STRESS - faced with any challenge, we put in additional efforts to mobilize all our

resources and the support system to meet the challenge. All challenges, problems and
difficult instances thus put us to stress. -Eustress is used to describe the level of stress that is
good for you and is one of a person’s best assets for achieving peak performance and
managing minor crisis. -However, eustress has the potential of turning into distress that
causes wear and tear. -Strain is the reaction to external stressors. –

TYPES OF STRESS -A) Physical and Environmental Stress – Physical stresses are
demands that change the state of our body. -B) Environmental stresses are aspects of our
surroundings that are often unavoidable such as air pollution, crowding, noise, heat of the
summer, etc. Another group of environmental stresses are catastrophic events or disasters
such as fire, earthquake, floods, etc. C)-Psychological Stress – These are stresses that we
generate ourselves in our minds. These are personal and unique to the person experiencing
them and are internal sources of stress. Frustration results from the blocking of needs and
motives by something or someone that hinders us from achieving a desired goal. Conflicts
may occur between two or more incompatible needs or motives. Internal Pressures
stem from beliefs based upon expectations from inside us to ourselves, and such
expectations can only lead to disappointment. Social Pressures may be brought about
from people who make excessive demands on us. -D)Social Stress – These are induced
externally and result from our interaction with other people. These social stresses vary
widely from person to person. -Holmes and Rahe developed a life event measure of stress. A
measure of stressful events based on the above scale is known as the Presumptive Stressful
Life Events Scale.

SOURCES OF STRESS A)Life events – Changes affect our life from the moment we are
born. We learn to cope with small everyday changes but major life events can be stressful,
because they disturb our routine and cause upheaval. B)Hassles – These are personal
stresses we endure as individuals, due to the happenings in our daily life such as noisy
surroundings, commuting, shortages, traffic snarls, etc. C)Traumatic events – These include
being involved in a variety of extreme events. The effects of these events may occur after
some lapse of time and sometimes persist as symptoms of anxiety, flashbacks, dreams and
intrusive thoughts, etc. Severe trauma can also strain relationships.

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NATURE OF STRESS -Hans Selye, the father of modern stress research, defined stress as
the non-specific response of the body to any demand, that is, regardless of the threat the
individual will respond with the same psychological pattern of reactions. Many researchers
do not agree with this definition as they feel that stress response is not as general or non-
specific as he suggests. Different stressors may produce somewhat different patterns of
stress reaction, and different individuals may have different characteristic modes of
response. -Stress is the pattern of responses that an organism makes to stimulus event that
disturbs the equilibrium and exceeds a person’s ability to cope. -Stress is not a factor that
resides in the individual or the environment, instead is embedded in an ongoing process that
involves individuals transacting with their social and cultural environments, making
appraisals of those encounters and attempting to cope with the issues that arise. Stress is a
dynamic mental state, and is a disruption in homeostasis that gives rise to the requirement
for resolution of the imbalance or restoration of homeostasis. -An individual’s response to
a stressful situation largely depends on the perceived events and how they are interpreted
or appraised. Lazarus has distinguished between two types of appraisal, primary and
secondary. Primary appraisal – It refers to the perception of a new or
changing environment as positive, neutral or negative in its consequences.
Secondary appraisal – It is the assessment of one’s coping abilities and resources and
whether they will be sufficient to meet the harm, threat or challenge of the event. -These
appraisals are very subjective and will depend on many factors such as: Past
experiences – If one has handled similar situations very successfully in the past, they would
be less threatening for her/him. Controllability – Does one have mastery or control
over a situation? Due to the various factors at play, the experience and
outcome of a stressor may vary from individual to individual. These stressors can be external
(environmental factors such as noise, air, pollution), social (break up with a friend,
loneliness) or psychological (conflict, frustration within the individual). These stressors result
in a variety of stress reactions, which may be physiological, behavioural, emotional and
cognitive. At the physiological level, arousal plays a key role in stress related behaviours.
The hypothalamus initiates action along two pathways. -Autonomic Nervous System – The
adrenal gland releases large amounts of catecholamines (adrenaline and non-adrenaline)
into the blood stream, which leads to physiological changes seen in fight-or-flight response. -
Pituary Gland – Secretes cortisol which provides energy. Behavioural responses are virtually
limitless, depending on the nature of the stressful event. Confrontative action against the
stressor (fight) or withdrawal from the threatening event (flight) are two general categories
of behavioural responses. -Stresses experienced vary in terms of intensity (low intensity vs.
high intensity), duration (short-term vs. long-term), complexity (less complex vs. more
complex) and predictability (unexpected vs. predictable). -Individuals with weak physical
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health and weak constitution would be more vulnerable to stress than those who enjoy
good health and a strong constitution.

