CHAPTER- SIX

METHODS OF DATA COLLECTION

The task of data collection begins after a research problem has been defined and research design
plan chalked out. While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the study the
researcher should keep in mind two types of data, primary and secondary. The primary data are
those which are collected a fresh and for the first time and thus happen to be original character.
The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been collected by passed
though the statistical process. The researcher would have to decide which sort of data he would
be using for the study and accordingly he will have to select one or other methods of data
collection. There are several methods of data collection, researches. The most important one are:
(1) Questionnaires (2) Interview and schedules (3) Observations (4) Focus groups and other
methods like test and existing files/data sets for the secondary data. The methods are briefly
explained in the following parts.
1. Questionnaires
A questionnaire is a self- report data collection instrument/ method that are filled out by research
participants. This method of data collection is quite popular, particularly incase of big enquires.
In this method a questionnaire is sent to the person concerned with a request to the answer the
questions and return the questionnaire. Questionnaires are usually paper are pencil instruments,
but they can also be placed on the web for participants to go to are “fill out”, which contains a
series of questions a providing space for the replies to be filled by the respondent him/herself.
Questionnaires are sometimes called survey instruments, which are fine, but the actual
questionnaire should not be called “the survey”. The word survey refers to the process of using
questionnaire or interview protocol to collect data.
In short, Questionnaire is a data collection method, which contain a series of questions, which
will be filled by the respondent/ participant themselves without any direct oral
explanation/interpretation from the investigator.
Types of Questionnaires
There are two important dimensions along which questionnaires generally vary. That is the
degree of structure is the number of response possibilities.
1. Based up on the degree of Structure: from the point of view of degree of structure
questionnaires may be of two types:
a. Structured Questionnaire: are those Questionnaires, in which there are defined,
concrete and pre-determined Questions. The questions are presented with exactly in
the same wording and in the same order to all respondents. In other word structured
questionnaire presents questions with exactly the same wording and order to all
respondents, and consist definite, concrete and predetermine items. Generally
structured questionnaire is characterized by the following points:
 Resort is taking to this sort of standardization to ensure that all
respondents replay to the same set of questions.
 The form of the question may be either closed or open, but should be
stated in advance and NOT constructed during questioning.
 It may also have fixed alternative questions in which response of the
informants /participants are limited to the stated alternative.
 Comments in the respondents own words are held to the minimum.
 Help to maximize standardization.
 Simple to administer are relatively in expensive to analysis.

1
 b. Unstructured Questionnaires: are those which specify only the broad areas of a
subject and not the form and sequence of questions. The interviewer is provided
with the general guide on the type of information to be obtained. Formulation of
questions is left to the wisdom of the interviewer themselves who are free to
question respondents in their own way and the replies are to be taken down in the
respondent’s own words to the possible extent; in the same situation tape recorders
may be used to achieve this goal. Unstructured questionnaire suffer from two
important limitations: one the replies gathered though unstructured questionnaires
can not be compared with each other and this makes it difficult to judge the
reliability of information. Two unstructured questionnaires can be used by only
trained interviewers who can frame questions at the time of interview itself based
on the response of the participants.
2. Based on the number of response Possibilities: Questionnaires also vary in respect of the
number of response possibilities provided to the subject/respondents.
- If the question provides the subject with only two response possibilities it is known
as a dichotomous questionnaire
- If it provide with more than two possibilities it is called multiple-choice
questions/questionnaire.
- If it provide with complete freedom to select his most appropriate answer it is known
as an open ended questionnaire.
Designing a Questionnaire
Much labor and care are needed in designing a good questionnaire, which must possess two
qualities: Brevity and Accuracy.
 By Brevity is meant that the number of questions should not more than necessary. The rule is
gathering the data you need but not more than what is needed.
 By Accuracy is meant that the question should be able to evoke accurate response. Accurate
response is obtained if the replies form the respondents contain the information sought.
In order to design a good questionnaire there are 15 principles of questionnaire construction that
we should follow:

(1) The questionnaire must intimately relate to the final objective of investigation: One
should make sure that the questionnaire items match with the research objectives.
(2) Understand your research participant: Your participant (Not you) will be filling
out the questionnaire. We should consider the demographic and cultural
characteristics of our potential participants, so we can make it understandable to them.
Respondent knowledge of the subject, ability and willingness should be property
weighted.
(3) Use Natural and familiar language: “Familiar language is comforting; Jargon is
not”. If a questionnaire is to be translated for use in to several districts/local dialects,
the translated version of a questionnaire should be retranslated in to the original
language to check its fidelity.
(4) Write items that are clear, precise and relatively short : If your
respondent/participant didn’t understand the items, your data will be invalid (i.e. your
research study will have the garbage in, garbage out, syndrome), the items should be
short; short items are more easily understood and less stressful than long items.

