Review

Artificial Intelligence-Based Electric Vehicle Smart Charging

System in Malaysia
Siow Jat Shern 1, *, Md Tanjil Sarker 1 , Gobbi Ramasamy 1, *, Siva Priya Thiagarajah 2 , Fahmid Al Farid 3
and S. T. Suganthi 4

1 Centre for Electric Energy and Automation, Faculty of Engineering, Multimedia University,
Cyberjaya 63100, Malaysia; [email protected]
2 Centre for Wireless Technology, Faculty of Engineering, Multimedia University, Cyberjaya 63100, Malaysia;
[email protected]
3 Centre for Digital Home, Faculty of Engineering, Multimedia University, Cyberjaya 63100, Malaysia;
[email protected]
4 Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Kumaraguru College of Technology,
Coimbatore 641001, India; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected] (S.J.S.); [email protected] (G.R.)

Abstract: The worldwide transition to electric vehicles (EVs) is gaining momentum, propelled by
the imperative to reduce carbon emissions and foster sustainable transportation. In Malaysia, the
government is facilitating this transformation through targeted initiatives aimed at promoting the
use of electric vehicles (EVs) and developing the required infrastructure. This paper investigates
the crucial role of artificial intelligence (AI) in developing intelligent electric vehicle (EV) charging
infrastructure, specifically focusing on the context of Malaysia. The paper examines the current
electric vehicle (EV) charging infrastructure in Malaysia, highlights advancements led by artificial
intelligence (AI), and references both local and international case studies. Fluctuations in the Total
Industry Volume (TIV) and Total Industry Production (TIP) reflect changes in market demand and
production capabilities, with notable peaks in March 2023 and March 2024. The research reveals
Citation: Shern, S.J.; Sarker, M.T.; that AI technologies, such as machine learning and predictive analytics, can enhance charging
Ramasamy, G.; Thiagarajah, S.P.; Al efficiency, improve user experience, and support grid stability. A mathematical model for an AI-based
Farid, F.; Suganthi, S.T. Artificial
smart charging system was developed, and the implemented system achieved 30% energy savings
Intelligence-Based Electric Vehicle
and a 20.38% reduction in costs compared to traditional methods. These findings underscore the
Smart Charging System in Malaysia.
system’s energy and cost efficiency. In addition, we outline the potential advantages and challenges
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440.
associated with incorporating artificial intelligence (AI) into Malaysia’s electric vehicle (EV) charging
https://doi.org/10.3390/
wevj15100440 infrastructure. Furthermore, we offer recommendations for researchers, industry stakeholders, and
regulators. Malaysia can enhance the uptake of electric vehicles and make a positive impact on
Academic Editor: Michael Fowler
the environment by leveraging artificial intelligence (AI) to enhance its electric vehicle charging
Received: 28 August 2024 system (EVCS).
Revised: 17 September 2024
Accepted: 25 September 2024 Keywords: artificial intelligence (AI); electrical vehicle charging system (EVCS); smart charging
Published: 28 September 2024 systems; battery management systems (BMS); demand response; optimization methods; renewable
energy integration

Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.

Published by MDPI on behalf of the
1. Introduction
World Electric Vehicle Association.
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. Nations are rapidly transforming their transport systems to combat climate change
This article is an open access article and reduce carbon emissions. Electric vehicles (EVs) are central to this shift, offering a
distributed under the terms and sustainable alternative to conventional cars [1]. As EV usage grows, so does the need
conditions of the Creative Commons for efficient charging infrastructure. Traditional charging systems, with fixed schedules
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// and constant rates, often fail to adapt to the dynamic needs of renewable energy and EV
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ users [2]. Advanced charging systems, leveraging cutting-edge technology, aim to address
4.0/). these challenges by improving energy efficiency and customer satisfaction. The surge in

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15100440 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/wevj

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 30

challenges by improving energy efficiency and customer satisfaction. The surge in EV

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440 challengesnecessitates
adoption by improving energy charging
advanced efficiency infrastructure
and customer that satisfaction.
caters toThe surge2 consumer
diverse in30EV
of
adoption necessitates advanced charging infrastructure that caters
needs and supports the power grid. Smart charging systems optimize energy use by ad- to diverse consumer
needs and
justing supports
schedules the power
based grid. Smart
on real-time charging
data [3]. These systems
systems optimize
reduce costsenergy use by ad-dur-
by charging
EV adoption
justing schedulesnecessitates
based onadvanced
real-time charging
data infrastructure
[3]. These systemsthat caters
reduce
ing low-demand periods and avoiding peak demand charges, offering significant savings. to diverse
costs by consumer
charging dur-
needs
ing and supports
low-demand the power
periods and grid. Smart
avoiding peakcharging
demand systems optimize
charges, offeringenergy use by adjust-
significant savings.
They also enhance user experience by allowing personalized charging, real-time status
ing schedules
They also enhancebaseduser
on real-time
experience databy
[3]. These systems
allowing reduce costs
personalized by charging
charging, during
monitoring,
low-demand and notifications.
periods and avoidingCrucially,
peak smartcharges,
demand charging systems
offering help real-time
significant maintain
savings.
status
grid sta-
They
monitoring,
bility [4], and notifications.
balancing loads, Crucially,
preventing smart charging
overloads, andsystems help
integrating maintain
renewable grid sta-
energy
also enhance user experience by allowing personalized charging, real-time status monitor-
bility [4], balancing loads, preventing overloads, and integrating renewable energy
sources.
ing, and notifications. Crucially, smart charging systems help maintain grid stability [4],
sources.
These systems
balancing also support
loads, preventing Vehicle-to-Grid
overloads, and integrating(V2G) technology,
renewable energy enabling
sources. bidirectional
These systems also support Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology, enabling bidirectional
energyThese
flow systems
betweenalsoEVssupport
and the Vehicle-to-Grid
grid [5]. V2G(V2G)
systemstechnology,
provideenabling
incentivesbidirectional
for EV owners
energy
energy flow
flow between
between EVs
EVs and
and the
the grid [5].
grid [5]. V2G
V2Gsystems
systemsprovide
provideincentives
incentives forfor
EV EV owners
owners
and assist the grid during peak demand. Moreover, smart charging systems generate val-
and assist
and data the
assiston grid during
thecharging
grid during peak demand.
peak and
demand. Moreover,
Moreover, smart
smart charging
charging systems generate
systems andgenerate val-
uable
uable datadata
on charging patterns
patterns andandenergy
energy use,
use, aiding
aiding future
future technology
technology and policy im-
valuable on charging patterns energy use, aiding future technology andpolicy
policyim-
provements.
provements. The specificationsofofEV
The specifications EVcharging
chargingsystems
systems areare shown
shown in in Figure
Figure 1. 1.
improvements. The specifications of EV charging systems are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Smart EV charging system.