EFFECTS OF STRESS A)Emotional effects – Those who suffer from stress are more
likely to experience mood swings and show erratic behavior that may alienate them from
family and friends. Some examples are feelings of anxiety and depression, increased physical
tension and mood swings, etc. B)Physiological effects – When the human body is placed
under physical or psychological stress, it increases the production of certain hormones such
as adrenaline and cortisol. These hormones produce marked changes in heart rate, blood
pressure levels, etc. Although this physical reaction will help us function more effectively
when we are under pressure for short periods of time, it can be extremely damaging to the
body in the long-term effects. C)Cognitive effects – One may suffer from mental overload,
and this suffering from high levels of stress can rapidly cause individuals to lose their ability
to make sound decisions. Cognitive effects of stress are poor concentration and reduced
short-term memory capacity. D)Behavioural effects – typical behavioural effects of stress
are seen as disrupted sleep patterns, increased absenteeism and reduced work
performance.

STRESS AND HEALTH - Examination Stress has been characterized as ‘evaluative

apprehension’ or ‘evaluative stress’ and produces debilitating behavioural, cognitive and
physiological effects no different from those produced by any other stress. -Physical
exhaustion due to stress is seen in the signs of chronic fatigue, weakness and low energy.
Mental exhaustion appears in the form of irritability, anxiety, feelings of helplessness and
hopelessness. This state of physical, emotional and psychological exhaustion is known as
burnout. -Stress can also produce changes in the immune system and increase the chances
of someone becoming ill. Stress has been implicated in the development of cardiovascular
disorders, high blood pressure as well as psychosomatic disorders including ulcers, asthma,
allergies and headaches.

STRESS AND THE IMMUNE STYSTEM - Psychoneuroimmunology focuses on the

links between the mind, the brain and the immune system. It studies the effects of stress on
the immune system. -In the immune system, white blood cells (leucocytes) within the
immune system identify and destroy foreign bodies (antigens). It also leads to the
production of antibodies. White blood cells include T-Cells (destroy invaders), T-helper cells
(increase immunological activity), B-Cells (produce antibodies) and Natural Killer Cells
(involved in the fight against both viruses and tumours). T-helper cells are attacked by the
Human Immuno Deficiency Virus (HIV) that causes Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
(AIDS). -Stress can affect natural killer cell cytotoxicity, which is of major importance in the
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defence against various infections and cancer. Studies reveal that immune functioning is
better in individuals receiving social support.

LIFESTYLE - is the overall pattern of decisions and behaviours that determine a person’s
health and quality of life. Stressed individuals may be more likely to expose themselves to
pathogens, which are agents causing physical illness. Stressed individuals may be more likely
to expose themselves to pathogens, which are agents causing physical illness.

COPING WIITH STRESS -is a dynamic situation-specific reaction to stress. It is a set of

concrete responses to stressful situations ore events that are intended to solve the problem
and reduce stress. The way we cope with stress often depends on rigid deep-seated beliefs
based on personal experience. The three coping strategies given by Endler and Parker are:
A) Task-oriented Strategy – This involves obtaining information about the stressful situation
and about alternative courses of action and their probable outcome. It also involves deciding
priorities and acting so as to deal directly with the stressful situation. B) Emotion-oriented
Strategy – This can involve efforts to maintain hope and to control one’s emotions, it can
also involve venting feelings of anger and frustration, or deciding that nothing can be done
to change things. C) Avoidance-oriented Strategy – This involves denying or minimizing the
seriousness of the situation, it also involves conscious suppression of stressful thoughts and
their replacement by self-protective thoughts. Lazarus
and Folkman have conceptualized coping as a dynamic process rather than an individual
trait. Coping refers to constantly changing cognitive and behavioural efforts to master,
reduce or tolerate the internal or external demands that are created by the stressful
transaction. Coping serves to allow the individual to manage or alter a problem and regulate
the emotional response to that problem. According to them, coping responses can be
divided into two types of responses. A)Problem-focused strategies – These strategies attack
the problem itself, with behaviours designed to gain information, to alter the event and to
alter beliefs and commitments. They increase the person’s awareness, level of knowledge
and range of behavioural and cognitive coping options. B)Emotion-focused strategies –
These call for psychological changes designed primarily to limit the degree of emotional
disruption caused by an event, with minimal effort to alter the event itself.

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STRESS MANAGEMENT TECHNIQUES A)Relaxation techniques – It reduces
symptoms of stress and decreases the incidence of illnesses such as high blood pressure and
heart disease. B)Meditation procedures – The yogic method of meditation consists of a
sequence of learned techniques for refocusing attention that brings about an altered state of
consciousness. C)Biofeedback – It is a procedure to monitor and reduce the physiological
aspects of stress by providing feedback about physiological activity and is often
accompanied by relaxation training. Biofeedback involves three stages: 1)Developing an
awareness of the particular physiological response. 2)Learning ways of controlling that
physiological response in quiet conditions. 3)Transferring that control into the conditions of
everyday life. D)Creative visualization – These techniques aim to inoculate people against
stress. Stress inoculation training is one effective method developed by Meichenbaum. The
essence of this approach is to replace negative and irrational thoughts with positive and
rational ones. There are three main phases in this: 1)Assessment – involves discussing the
nature of the problem and seeing it from the viewpoint of the person/client. 2)Stress
reduction techniques such as relaxation and self-instruction. 3)Application and follow
through. E)Exercise – It can provide an active outlet for the physiological arousal
experienced in response to stress.