2
 (5) Do not use “Leading “or” Loading” questions : Leading questions always lead the
participant to where you want him or her to be. Loading questions include loaded
words (i.e., words that create an emotional reaction or response by the participant).
Always remember that you don’t want the participant’s response to be the result of
how you worded the questions. Always use natural wording.
(6) Avoid double- barreled questions: a double –barreled question combines two or more
issues in a single question and answer to double barreled questions are ambiguous
because two or more idea are confounded.
(7) Avoid double negatives: Does the answer provided by the participants required
combining two negatives? (Ex: I disagree that promoters should not be required to
supervise the cooperatives during audit time if yes, rewrite it)
(8) Determine whether an open- ended or a closed ended question is needed :
 Open ended question provides qualitative data in the participants’ own
words. Here is an open ended question: How can your representatives
improve the moral/ your participation at your cooperatives?
 Closed ended question provides quantitative data based on the researcher’s
response categories. Here is an example of closed ended question:
How difficult do you find learning about research method to be?
1) very difficult
2) some what difficult
3) Not very difficult
4) Not at all difficult
5) Don’t know
Generally, in closed ended response categories should be inclusive and mutually exclusive. Open
ended questions are common in exploratory research and closed ended question is common in
confirmatory research.
(9) Use mutually exclusive and exhaustive/inclusive response categories for closed ended
questions.
- Mutually exclusive categories: are those categories do not over lap (e.g. age 0-10,10-20,20-
30 are NOT mutually exclusive and should be write as; less than 10,10-19,20-29, 30-39,…).
- Exhaustive /Inclusive categories : means that the categories should include all possible
responses (e.g. If you are doing a national survey of adult citizens (i.e. 18 or older) then this
categories (18-19,20-29, 30-39,40-49.50-59, 60-69) are NOT exhaustive because there is no
where to put some one who is 70 years old or older.
(10) Consider the different types of response Categories available for closed ended
questionnaires items (i.e. Rating scale, Ranking, semantic deferential, checklist).
RATING SCALE: are the most commonly used, including:
(a) Numerical rating scale: where the end points are anchored/labeled, sometimes the
center point also labeled.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Very low very high
(b) Full anchored rating scale: Where all the points on the scale are labeled/anchored.
1 2 3 4 5
Strongly Agree Neutral Disagree Strongly
Agree disagree
1 2 3 4