Figure 1.1.Smart
Figure SmartEV
EVcharging system.
charging system.

In Malaysia,
Malaysia, the
the EV marketisisemerging,
emerging, with Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) reduc-
InInMalaysia, the EV
EVmarket
market is emerging, with Battery
with Electric
Battery Vehicles
Electric (BEVs)
Vehicles reducing
(BEVs) reduc-
ing greenhouse
greenhouse gas emissions
gas emissions and fuel
and fossil fossil
usefuel
[6]. use [6]. The government supports BEVs
ing greenhouse gas emissions and fossil fuelThe
usegovernment supports BEVs
[6]. The government through
supports BEVs
through initiatives
initiatives like Energy
like the New the New Energy
Vehicle Vehicle
(NEV) (NEV)
project project
and the Energyand the Energy
Efficient Vehicle Efficient
(EEV)
through
Vehicle
initiatives
(EEV)
like the New Energy Vehicle (NEV) Blueprint
project and the Energy Efficient
Roadmap [7]. Roadmap [7]. The
The Low Carbon Low Carbon
Mobility Mobility
Blueprint 2021–2030 aims for2021–2030
100,000 EVsaims
andfor
Vehicle
100,000
4000 EV (EEV)
EVs andRoadmap
buses 4000
by [7]. The
EVasbuses
2030, inLow
by 2030,
depicted asCarbon
Figuredepicted
2. Mobility
in FigureBlueprint
2. 2021–2030 aims for
100,000 EVs and 4000 EV buses by 2030, as depicted in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Low Carbon Mobility Blueprint.

Figure 2. Low Carbon Mobility Blueprint.
Figure 2. Low Carbon Mobility Blueprint.
Malaysia’s BEV sector faces challenges, including infrastructure and costs. A diverse
approach, involving government support, public-private partnerships, and consumer
Malaysia’s BEV sector faces challenges, including infrastructure and costs. A diverse
approach, involving government support, public-private partnerships, and consumer
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 3 of 30
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education, is essential for growth. The Low-Carbon Mobility Blueprint (LCMB) 2021–2030
Malaysia’s BEV sector faces challenges, including infrastructure and costs. A di-
education,
plans is essential
versetoapproach,
build 10,000 EVforcharging
involving growth. The Low-Carbon
stations
government by 2025,
support, Mobility Blueprint
including
public-private 1000 DC (LCMB) 2021–2030
fast chargers
partnerships, and and
con-
plans
sumer education, is essential for growth. The Low-Carbon Mobility Blueprint (LCMB)and
9000 ACto build
chargers 10,000
[8]. EV charging
Understanding stations
the by
BEV 2025, including
market’s 1000 DC
characteristics fast
and chargers
challenges is
9000
2021–2030 plans to build 10,000 EV charging stations by 2025, including 1000 DC fast is
crucial.AC chargers
Integrating [8].
EV Understanding
charging stations the BEV
into themarket’s
grid characteristics
requires advanced and
AI challenges
technologies
crucial.
for network
chargers Integrating
and inspection
9000 AC EVchargers
charging
and [8].stations
control, into the
improving
Understanding grid
efficiency requires
the BEV and advanced
stability.
market’s AI technologies
Globally,
characteristics the
andEV
for
marketnetwork
challenges is inspection
is growingcrucial. andIncontrol,
rapidly. 2020,
Integrating improving
EV3 charging
million new efficiency
EVs into
stations were and stability.
delivered,
the grid Globally,
and
requires by the145
2030,
advanced EV
market
million is
EVs growing
are rapidly.
projected, In
with 2020,
BEVs 3 million
comprising new67%EVsof were
EVs delivered,
[9]. The
AI technologies for network inspection and control, improving efficiency and stability. globaland by 2030,
sales of 145
EVs
million
Globally,
are EVs
the are
illustrated EV projected,
in market
Figure is with BEVs
3. growing comprising
rapidly. In 2020, 367% of EVs
million new [9].
EVsThewereglobal salesand
delivered, of EVs
by 2030,
are 145 million
illustrated EVs 3.
in Figure are projected, with BEVs comprising 67% of EVs [9]. The global
sales of EVs are illustrated in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Electric vehicle sales worldwide.

3. Electric
Figure 3.
Figure Electric vehicle
vehiclesales
salesworldwide.
worldwide.
In Malaysia, EV sales lag behind sales of traditional vehicles, but interest in EVs is
In Malaysia, EV sales lag behind sales of traditional vehicles, but interest in EVs
growing In Malaysia, EV sales lag
due to government behind environmental
subsidies, sales of traditional vehicles,and
awareness, buttechnological
interest in EVsad-is
is growing due to government subsidies, environmental awareness, and technological
growing
advancements. The global light car market showed a +10.5% growth, and although EV ad-
vancements. due to
The government
global light subsidies,
car market environmental
showed a +10.5% awareness,
growth, andand technological
although EV adop-
vancements.
tion is influenced
adoption Thebyglobal
is influenced bylight
broader car automotive
market trends,
automotive
broader showed a +10.5%
environmental
trends, growth,
environmental and although
activism
activismand EV adop-
andfinancial
financial in-
tion is
centives influenced by broader automotive trends, environmental activism and
incentives are significant drivers. In Malaysia, EV sales surged by 286% to 10,159 units in
are significant drivers. In Malaysia, EV sales surged by 286% to financial
10,159 units in-
centives
2023, while
in 2023, are significant
hybrid
while vehicle
hybrid drivers.
sales
vehicle In Malaysia,
increased
sales increased EV
byby40% sales
40%[9]. surged
[9].EV
EVsales by
salesin 286%
inMalaysiato 10,159
Malaysia are shown inin
units
are shown
2023,
Figure while
4. 4. hybrid vehicle sales increased by 40% [9]. EV sales in Malaysia are shown in
in Figure
Figure 4.