GENERAL ADAPTATION SYNDROM - Hans Selye noticed a similar pattern of bodily

response to stress in all the patients he studied, and called this pattern the General
Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) which involves three stages. A)Alarm-Reaction Stage – The
presence of a noxious stimulus or stressor leads to activation of the adrenal-pituitary-cortex
system. This triggers the release of hormones producing the stress response. The individual
is then ready for fight or flight situations. B)Resistance Stage – If stress is prolonged, the
resistance stage begins. The para-sympathetic nervous system of the body calls for more
cautious use of the body’s resources. The organism makes attempts to cope with the threat,
as through confrontatioN C) Exhaustion Stage – Continued exposure to the same stressor or
additional stressors drains the body of its resources and leads to the third stage of
exhaustion. The physiological systems involved in alarm reaction and resistance become
ineffective and susceptibility to stress related diseases such as high blood pressure becomes
more likely

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PROMOTINGPOSITIVE HEALTH AND WELLBEINGS -Hardiness is a set of beliefs
about oneself, the world and how they interact. It takes shape as a sense of personal
commitment to what you are doing, a sense of control over your life, and a feeling of
challenge. -Stress resistant personalities have control which is a sense of purpose and
direction in life, commitment to work, family, hobbies and social life, and challenge, which is
seeing changes in life as normal and positive rather than a threat. A)LIFE SKILLS are
abilities for adaptive and positive behavior that enable individuals to deal effectively with
the demands and challenges of everyday life. Our ability to cope depends on how well we
are prepared to deal with and counterbalance everyday demands, and keep equilibrium in
our lives. 1)Assertiveness is a behavior or skill that helps us to clearly and confidently
communicate our feelings, needs, wants and thoughts. The major way of reducing time
stress is to change one’s perception of time.2) The central principle of time management is
to spend your time doing the things that you value, or that help you achieve your goals. It
depends on being realistic about what you know and that you must do it within a certain
time period, knowing what you want to do, and organizing your life to achieve a balance
between the two. 3)Rational thinking involves principles like challenging your distorted
thinking and irrational beliefs, driving out potentially intrusive negative anxiety-provoking
thoughts and making positive statements. 4)The key to improving relationships is
communication, which consists of listening to what the other person is saying, expressing
how you feel and what you think, and accepting the other person’s opinions and feelings,
even if they are different from your own. 5)In self-care, we are better prepared, physically
and emotionally, to tackle the stresses of everyday life if we keep ourselves healthy and
relaxed. 6)In overcoming unhelpful habits, habits such as perfectionism, avoidance,
procrastination, etc. are strategies to help cope in the short term but would make one more
vulnerable to stress in the long term. 7)Health is a state of complete physical, mental, social
and spiritual well-being, and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Positive health
comprises the following constructs: a healthy body, high quality of personal relationships, a
sense of purpose in life, self-regard, mastery of life’s tasks and resilience to stress, trauma
and change. 8)Resilience is a dynamic developmental process referring to the
maintenance of positive adjustment under challenging life conditions. It has been described
as the capacity to ‘bounce back’ in the face of stress and adversity. It has been
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conceptualized as reflecting feelings of self-worth, self-confidence, autonomy, self-reliance,
finding positive role models, etc. Resilience has recently been defined in terms of three
resources – I have (social and interpersonal strengths), I am (inner strengths) and I can
(interpersonal and problem solving skills).

Factors that act as stress buffers and facilitate positive health are:
 Diet – A balanced diet can lift one’s mood, give more energy, feed muscles, improve
circulation, prevent illness, strengthen the immune system and make one feel better
to cope with stresses of life.
 Exercise – A large number of studies confirm a consistently positive relationship
between physical fitness and health. Regular exercise plays an important role in
managing weight and stress, and is shown to have a positive effect on reducing
tension, anxiety and depression.
 Positive Attitude – Positive health and well being can be realized by having a positive
attitude.
 Positive Thinking – Optimism is the inclination to expect favourable outcomes and is
linked to psychological and physical well being. Optimists use more problem-focused
coping strategies, and seek advice and help from others.
 Social Support – It is defined as the existence and availability of people on whom we
can rely upon, people who let us know that they care about, value and love us.
Someone who believes that s/he belongs to s a social network of communication and
mutual obligation experiences social support.
Perceived support is the quality of social support and is positively related to health
and well being.
Social network is the quantity of social support which is unrelated to well being as it is
very time consuming and demanding to maintain a large social network.
Social support can be in the form of tangible support or assistance involving material
aid. It can also be in the form of informational support about stressful events.
Supportive friends and family provide emotional support, which is reassuring the
individual that he or she is loved, valued and cared for.

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