3
 Strongly Agree Disagree strongly
Agree disagree
Omitting the center point on rating scale doesn’t applicably affect the response pattern.
- You should use some where form4-11 point in your rating scale. 1-10 is not recommended,
because many respondents mistakenly view the 5 as a center point.
(c) Ranking: where participant put their responses in to rank order, such as most important,
second most important and third most important.
(d) Semantic differential: Where one item stem and multiple scales, there are anchored/ labeled
with polar opposite or antonyms, are included and are rated by the participants.
(e) Checklists: Where participants “check all the responses in a list that apply to them.
(11) Use multiple items to measure Abstract constructs: This is required if you want your
measure to have high reliability and validity. One approach is to use a summated rating scale.
Another name for a summated rating scale is a Likert scale because the summated rating scale
was pretty much invented by the famous social psychologist named Rensis Likert.
(12) Consider using multiple methods when measuring abstract constructs: The idea here is that
if you only use one method of measurement, then your measurement may be an artifact of the
method of measurement. On the other hand, if you use two or more methods of measurement you
will be able to see whether depend on the method.
(13) Use caution if you reverse the wording in some of items to prevent response sets: (A
response set is tendency of a participant to respond in a specific direction to items regardless of
the item content). Reversing the words of some items can help ensure that participant don’t just
“speed through” the instrument, checking “yes” or “strongly agree” for all the items. On the other
hand, you may want to avoid reverse wording if it create a double negative. Also recent research
suggests that the use of reverse wording reduce the reliability and validity of scales. Therefore,
you should generally use reverse wording sparingly, if at all.
(14) Develop a questionnaire that is easy for a participant to use: The participant must not get
confused or lost anywhere in the questionnaire. Make sure that the direction(s) are clear and that
any filter questions used is easy to follow.
(15) Always Pilot tests your questionnaire: in pilot testing your questionnaire, you will always
get/find some problems that you have overlooked. The best pilot test is with people similar to the
ones to be included in your research study. After pilot testing your questionnaire revise it and
pilot test it again, until it works correctly.
- To decide the proper form and structure
- To understood questions the will be misunderstood or which a rouse defensiveness.
- To improve the questionnaire design in terms of format, quality of instruction, need
for filter or screening question, and amount of spacing required.
- It gives firm estimates of the amount of time, money, personal and equipment
required.
Strength and Weakness of Questionnaires
Strength: Good for measuring attitudes and eliciting other content from research participants, in
expensive, can provide information about the participants internal meaning and ways of thinking,
can be administered to probability samples, quick turn round, can be administered to groups,
Moderately high measurement validity for well constructed and validated questionnaire, provide
exact information needed by researcher (especially the closed ended questions ), ease of data
analysis ( for closed ended) , useful for exploration as well as confirmation, free from bias of the

4
interviewer, give adequate time to give well thought out answers, and large sample can be made
use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and reliable.
Weaknesses: usually must be kept short, reactive effect may occur (e.g. interviewees may try to
show only what is socially desirable), non response to selective items, low response rate, open
ended items may reflect differences in verbal ability, obscuring the issue of interest, measures
need validation, used only when the respondents are educated and cooperating, and slowest of all.
INTERVIEW AND SCHEDULES
INTERVIEW
The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of oral verbal stimuli and replay in
terms of oral verbal response. This method can be used through personal (face-to-face) interviews
and if possible through telephone interviews.
 Interview may be in the form of direct personal investigation or it may be indirect oral
investigation. Personal investigation: In this case the interviewer has to collect the
information personally form the sources concerned. He has to be on the spot and has to meet
people from whom data have to be collected. Indirect oral Investigation: In this case the
interviewer has to cross- examined other persons who are supposed to have knowledge about
the problem under investigation and the information obtained is recorded.
Interview can be also two type based up on the degree of structure that is:
(1) Structured interview
- Such interview involves the use of a set of predetermined questions and of highly
standardized techniques of recording.
- The interviewer usually follows a rigid procedure laid down, asking questions in a
form and order prescribed.
(2) Unstructured interview
- Characterized by a flexibility of approach to questioning.
- Don’t follow a system of pre-determined questions and standardize techniques of
recording information.
- The interviewer is allowed much greater freedom to ask, in case of need,
supplementary questions or at times he may omit certain questions if the situation so
requires.(?) However, this may result in lack of comparability of one interview with
another and analysis of unstructured response becomes much more difficult and time
consuming.
- Demand deep knowledge and grater skill on the part of the interviewer.
- It is a central technique of collecting information in the case of exploratory research
studies. Generally, in this method of data collection trust and rapport are important
and probing is available and is used to reach clarity or gain additional information.
(Examples of probing, anything else? Any other reason? What do you mean?)
Strength and Weakness of interview
Strength: Good for measuring attitudes and most other content of interest, Allow probing and
posing of follow up questions by the interviewer, Can provide information’s about participant’s
internal meaning and ways of thinking, Closed-ended/ structured interview provide exact
information needed by researcher, Can use with probability samples, Relatively high response
rate are often attainable (sample can be controlled more effectively), Useful for exploration as
well as for confirmation, There is a greater flexibility, Ease to obtain personal information, and
Useful to collect supplementary information and language the interview can be adapted to the
ability/education level of the person interviewed.