EV sales in Malaysia
50,000
EV sales in Malaysia
50,000 38,214
40,000
of Unit

38,214
40,000 28,055
of Unit

30,000
22,619 22,431
19,988 28,055
Number

30,000
20,000 15,814 22,619 22,431
19,988
Number

20,000 7,875 15,814 10,159 8,153

10,000 6,617
10,159
10,000
7,875 278 2,631 6,617 8,153
‐ 278 2,631
‐ Hybrid Vehicles Electric Vehicles Total xEV Unit
Hybrid Vehicles Electric
Type Vehicles
of Vehicles Total xEV Unit
Type of Vehicles
2021 2022 2023 1H2024
2021 2022 2023 1H2024
Figure 4. Electric vehicle sales in Malaysia.
Figure 4. Electric vehicle sales in Malaysia.
Figure 4. Electric vehicle sales in Malaysia.
Total industry volume (TIV) 1H2024 versus 1H2023 by month, and the total industry
Total industry
production volume
(TIP) trend (TIV)
1H2024 1H2024
versus versus
1H2023 1H2023are
by month, byshown
month,inand the total
Figure 5 andindustry
Figure
production (TIP) trend 1H2024 versus 1H2023 by month, are shown in Figure 5 and Figure
 World
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Total industry volume (TIV) 1H2024 versus 1H2023 by month, and the total industry
6, respectively.
6,production
respectively. Both
Both TIV and
and TIP
TIV1H2024 for
for the
TIPversus the first
first half
half of 2024
2024 show aa generally positive trend
(TIP) trend 1H2023 by of
month, show
are shown generally positive
in Figures 5 andtrend
6,
compared
compared to
to the
respectively. the same
same
Both
period
TIV period
in 2023,
and TIPinfor2023, indicating
indicating
the first
growth
half of growth
2024 show
in
in the
the EV
EV market
a generallymarket in
in Malaysia.
positive Malaysia.
trend
There are
are noticeable
compared
There to the same
noticeable fluctuations
period in in
fluctuations both
2023,
in both TIV
TIV and
indicating TIP
TIP on
and growthon aainmonth-to-month
the EV market inbasis,
month-to-month reflect-
Malaysia.
basis, reflect-
ing possible
There are variations
ing possible variations in market demand, production capacity, and external factors af-
noticeable in market
fluctuations in demand,
both TIV production
and TIP on a capacity,
month-to-month and external
basis, factors
reflecting af-
fecting
fecting the
possible EV
EV industry.
thevariations March
in market
industry. March 2023
2023 recorded
demand, production
recorded the
the highest
capacity,TIV,
highest andwhile
TIV, external
while March 2024
factors
March 2024 also
also saw
affecting saw
aa the
peakEVbut
peak but at
at aa lower
industry. March
lower volume, highlighting
2023 recorded
volume, aa significant
the highest
highlighting sales
TIV, while
significant sales surge
March during
surge2024 also this
during saw month
this a peak in
month in
2023
but [10].
at a
2023 [10]. lower volume, highlighting a significant sales surge during this month in 2023 [10].

90,000
90,000
80,000
80,000
70,000
70,000
60,000
60,000
Unit

50,000
Unit

50,000
40,000
40,000
30,000
30,000
20,000
20,000
10,000
10,000
0
0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May June
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June
TIV 1H2024 66,925 64,307 71,103 59,805 70,110 58,046
TIV 1H2024 66,925 64,307 71,103 59,805 70,110 58,046
TIV 1H2023 50,168 63,566 78,881 47,802 63,158 62,601
TIV 1H2023 50,168 63,566 78,881 47,802 63,158 62,601
Month
Month

TIV 1H2024 TIV 1H2023

TIV 1H2024 TIV 1H2023

Figure 5. Total industry volume 1H2024 Versus 1H2023 by month.

Figure
Figure5.5.Total
Totalindustry
industry volume 1H2024
1H2024Versus
Versus1H2023
1H2023bybymonth.
month.

90,000
90,000
80,000
80,000
70,000
70,000
60,000
60,000
50,000
Unit

50,000
Unit

40,000
40,000
30,000
30,000
20,000
20,000
10,000
10,000
0
0 Jan Feb Mar Apr May June
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June
TIV 1H2024 77,040 66,468 66,923 57,203 74,607 49,811
TIV 1H2024 77,040 66,468 66,923 57,203 74,607 49,811
TIV 1H2023 58,527 63,798 76,069 41,160 64,930 58,051
TIV 1H2023 58,527 63,798 76,069 41,160 64,930 58,051
Month
Month

Figure 6. Total industry production trend 1H2024 Versus 1H2023 by month.

