝒚 𝟐𝒙𝒚
𝒁𝒙𝒙 + 𝒁𝒚𝒚 = 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐
+ 𝟐 =𝟎
(𝒙 + 𝒚 ) (𝒙 + 𝒚𝟐 )𝟐

Conic Sections and Standard Forms of Equations

A conic section is the intersection of a plane and a double right circular cone. By changing the angle and
location of the intersection, we can produce different types of conics.
There are four basic types: circles, ellipses, hyperbolas and parabolas. None of the intersections will
pass through the vertices of the cone.

If the right circular cone is cut by a plane perpendicular to the axis of the cone, the intersection is a circle.
If the plane intersects one of the pieces of the cone and its axis but is not perpendicular to the axis, the
intersection will be an ellipse.
To generate a hyperbola the plane intersects both pieces of the cone without intersecting the axis.

Page 51 of 54
Finally, to generate a parabola, the intersecting plane must intersect one piece of the double cone and its
base.
The general equation for any conic section is 𝐴 𝑥 2 + 𝐵 𝑥𝑦 + 𝐶 𝑦 2 + 𝐷𝑥 + 𝐸𝑦 + 𝐹 = 0 where
𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶, 𝐷, 𝐸 and 𝐹 are constants.
As we change the values of some of the constants, the shape of the corresponding conic will also
change. It is important to know the differences in the equations to help quickly identify the type of conic
that is represented by a given equation.
If B2 – 4AC is less than zero, if a conic exists, it will be either a circle or an ellipse.
If B2 – 4AC equals zero, if a conic exists, it will be a parabola.
If B2 – 4AC is greater than zero, if a conic exists, it will be a hyperbola.

CONIC SECTION FORMULAS

General Form 𝑎 𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑦 2 + 𝑑 𝑦 + 𝑒 = 𝑟 2
Standard Form (𝑥 – ℎ)2 + (𝑦 – 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2
CIRCLE Center (ℎ, 𝑘)
Radius 𝑟
Eccentricity 0
VERTICAL HORIZONTAL
General Form 𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑒 = 0 𝑐𝑦 2 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑒 = 0
Standard Form (𝑦 − 𝑘) = 4 𝑎(𝑥 − ℎ)2 (𝑥 − ℎ) = 4 𝑎 (𝑦 − 𝑘)2
Opens UP If 𝑎 > 0 RIGHT if 𝑎 > 0
DOWN if 𝑎 < 0 LEFT if 𝑎 < 0
Axis of Symmetry 𝑥 = ℎ 𝑦 = 𝑘
PARABOLA Vertex (ℎ, 𝑘) (ℎ, 𝑘)
Focus (ℎ, 𝑘 + 𝑝) (ℎ + 𝑝, 𝑘)
Directrix 𝑦 = 𝑘−𝑝 𝑥 = ℎ−𝑝
𝑎 = 1 / 16 𝑝
𝑝 = 1 / 16𝑎
Eccentricity 1
HORIZONTAL VERTICAL
2 2
General Form 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐 𝑦 + 𝑑 𝑦 + 𝑒 = 0
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑦2
Standard Form + = 1 + =1
𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑏 2 𝑎2
Center (0, 0) (0, 0)
Foci (𝑐, 0), (−𝑐, 0) (0, 𝑐), (0, −𝑐)
Vertices (𝑎, 0), (−𝑎, 0) (0, 𝑎), (0, −𝑎)
ELIPSE
y Intercepts (0, 𝑏), (0, −𝑏) (𝑏, 0), (−𝑏, 0)
Major Axis 𝑥 axis 𝑦 axis
Minor Axis: 𝑦 axis 𝑥 axis
Length of Major Axis 2𝑎 2𝑎
Length of Minor Axis 2𝑏 2𝑏
2 2 2
𝑐 = 𝑎 –𝑏 , 𝑎 > 𝑏 > 0
HORIZONTAL VERTICAL
General Form 𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 − 𝑐 𝑦 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑒 = 0 − 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑥 + 𝑐𝑦 2 + 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑒 = 0
2 2 2

𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑦2 𝑥2
Standard Form − = 1 − =1
𝑎2 𝑏 2 𝑎2 𝑏 2
Center (0, 0) (0, 0)
HYPERBOLA Foci (𝑐, 0), (−𝑐, 0) (0, 𝑐), (0, −𝑐)
Vertices (𝑎, 0), (−𝑎, 0) (0, 𝑎), (0, −𝑎)
𝑏 𝑏
Asymptotes 𝑦=± 𝑥 𝑥=± 𝑦
𝑎 𝑎
𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 , 𝑎 > 𝑏 > 0