5
Weaknesses: In person interview usually are expensive and time consuming, Reactive effect (e.g.
interviews may try to show only what is socially desirable), Investigators effect may occur (e.g.
untrained personal biases and poor interviewing skills), Interviewees may not recall important
information’s and may lack self-awareness, Data analysis is time consuming, and Measure needs
validation.
SCHEDULES
This method of data collection is very is much like the collection of data through questionnaire
with little difference which lies in the fact that schedules are being filled in by the enumerators
who are specially appointed for this purpose. Schedule is noting but like a Performa containing a
set of questions. This enumerator along with the schedule goes to respondents, put to them the
question from the Performa in the order the questions are listed and record the replies in the space
meant for the same in the Performa.
- In certain situation, schedule may be handed over to respondents and enumerator may
help them in recording their answer to various questions in the side schedules.
- This method requires selection of intelligent enumerators, which possess the capacity
of cross- examination in order to find out the truth.
- Schedules are useful in extensive enquires (e.g. population census) and can lead to
fairly reliable results.
- It is, however, very expensive.
The Difference between schedule and Questionnaire

Questionnaires Schedules
1. filled by the respondent themselves with out 1. It filled by the enumerators or by
any assistant. themselves with assistant from research
worker.
2. Cheap an economical 2. Expensive
3. High rate of Non-response 3. Low rate of Non-response
4. Very slow since many respondents do not 4. The information is collected well in times as
return the questionnaire in time (lack of they are filled by the enumerators.
control over the samples).
5. Used only when respondents are 5. Can be used even happen to be illiterate
literate & cooperative

6. Wider and more representative 6. Difficult to spend a relatively over wider

distribution of sample is possible area in this respect.

7. The success lies on the quality of the 7. The success much depends up on the
questionnaire itself. Honesty & competence of the enumerator.

8. No room for using other methods of data 8. Observation method can also be used as a
collection complementary. complementary data collection method.

FOCUS GROUP DISCUSSIONS

The Focus Groups Discussions had its origin in the evolution of audience responses to radio
programs in 1941 by Robert Metron, prominent social scientists. Metron applied these techniques
to the analysis of army training and moral films during World War II.
Definitions

6
  Focus Groups Discussion defined as “a group of individuals selected and assembled
by researchers to discuss and comment on, from personal experience, on the topic
that is the subject of the research.
 It is careful planned discussion designed to obtain perceptions in a defined area of
interest in a permissive, non- threatening environments.
 It is a form of group interviewing but it is important to distinguish between the two.
Group interviewing: involve interviewing a number of people at the same time, the
emphasis being on question and response between the researcher and participants
(i.e., limited to those situations where the assembled group is small enough to permit
genuine discussion among all its members and researchers). Focus Groups: A
method relay on interaction with in the group based on topics that are supplied by the
researchers, to obtain perceptions, attitudes, feelings of respondents in a defined area
of interests.
The Purpose /Roles of Focus Groups
- Help to draw up on respondent’s attitudes, feelings, beliefs, experiences and reaction in a way
in which would not be feasible using other methods.
- Enable the researcher to gain large amount of information in a short period of time, since it is
organized events, not depend on a natural event to be happen like observation.
- Elicit a multiplicity of view and emotional processes within a group context.
- Help to explore the degree of consensus on a given topic.
- Useful at the preliminary/ exploratory stage of a study and after a program has been
completed;
To explore/generate hypothesis and develop question concepts for questionnaire and
interview guide at preliminary stage.
To asses its impact or to generate further a venues of research after program has
been completed, and
To evaluate or develop a particular program of activities during the time of a study.
Participant Selection and Size of the Group
Participant Selection
- Selection participant is carefully important. Generally, participants are chosen on the basis of
their experience related to the research topic. Participant selections depend up on the
purposes of the study.
- When developing a recruitment/ selection strategies, it can be helpful to contact /consult with
local people who are active in/connect to the study population. They may be able to after
ideas about how to gain access to the population, how best to approach peoples, and possible
obstacles to recruitment.
Size of the Group
- Most of the Focus Groups consist of between 6-12 people. The size of the group should
manifestly be governed by two considerations; One – is should not be as large as to be
unwieldy or to preclude adequate participation by most members. Two- nor should it be so
small that it fails to provide substantially greater coverage than that of an interview with one
individual. Number of groups - if there are different distinct sub groups the need arise to run
separate groups. One group is never enough to observe dynamism.