Figure 6. Total industry production trend 1H2024 Versus 1H2023 by month.
Figure 6. Total industry production trend 1H2024 Versus 1H2023 by month.
Malaysia’s
Malaysia’s status as
as aaaleading
leading nickel producer significantly impacts the EV
EV market
Malaysia’s status
status as leadingnickel
nickel producer
producer significantly
significantly impacts
impacts the EVthemarketmarket
by
by
by providing
providing a crucial
a crucial raw material for lithium-ion batteries, essential for electric vehicle
providing a crucial rawraw material
material for lithium-ion
for lithium-ion batteries,
batteries, essential
essential for electric
for electric vehicle vehicle
(EV)
(EV)
(EV) propulsion.
propulsion.
propulsion.
Nickel’s
Nickel’s
Nickel’s role in
role
role in
in increasing
increasing
increasing
battery
batterybattery
energy
energyenergy
density
densitydensity
and
and performance
and performanceperformance po-
positionspo-
sitions
Malaysia
sitions Malaysia
Malaysia strategically
strategically within the
strategically within the
globalthe
within global
EVglobal
supplyEVEV supply
chain. chain.
This chain.
supply This
local supply local supply
advantage
This local supply canad-
ad-
vantage
help can help
stabilize stabilize
material costs material
and costs
reduce and
battery reduce battery
production production
expenses,
vantage can help stabilize material costs and reduce battery production expenses, poten- expenses,
potentially poten-
lowering
tially
tially lowering
EV prices
lowering EV
EV prices
prices and
and accelerating accelerating
adoption.
and adoption.
Furthermore,
accelerating Furthermore,
Malaysia’s
adoption. Malaysia’s
nickel resources
Furthermore, Malaysia’smaynickel
attractre-
nickel re-
sources
sources may attract investment in battery manufacturing and processing facilities, bolster-
may
investment attract
in investment
battery manufacturingin battery
and manufacturing
processing and processing
facilities, bolstering facilities,
the country’s
bolster-
ing
EVthe
ing country’s
country’s EV
infrastructure
the andinfrastructure
EV and
and technological
technological capabilities.
infrastructure As global
technological capabilities.
EV demand
capabilities. As global
Asgrows, EV
EV demand
globalMalaysia’s
demand
grows,
grows, Malaysia’s
Malaysia’s ability
ability to
ability to supply high-quality
to supply
supply high-quality
nickel supports both nickel
high-quality nickel supports
supports both
economic development
both economic
economic develop-
and sustainable
develop-
practices,sustainable
ment positioning the nation positioning
favorably in transition to electric mobility.
ment and
and sustainable practices,
practices, positioning the the nation
nation favorably
favorably in in the
the transition
transition toto elec-
elec-
tric mobility.
tric mobility.
Although
Although theythey are
are still
still in
in their
their infancy,
infancy, artificial
artificial intelligence
intelligence (AI)
(AI) applications
applications in in Ma-
Ma-
laysian EV charging stations have great potential to improve the
laysian EV charging stations have great potential to improve the nation’s infrastructure nation’s infrastructure
for
for charging
charging vehicles.
vehicles. While
While there
there hashas not
not been
been much
much widespread
widespread implementation,
implementation, AI AI
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440 5 of 30

Although they are still in their infancy, artificial intelligence (AI) applications in
Malaysian EV charging stations have great potential to improve the nation’s infrastructure
for charging vehicles. While there has not been much widespread implementation, AI
technologies like machine learning and predictive analytics are being utilized to improve
several parts of the ecosystem around EV charging. AI is already being used in demand
forecasting applications to assist anticipate peak billing periods by utilizing user behav-
ior and previous data. This lowers the possibility of blackouts by enabling improved
control over the distribution of electricity and guaranteeing that the grid can support
the load during times of high demand. Another use is in dynamic pricing and energy
management, where AI algorithms modify charging rates in real time according to market
variables, grid circumstances, and energy availability to guarantee grid stability and cost-
effectiveness. Furthermore, by guiding cars to less crowded stations or more effectively
arranging charging sessions, AI is being incorporated into charging station management
systems to optimize the distribution of charging slots and lessen traffic.
Malaysia still has difficulties expanding AI-driven solutions throughout its EV charg-
ing network, despite these advancements. Important obstacles include the lack of a suf-
ficient charging infrastructure, expensive startup costs, and the requirement for more
localized data for AI model fine-tuning. Ongoing pilot programs and partnerships between
public and commercial organizations, however, are laying the foundation for future, more
thorough AI integration.
Understanding the trends and challenges in EV adoption and the role of AI in opti-
mizing smart charging systems is crucial for ensuring a sustainable and efficient transition
to electric mobility in Malaysia and globally. The rest of the paper is organized as follows:
Section 2 discuss the overview of EV charging systems along with the progression of
EV charging systems. AI-driven innovations in the Malaysian EV charging system and
future prospects and recommendations are portrayed in Sections 4 and 5, respectively. In
conclusion, final observations and suggestions for future work are given in Section 6.

2. Overview of EV Charging Systems

Electric vehicles (EVs) need efficient and dependable charging infrastructure to become
widely used. Charging stations are usually classed by power. Level 1 charging uses 120 V
outlets and is sluggish but adequate for overnight home usage. Level 2 chargers, which
utilize 240 V, charge more quickly and are prevalent in homes, offices, and public venues.
Long-distance travel requires DC fast chargers, or Level 3, which are frequently found along
highways and in business locations. AI and communication technologies optimize charging
schedules depending on power costs and grid demand, boosting cost-effectiveness and
grid stability beyond hardware. Three primary sorts of charging facilities are identified
based on the location of the charging infrastructure. Each of these facilities has distinct
attributes and varying degrees of charge. Figure 7 provides a comprehensive overview of
the categories of infrastructure.

2.1. Conductive-Based EV Charging System

Conductive charging was the foundation of the first electric vehicle charging infras-
tructure. Electric vehicles are able to be charged using this charging infrastructure. Garages,
businesses, and some outdoor spaces are common places to find them. In order to get
a good charge out of this model’s battery, it takes a lengthy time to charge it. Also, the
bigger battery capacities needed for EVs charged this way add extra weight and expense to
the EV. The two main categories of electric vehicles that employ conductive charging are
battery-electric and plug-in hybrids.
There are two types of conductive charging: AC and DC. There are two tiers to the
AC charging infrastructure, and a third is in the works. Currently, DC level 3 chargers are
the norm for rapid charging. It is believed that the Model 3 can be charged at a pace of up
to 1000 miles per hour using Tesla’s DC level 3 charger, the supercharger [11]. Multiple
DC fast charging protocols exist, including GB/T, CHAdeMO, and the combined charging
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440 6 of 30

system (CCS), in addition to the Tesla supercharger [12,13]. Japan uses the CHAdeMO
standard for DC rapid charging, while China uses the GB/T standard. Around the globe,
including in the United States and Europe, the CCS serves as the de facto standard.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Still,
6 of 30
a growing number of areas outside of their primary regions are adopting these distinct
Figure 7. Classification of EVFigure
norms. charging infrastructure.
8 shows the different charging system connections.