Page 52 of 54
 Examples:
1. If
(𝒙 + 𝟐)𝟐 𝒚𝟐
(𝐚) + =𝟏 (𝐛) 𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟗𝒚𝟐 + 𝟖𝒙 − 𝟕𝟐𝒚 + 𝟏𝟑𝟒 = 𝟎.
𝟏𝟔 𝟒
i. Identify the ellipse’s center.
ii. State the length of the Major and Minor Axis.
iii. Graph the ellipse.
Solution
a)
i. Center at (−𝟐, 𝟎).
ii. 𝒂 = 𝟒, 𝒃 = 𝟐 ⇒ 𝒂 > 𝒃 Fig. (1)
Then the length of the Major axis = 𝟐𝒂 = 𝟖, and the length of the Major
axis = 𝟐𝒃 = 𝟒.
iii. Graph show in fig. (1).
b) 𝟐 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟗𝒚𝟐 + 𝟖𝒙 − 𝟕𝟐𝒚 + 𝟏𝟑𝟒 = 𝟎
⇒ 𝟐(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙) + 𝟗(𝒚𝟐 − 𝟖𝒚) + 𝟏𝟑𝟒 = 𝟎
⇒ 𝟐(𝒙𝟐 + 𝟒𝒙 + 𝟒 − 𝟒)
+ 𝟗(𝒚𝟐 − 𝟖𝒚 + 𝟏𝟔 − 𝟏𝟔)
+ 𝟏𝟑𝟒 = 𝟎
⇒ 𝟐(𝒙 + 𝟐)𝟐 + 𝟗(𝒚 − 𝟒)𝟐 = 𝟏𝟖
(𝒙 + 𝟐)𝟐 (𝒚 − 𝟒)𝟐
⇒∴ + =𝟏
𝟗 𝟐
i. Center at (−𝟐, 𝟒).
ii. 𝒂 = 𝟑, 𝒃 = √𝟐 ⇒ 𝒂 > 𝒃
Then the length of the Major axis = 𝟐𝒂 = 𝟔, and the length of the Major
axis = 𝟐𝒃 = 𝟐√𝟐.
iii. Graph show in fig. (2).
2. Graph each the following, state the direction of opening, identify the vertex,
and give the equation of the axis symmetry.
i. 𝒚 = −𝟐 (𝒙 + 𝟐)𝟐 − 𝟏.
ii. 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟒 𝒚 − 𝟑 = 𝟎.
iii. (𝒚 − 𝟖)𝟐 = 𝟖 (𝒙 − 𝟏).
Solution:
i. 𝒚 = −𝟐 (𝒙 + 𝟐)𝟐 − 𝟏 ⇒ (𝒚 + 𝟏) = −𝟐(𝒙 + 𝟐)𝟐

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 𝟏
𝒉 = −𝟐 , 𝒌 = −𝟏, 𝒂 = −
𝟐
Axis of Symmetry 𝒙 = −𝟐
Vertex (−𝟐, −𝟏)
Opens 𝐝𝐨𝐰𝐧 𝐬. 𝐭. 𝒂 < 𝟎
Graph show in fig. (3).
ii. 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟒 𝒚 − 𝟑 = 𝟎
⇒ 𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝒙 + 𝟏 − 𝟏 − 𝟒 𝒚 − 𝟑 = 𝟎
⇒ (𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟐 − 𝟒( 𝒚 − 𝟏) = 𝟎
𝟏
⇒ ( 𝒚 − 𝟏) = (𝒙 + 𝟏)𝟐
𝟒
𝟏
𝒉 = −𝟏 , 𝒌 = −𝟏, 𝒂 =
𝟏𝟔
Axis of Symmetry 𝒙 = −𝟏
Vertex (−𝟏, −𝟏)
Opens 𝐔𝐩 𝐬. 𝐭. 𝒂 > 𝟎
Graph show in fig. (4).
iii. (𝒚 − 𝟖)𝟐 = 𝟖 (𝒙 − 𝟏)
𝟏
⇒ (𝒙 − 𝟏) = (𝒚 − 𝟖)𝟐
𝟖
𝟏
𝒉 = 𝟏 , 𝒌 = 𝟖, 𝒂 =
𝟑𝟐

Axis of Symmetry 𝒚 = 𝟖
Vertex (𝟏, 𝟖)
Opens 𝐑𝐢𝐠𝐡𝐭 𝐬. 𝐭. 𝒂 > 𝟎
Graph show in fig. (5).

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