7
How Long Should the Focus Group Last? (Duration)
- Focus groups sessions generally last between one and two hours and recorded using audio
and/ or video tapes. And it is a good idea to record the start and end times of each focus
group.
The Moderator / facilitator
The technique of moderating a focus group is a skill itself where the moderator may have to wear
many hats and assume deferent roles throughout the course of the discussion. Moderator is
responsible for leading the focus group discussion, posing all questions specified in the focus
group question guide, keeping the discussion on track, and encouraging all participant to
contribute. The role of the moderator/facilitator includes.
(1) Recruiting/selecting participants
(2) Reminding recruits of the focus group time and place
(3) Answering any Advance questions
(4) Being reliable – demonstrate commitment to the discussion
(5) Encouraging exploration of an idea
(6) Moving on to a different topic
(7) Keeping on track
(8) Inviting agreement
(9) Clarifying
(10) Curbing a talkative person
(11) Encouraging a very quite person
Strengths and Weaknesses of FGDs
Strength: Useful for exploring ideas and concepts, Provides window in to participants internal
thinking, Help to obtain in- depth information, Can examine how participants react to each other,
Allows probing, Most content can be tapped, and Allows quick turnaround.
Weaknesses: Sometimes expensive, May be difficult to find a focus group moderator with good
facilitative and rapport building skills, Reactive and investigator effects may occur if participants
feel they are being watched or studied, Difficult to generalize results if small, unrepresentative
samples of participants are used, May included large amount of extra or unnecessary information,
Measurement validity may be low, Usually should not be the only data collection methods used
in a study, and Data analysis can be time consuming because of the open-ended nature of the
data.
OBSERVATION
Observation is a very important technique of data collection in use in experimental and non-
experimental, social and anthropological research. In the strict sense it implies the use of the eyes
rather than the ears and the voice in scrutinizing collective behaviors. In this method, the
researcher observes participants in natural and/or structured environment. The investigators
obtain the data by watching and noting the phenomena as they occur with regard to their cause
and effect or mutual relations.
Definition
1. A systematic description of events, behaviors and artifacts in the social setting chosen for
study. ( Marsall a Rossman)
2. The process of learning through exposure to or involve in the day to day or routine activities
of participants in the research setting.
3. Is the process of enabling the researcher to learn about the activities of the people under study
in the natural setting through observing and participating in those activities?

8
 Observation can be carried out in two types of environment in laboratory observation (which is
done in a lab set up by the researcher) and Naturalistic observation (which is done in real world
setting).
Types of Observation
(1) Simple/ uncontrolled: Simple/ uncontrolled observation is those which do not make use of
any standardized observational techniques such as carefully draws out schedules,
questionnaire, test etc. With the result there are no checks on the observer’s biases, his
selection perception, his prejudices and desire become concisely woven with the fabric of his
conclusions. Also there is no check on the reliability of information. The data collected by
any two observers can not be compared. To the intent that each observers record of
experience is uniquely his own, the data gathered by him cannot be compared with those
gathered by any other observer. The gives rise to the problem of standardization. However,
despite its weaknesses, the use of this method is common in exploratory social investigations.
Uncontrolled/ simple observation may be of three types:
(a) Participant Observation: This method followed in the investigation where there is need to
penetrate deep in to the inner chamber of the group which is studied. In participant
observation the researcher becomes a part of the community, while observing their behaviors
and activities. The observer generally lives in the group which he is studying without
revealing his identity. In this approach the researcher is interactively involved with the
observed group as a member. Ex: to study the secret rituals of a tribe. The success of this
method depends up on two factors: First: The investigator must have the skill to gain the
confidence of the persons being studied so that his presence does not disrupt or in any way
interfere with the natural course of events and they provide him with honest answer to his
questions and not hide important activities from his view. Second: The investigator should
have the ability to prevent his own preconceptions from distorting his interpretations. He
should collect a wide range of facts as is possible and should not begin shifting and
interpretations them until he has gained enough familiarity about the general life pattern of
the people begin studied.
(b) Non-participant observation
In some/many research situation it is almost impossible for the observer to himself
participate in all ways. For example a researcher cannot become a criminal in order to study
a criminal or a female social scientist can not become prostitute in order to study prostitutes.
In all such cases the researcher may collect data as a non participant observer. In this
approach, type of uncontrolled observation the researcher is isolated from the observed
group. The observer either asks questions and records the answer or observes the group from
a distance.
Advantage: Beneficial to observe a group from an external point of view where personal
involvement plays no obstructive roles.
Disadvantage: - lack reliability/consistency
- time consuming
- Restricted by the amount of people that can be observed at one time.
(C) Quasi-Participant Observation
Purely participant and non participant observation is difficult. In the absence of any standard set
of relationships or role patterns for the outsider who is always present but never participating,
both the group and the outsider are likely to feel uncomfortable. Therefore, in much social survey
quasi-participant observation is preferred.