2.1. Conductive-Based EV Charging System

Conductive charging was the foundation of the first electric vehicle charging infra-
structure. Electric vehicles are able to be charged using this charging infrastructure. Gar-
ages, businesses, and some outdoor spaces are common places to find them. In order to
get a good charge out of this model’s battery, it takes a lengthy time to charge it. Also, the
bigger battery capacities needed for EVs charged this way add extra weight and expense
to the EV. The two main categories of electric vehicles that employ conductive charging
are battery-electric and plug-in hybrids.
There are two types of conductive charging: AC and DC. There are two tiers to the
AC charging infrastructure, and a third is in the works. Currently, DC level 3 chargers are
the norm for rapid charging. It is believed that the Model 3 can be charged at a pace of up
to 1000 miles per hour using Tesla’s DC level 3 charger, the supercharger [11]. Multiple
DC fast charging protocols exist, including GB/T, CHAdeMO, and the combined charging
system (CCS), in addition to the Tesla supercharger [12,13]. Japan uses the CHAdeMO
standard for DC rapid charging, while China uses the GB/T standard. Around the globe,
including in the United States and Europe, the CCS serves as the de facto standard. Still,
a growing number of areas outside of their primary regions are adopting these distinct
norms. Figure 8 shows the different charging system connections.
Figure 7. Classification of EV charging infrastructure.
Figure 7. Classification of EV charging infrastructure.

2.1. Conductive-Based EV Charging System

Conductive charging was the foundation of the first electric vehicle charging infra-
structure. Electric vehicles are able to be charged using this charging infrastructure. Gar-
ages, businesses, and some outdoor spaces are common places to find them. In order to
get a good charge out of this model’s battery, it takes a lengthy time to charge it. Also, the
bigger battery capacities needed for EVs charged this way add extra weight and expense
to the EV. The two main categories of electric vehicles that employ conductive charging
are battery-electric and plug-in hybrids.
(a) J1772 (b) Tesla
There are two types (c) CCS
of conductive (d) CHAdeMO
charging: AC and DC. There(e) areGB/T
two tiers to the
AC
Figure 8. EV charger Figurecharging
connecter infrastructure,
types. and a third is in the works. Currently, DC level 3 chargers are
8. EVfor
the norm charger
rapidconnecter
charging.types.
It is believed that the Model 3 can be charged at a pace of up
to 1000
2.2. miles per EV
Wireless-Based hour using Tesla’s
Charging SystemDC level 3 charger, the supercharger [11]. Multiple
DC fast charging protocols exist, including GB/T, CHAdeMO, and the combined charging
Numerous
system (CCS), in studies aimtotothe
addition improve the electric vehicle
Tesla supercharger [12,13]. (EV)
Japanexperience. A key focus
uses the CHAdeMO
isstandard
wirelessforcharging
DC rapid charging, while China uses the GB/T standard. Around the Research
to address range anxiety and reduce EV operating costs. globe,
onincluding
wirelessinEV thecharging can be
United States anddivided
Europe, into
theoptimization-based
CCS serves as the deand factonon-optimization-
standard. Still,
based models.
a growing Optimization-based
number of areas outsidemodels
of theiroften targetregions
primary route scheduling
are adoptingand infrastructure
these distinct
placement. For instance, Zhang et al. [14] proposed
norms. Figure 8 shows the different charging system connections.a charging scheme to minimize opera-
tional costs for electric buses with wireless charging, using speed assumptions to develop
a scheduling algorithm. Other models, like [15,16], use particle swarm optimization to
balance battery and infrastructure costs in a multi-road network. However, these models
can be complex, with assumptions such as fully charged batteries at the start of a journey.
Another model in [17] reduces the number of charging stations while considering power
flow constraints, though simplified linear models may affect accuracy.
Static wireless charging involves charging EVs wirelessly while parked near charg-
ing stations
(a) J1772[18]. This (b)
method
Tesla is convenient (c) CCSfor locations like parking lots
(d) CHAdeMO (e)but requires
GB/T
substantial battery capacity, increasing EV costs. INDUCTEV has developed a 300 kW
Figure 8. EV charger connecter types.
 can be complex, with assumptions such as fully charged batteries at the start of a journey.
Another model in [17] reduces the number of charging stations while considering power
flow constraints, though simplified linear models may affect accuracy.
Static wireless charging involves charging EVs wirelessly while parked near charging
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440 stations [18]. This method is convenient for locations like parking lots but requires 7 ofsub-
30
stantial battery capacity, increasing EV costs. INDUCTEV has developed a 300 kW dy-
namic wireless charging system with 90% efficiency [19], but it comes with high installa-
tion costs [20]
dynamic and charging
wireless faces challenges with90%
system with power transfer
efficiency efficiency
[19], andwith
but it comes maintenance [21].
high installa-
The Drop
tion costs&[20]
Charge system
and faces from Humavox
challenges with power [22]transfer
simplifies charging
efficiency andby allowing devices
maintenance [21].
to The
charge when
Drop placed
& Charge on a key-shaped
system from Humavox station. It uses two
[22] simplifies coils forbyefficient
charging allowingenergy
devicestrans-
to
charge through
mission when placed on a key-shaped
magnetic coupling, astation.
common It uses two coils
method for efficient
in wireless energyfor
charging transmis-
devices
sion
like through
phones andmagnetic
laptops coupling, a common
[22], which is shownmethod
in Figurein wireless
9. charging for devices like
phones and laptops [22], which is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Induction-based wireless charging system.

Figure 9. Induction-based wireless charging system.
2.3. Battery Swapping System
2.3. Battery Swapping
At battery Systemsystems (BSSs), users are able to charge their empty batteries and
swapping
thenAtchange
batterythem
swapping systems
out for full ones. (BSSs), users
Over time, are charged
a fully able to charge theirsupplant
battery will empty batteries
the EV
andbattery. Buses powered
then change them out byfor
hugefullbatteries that take
ones. Over time,a along time
fully to charge
charged usingwill
battery traditional
supplant
theconductive
EV battery.charging
Buses methods
poweredcould use battery
by huge swapping.
batteries that take A alarge
longsupply
time ofto this technol-
charge using
ogy must be maintained by the BSS or a third party that provides electric
traditional conductive charging methods could use battery swapping. A large supply of vehicle owners
with
this borrowedmust
technology batteries [23]. Powering
be maintained theBSS
by the BSSor area athird
distribution transformer,
party that batteries,
provides electric ve-
hicle owners with borrowed batteries [23]. Powering the BSS are a distributionhave
battery switching gear, and AC/DC converters for battery charging. Some studies trans-
shown that BSS may use V2G paradigm power services that include bidirectional pricing.
former, batteries, battery switching gear, and AC/DC converters for battery charging.
Significant infrastructure expenditures, a large BSS footprint, and battery consistency are
Some studies have shown that BSS may use V2G paradigm power services that include
challenges for this system. In 2013, Tesla Company introduced a battery swapping system
bidirectional pricing. Significant infrastructure expenditures, a large BSS footprint, and
that would allow for a battery change in 90 s [24]. Comparison of different EV charging
battery consistency
systems is shown in are challenges
Table 1. for this system. In 2013, Tesla Company introduced a
battery swapping system that would allow for a battery change in 90 s [24]. Comparison
of Table
different EV charging
1. Comparison of EVsystems
ChargingisSystems.
shown in Table 1.

Charging System Advantages Disadvantages Solutions

- High efficiency and fast - Requires physical - Develop automated

charging speeds. connection, which can be connection systems to
Conductive-Based EV - Widely available with inconvenient for users. improve user convenience.
Charging System established infrastructure. - Susceptible to wear and - Enhance durability of
- Lower cost compared to tear over time. connectors to reduce
wireless systems. maintenance needs.

- Convenient and - Lower efficiency compared - Improve efficiency through

user-friendly, with no need to conductive charging. advanced coil
for physical connection. - Higher cost and more design and resonant
Wireless-Based EV
- Reduced wear and tear complex infrastructure. frequency optimization.
Charging System
due to lack of - Potential for - Implement shielding
physical connectors. electromagnetic techniques to
interference. minimize interference.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440 8 of 30

Table 1. Cont.

Charging System Advantages Disadvantages Solutions

- Quick energy - Requires standardized

replenishment by - Promote standardization
batteries, which limits
swapping depleted across manufacturers.
vehicle design flexibility.
Battery batteries with fully - Develop efficient logistics
- High initial setup cost for
Swapping System charged ones. and battery management
swapping stations.
- Reduces wait time systems to reduce
- Logistic challenges in
compared to operational costs.
battery management.
traditional charging.

2.4. Development of EV Charging Systems with AI

The development of electric vehicle (EV) charging systems has evolved significantly
with technology and AI integration. Initially, from the late 19th century to the mid-20th
century, early EVs used basic home electrical outlets for charging. The oil crisis of the
1970s revived interest in EVs and led to improvements in charging systems, though public
infrastructure remained sparse. In the 1990s, early models like the GM EV1 faced range
anxiety and limited charging options. The introduction of standardized connectors such as
SAE J1772 in the 2000s improved compatibility, and protocols like CHAdeMO (2009) and
the Combined Charging System (CCS) facilitated faster DC charging [25].
In the 2010s, the EV market expanded rapidly with models like the Nissan Leaf and
Tesla’s offerings gaining popularity. Tesla notably introduced its Supercharger network,
pioneering high-speed DC fast-charging capabilities. This decade also witnessed the
integration of AI into EV charging systems. AI algorithms began optimizing charging
schedules based on factors such as energy demand, grid capacity, and user preferences.
Machine learning techniques enabled predictive maintenance of charging infrastructure,
ensuring reliability and efficiency. Entering the 2020s, advancements in ultra-fast charging
technologies, capable of delivering up to 350 kW, promised to significantly reduce charging
times, approaching the convenience of refueling traditional vehicles. AI continued to play a
crucial role in shaping the future of EV charging. Smart charging systems leveraged AI and
the IoT (Internet of Things) to manage charging sessions dynamically, optimizing energy
usage and minimizing grid impact [26].
Moreover, the concept of Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technology emerged, allowing EVs
to not only consume electricity but also to return power to the grid during peak demand
periods, enhancing grid stability and resilience. A complete list of V2G pilot projects around
the world can be found in [27]. As shown in Table 2, most of the V2G pilot projects were
only initiated in recent years, and the scale of these pilot projects is small. Moreover, most of
the existing literature only focuses on the EV charging aspect. AI-driven analytics enabled
real-time data analysis, supporting grid operators and EV owners in making informed
decisions about charging behavior and energy consumption patterns. Looking ahead,
the integration of AI is set to further evolve EV charging systems, driving innovations
in wireless charging technologies, enhancing interoperability across charging networks,
and facilitating seamless integration with renewable energy sources. As governments and
industries continue to invest in infrastructure and technology, AI will undoubtedly play a
pivotal role in shaping a sustainable and efficient future for electric mobility.
AI technology has transformed electric vehicle (EV) charging systems, improving
user experience, reliability, and efficiency. AI algorithms improve charging plans using
real-time power use, grid capacity, and user behavior. This allows EVs to charge at the
ideal periods, when renewable energy is abundant and electricity prices are low, reducing
costs and environmental effects. Machine learning-based predictive maintenance moni-
tors charging infrastructure for problems and inefficiencies before they occur, reducing
downtime and improving reliability [28]. AI-driven smart grids may integrate EVs into
energy management plans to balance system loads and participate in demand response.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440 9 of 30

AI provides real-time charging station availability, specialized charging suggestions, and

dynamic pricing schemes that incentivize off-peak charging, improving customer conve-
nience. These discoveries demonstrate AI’s importance in EV adoption and sustainable
mobility solutions worldwide. The limitations of AI in EV charging systems along with
potential solutions is shown in Table 3.

Table 2. Summary of some significant V2G pilot projects worldwide.