9
In this method the observer assumes several roles. Some times he is in the role of a participant
taking part in the activities of the group. At other time in the role of an interviewer, a stranger or a
listener. Nevertheless, he makes it clear to the group that purpose is to gather-facts.
Generally, if the observation taken place in the natural setting it may be termed as
uncontrolled/simple observations. In such type of observation no attempt is made to use precision
instruments. The major aim of this type of observation is to get spontaneous picture of life and
person. It has a tendency to supply naturalness and completeness of behavior, allowing sufficient
time for observing it.
(2) Systematic/Uncontrolled Observation
The observer bias is the crucial weakness of simple/uncontrolled observation. Systematic or
controlled observation tries to overcome this weakness by using various control techniques
ranging from sample testing and scoring device elaborate laboratory set ups. In the case of
controlled observation the observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans,
involving procedures. It requires use of precision/mechanical instruments as aid to accuracy and
standardization. Such observation has a tendency to supply formalized data upon which
generalization can be built with some degree of assurance.
Very often, an exhaustive list of mutually exclusive categories of behavior with a description of
each category is prepared and the job of observer is to assign observed behaviors to different
labeled categories.
In should be noted, however, the use of controlled observation does not completely eliminate
observer’s bias. Many times if the categories are vague and the specification is inadequate,
different observer can easily put different interpretations on the same behavior. On the other
hand to specific categories, while they cut down ambiguity and uncertainty, may tend to be too
rigid and inflexible. But such lists definitely enable the observer to tell how he made his
observation, under what conditions, when and so on.
(3) Mass observation
This method is used to record mass/ collective behavior of people in public place on the basis of
observation and interview. Its objective is to record the collective behavior of people in public
places.
Sampling methods in observation (sample of behavior)
There are three sampling methods involved with data capturing in observation.
(1) Event sampling: Here an event is observed every time it occurs. The observer selects
for his observation integral behavioral occurrence of events.
(2) Time sampling: In time sampling the observer selects for his observation at
different point in time, say, and three one hour observation (at specified/random
time) on each day. In short in time sampling the data is captured over certain period
of time.
(3) Point sampling: in point sampling. The data is captured in away, say, each
individual’s current category of behavior is captured before moving on to observe an
other person.
When to use observation?: Observation is most effective when one is conducting social research,
and is interested in researching people’s behavior.
Strength and weakness of observation
Strength: Flexible techniques: it doesn’t necessary have to be structured around a hypothesis, it
can be used before obtaining a researcher questions, It can examine simultaneous issue at once,
Enable the researcher to examine the people’s behavior directly rather than relaying on self-

10
reports in questionnaire/interview, Provide firsthand experience, especially if the observer
participates in activities, Can provide relatively objective measurement of behavior, Observer can
determine what does not occur, and Good for description and provide moderate degree of realism.
Weakness: In observation the researcher might faced with values and beliefs that lack any
behavioral reference, In line with the above, paid fall, reasons for observed behavior may be
unclear, Observation sometimes result multiplication of explanations to given problem/ behavior,
Inhabited by situational constraints, Reactive effects may occur when respondents know they are
being observed, Investigators effect (ex: personal biases and selective perceptions of observers),
Observer may ‘go Native’ (over identifying with the groups being studied), Expensive than other
methods, and Time consuming- especially during the data Analysis

11