Project Name No. of Chargers Service Timespan Country

Time shifting, pricing scheme
SunnYparc 250 2022–2025 Switzerland
testing, reserve
Electric Heavy Goods
Vehicles—first roll-out and
unknown Freq. Response, Dist. Services 2024–ongoing Great Britain
demonstration of V2X and
grid decarbonization
Distribution services, frequency
SmartMAUI, Hawaii 80 2012–2015 US
response, time shifting
Freq. Response, Reserve,
V2X Suisse 40 2021–2023 China
Arbitrage, Dist. Services
Leaf to home 4000 Emergency backup, time shifting 2012–ongoing Japan
Utrecht V2G charge hubs 80 Arbitrage 2018–ongoing Netherlands
Bidirektionales Arbitrage, frequency response,
50 2021–2022 Germany
Lademanagement—BDL time shifting
Fiat-Chrysler V2G 600 Load balancing 2019–2021 Italy
UK Vehicle-2-Grid (V2G) 100 Support power grid 2016–ongoing UK
INVENT— Distribution services, frequency
50 2017–2020 US
UCSD/Nissan/Nuvve response, time shifting
Distribution services, frequency
Share the Sun/Deeldezon Project 80 2019–2021 Netherlands
response, time shifting
VGI core comp. dev. and V2G Arbitrage, frequency response,
100 2018–2022 South Korea
demo. using CC1 reserve, time shifting
Distribution services, reserve,
Electric Nation Vehicle to Grid 100 2020–2022 UK
time shifting
OVO Energy V2G 320 Arbitrage 2018–2021 UK
Powerloop: Domestic V2G Arbitrage, distribution services,
135 2018–ongoing UK
Demonstrator Project emergency backup, time shifting
Realizing Electric Vehicle
51 Frequency response, reserve 2020–2022 Australia
to Grid Services
Arbitrage, distribution services,
Parker 50 2016–2018 Denmark
frequency response
Reserve, Dist. Services, Time
I-GReta 1 2021–2023 Astria
shifting, Emergency back up
Freq. Response, Reserve, Dist.
INCIT-EV 100 Services, Time shifting, 2020–2024 Spain
Emergency back up

2.5. AI Optimization in Smart EV Charging Systems

The growing use of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) in residential areas will impact
power demand, necessitating detailed research on distribution network planning and
load profiles. Uncontrolled high-power EV charging, like 11.1 kW and 22.2 kW, can
overload the grid, as observed in Finnish studies [29]. To manage this demand, AI-based
Demand Response (DR) algorithms are essential. Unlike traditional methods that involve
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440 10 of 30

costly and environmentally harmful infrastructure expansion, AI-based DR uses machine

learning and advanced analytics to align EV charging with available supply [30]. In high-
rise residential complexes with limited electrical capacity, AI DR systems help balance
EV charging and prevent grid strain. By adjusting charging schedules based on driver
behavior, these systems can lower greenhouse gas emissions, reduce power costs, and
enhance system stability. Optimization algorithms such as Artificial Neural Networks
(ANN), Dynamic Programming (DP), Fuzzy Logic (FL), Game Theory, and Particle Swarm
Optimization (PSO) are used to minimize consumer costs, transformer loads, energy prices,
network losses, voltage variations, and peak loads, improving the economic feasibility of
EV integration [31].

Table 3. Limitations of AI in EV charging systems along with potential solutions.

Limitation Description Solution

AI models require high-quality, large
Implement data augmentation techniques,
datasets for accurate predictions.
Data Quality and Availability use synthetic data generation, and establish
Inconsistent or incomplete data can lead to
standardized data collection protocols.
suboptimal performance.
Many AI algorithms struggle to scale
Optimize algorithms for parallel processing
effectively across large numbers of EVs or
Scalability Issues and distributed computing, and integrate
charging stations, leading
cloud-based solutions.
to performance bottlenecks.
AI models need to process data and make Employ edge computing to reduce latency,
decisions in real time, but latency and and optimize AI models for faster
Real-Time Processing Constraints
computational overhead can impede computation and reduced
timely responses. resource requirements.
Integrating AI with legacy systems and Develop modular AI systems with flexible
Integration with
infrastructure can be complex and costly, APIs for easier integration, and offer phased
Existing Infrastructure
leading to delays in deployment. implementation strategies.
AI-driven systems are vulnerable to Implement robust encryption, multi-factor
Cybersecurity Risks cyber-attacks, which can compromise data authentication, and continuous monitoring
integrity and system reliability. for potential security breaches.
AI models, especially deep learning, often act Develop explainable AI (XAI) models that
Interpretability and Transparency as “black boxes”, making it difficult to provide insights into decision-making
understand how decisions are made. processes and improve user trust.
High costs associated with AI technology Leverage open-source AI frameworks, focus
Cost of Implementation deployment, including hardware, software, on incremental deployment, and explore
and skilled personnel, can be prohibitive. government subsidies and partnerships.
Users may be reluctant to trust AI systems Increase user education and engagement,
User Acceptance and Trust for critical functions like charging, especially provide clear demonstrations of reliability,
if the benefits and reliability are unclear. and offer user control options.
AI models may struggle to adapt to rapidly
Integrate adaptive learning algorithms that
Adaptability to changing conditions such as fluctuating
continuously update models based on new
Changing Conditions energy prices or sudden changes
data and changing conditions.
in grid demand.
Ensuring AI systems comply with evolving Develop AI systems with built-in compliance
Ethical and
regulations and ethical standards can be monitoring, and engage with policymakers
Regulatory Compliance
challenging, especially in diverse markets. to shape future regulations.

Despite this, there is a gap in existing research concerning the prediction of load
demand when incorporating EV driver behavior and electrical system capacity. Most
studies do not simultaneously address these factors. The proposed research aims to fill this
gap by developing control algorithms that consider these elements, suggesting capacity
upgrades and the addition of EV chargers when necessary [32]. Although simulation results
show that optimized charging schedules can mitigate power fluctuations, the models are
 mand when incorporating EV driver behavior and electrical system capacity. Most studies
do not simultaneously address these factors. The proposed research aims to fill this gap
by developing control algorithms that consider these elements, suggesting capacity up-
grades
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024,and the addition of EV chargers when necessary [32]. Although simulation results
15, 440 11 of 30
show that optimized charging schedules can mitigate power fluctuations, the models are
limited by static assumptions about EV types and charging rates. Future research should
integrate discharging limited features
by static assumptions about
and variable EV typesrates
charging and charging rates. Future
to enhance powerresearch should
fluctuation
integrate discharging features and variable charging rates to enhance power fluctuation
control [33–37]. Power Fluctuation Level for different EV charging scheme is displayed in
control [33–37]. Power Fluctuation Level for different EV charging scheme is displayed
Figure 10. in Figure 10.

EV charging demand using optimized

0.03
schedule

EV charging demand using conventional

0.2
charging scheme

EV charging demand without charging

0.56
scheme

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

Power Fluctuation Level

Figure 10. Power fluctuation level

Figure 10. Power for different
fluctuation EVdifferent
level for charging scheme.scheme.
EV charging

Moreover,
Moreover, real-time datareal-time data arefor
are essential essential for verifying
verifying the effectiveness
the effectiveness of AIof DR
AI DR opti-
opti-
mization algorithms. Without large datasets, it is difficult to validate these algorithms’
mization algorithms. Without large datasets, it is difficult to validate these algorithms’
performance and safety. Real data from sources like smart meters and charging stations
performance and aresafety. Real
necessary fordata from
accurate sources and
predictions likereliable
smart system
metersoperation
and charging stations
[38]. Additionally,
are necessary for accurateindividual
integrating predictions and reliable
user behavior system
and dynamic operation
factors [38].capacities
with system Additionally,
remains a
challenge. Advanced AI algorithms like Deep Reinforcement Learning
integrating individual user behavior and dynamic factors with system capacities remains (DRL) and ANN
show promise in addressing these issues, especially when considering discharging features
a challenge. Advanced AI algorithms like Deep Reinforcement Learning (DRL) and ANN
and unpredictable charging rates [39–41].
Survey analysis from the Netherlands also provides insights into BEV driver behavior,
revealing that route choice and charging behavior are significantly influenced by tradi-
tional route characteristics, vehicle-related factors, and charging features. These findings
can guide the development of more effective DR strategies [42]. Non-Intrusive Load Ex-
tracting (NILE) algorithms and Latin Hypercube Sampling (LHS) models offer alternative
approaches to managing uncertainties in EV charging behavior, though they have limita-
tions, such as data sampling rates and a lack of DR control over limited electrical system
capacities [43,44]. The extracted charging does not estimate the state of charge (SOC) of
the car remaining. Lastly, the extracted information does not allow DR control over a
limited electrical system capacity network. [44] suggests using the Latin Hypercube Sam-
pling (LHS) model to deal with EVs arrival, departure time, and SOC origin uncertainties.
That research has a similarity with the current research in that an algorithm is needed to
determine the daily arrival, departure, and SOC uncertainties; however, the difference is
that [44] uses LHS to determine the lowest charging cost, while this research emphasizes
DR optimum charging algorithms. Table 4 summarizes research findings of AI optimization
for EV smart charging systems.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440 12 of 30

Table 4. Research finding of AI optimization for EV smart charging systems.

Aspect Research Summary Research Gaps Future Work Ref.

Lack of advanced Enhance BMS algorithms,
Battery Management Analysis of AI methods in predictive analytics and explore advanced
[45]
Systems (BMS) BMS technology for EVs. cybersecurity measures predictive analytics, and
in BMS. improve cybersecurity.
High infrastructure and
Research technological
Evaluation of hybrid maintenance costs,
challenges and develop
Hybrid Energy Systems energy systems and their financial constraints, and [46]
economic pathways for
impact on COE in India. technical challenges in
hybrid systems.
hybrid systems.
Establish benchmarks and
Proposed analytical Absence of benchmarks or
frameworks to standardize
EV Charging Frameworks framework for EV frameworks for EV [47]
methods and improve
charging studies. charging control studies.
comparison of outcomes.
Integrate real-time data
Analysis of Bayesian
Limited integration of and refine the Bayesian
Inference for health
Health Prognosis for EVs real-time data for enhanced Inference model [48]
prognosis of
predictive accuracy. to improve
electric vehicles.
prediction accuracy.
Develop more robust
Application of deep Requires more robust
models and optimize
neural networks for models for extreme
State-of-Charge Estimation algorithms for faster [49]
SOC estimation conditions and
computation under
of Li-ion batteries. faster computation.
extreme conditions.
Use of genetic Enhance adaptability of
Lack of adaptability
algorithm-based fuzzy algorithms in dynamic
Battery State Estimation in rapidly [50]
C-means for battery state environments with
changing environments.
estimation in EVs. varying conditions.
Expand the generalization
Support vector machines Limited by model
of models to accommodate
State-of-Health Estimation for SOH estimation of generalization across [51]
a wider range of battery
Li-ion batteries in EVs. different battery types.
chemistries and types.
Conduct comprehensive
Wavelet transform Insufficient analysis of
long-term performance
HESS Topologies approach for HESS long-term performance in [52]
analysis across various
topologies in EV batteries. diverse scenarios.
operational scenarios.
Simplify algorithm
Fuzzy neural networks and Complexity in algorithm
implementation and
State-of-Charge Estimation Elman neural networks for implementation and [53]
improve scalability for
SOC estimation in EVs. scalability issues.
large-scale deployments.
Application of lightning Validate the lightning
Lack of validation
SOC Estimation of search algorithm search algorithm across a
in diverse [54]
Li-ion Batteries for SOC estimation broader range of
environmental conditions.
in Li-ion batteries. environmental conditions.
Artificial neural networks Implement real-time safety
for defining the safety Gaps in real-time safety monitoring systems and
Safety Envelope for LIBs [55]
envelope of monitoring and response. enhance response
lithium-ion batteries. mechanisms using AI.
Extreme learning machine Develop more efficient
Challenges in handling
for big data-driven data processing techniques
Big Data-Driven Modeling high-dimensional [56]
lithium-ion for high-dimensional data
data efficiently.
battery modeling. in battery modeling.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440 13 of 30

Table 4. Cont.

Aspect Research Summary Research Gaps Future Work Ref.

Enhance prediction
Gaussian process Needs improved
accuracy by incorporating
regression and linear prediction accuracy
State of Charge Prediction more complex machine [57]
regression models for SOC under variable
learning models and
prediction of EV batteries. operating conditions.
real-time data.
Develop more accurate
Rain-flow cycle counting Difficulty in accurately
long-term degradation
Battery Modeling for aging-considered predicting battery
prediction models using [58]
and Management battery model degradation over
advanced machine
and management. long periods.
learning techniques.
Create more
Supervised training
Lack of diverse and comprehensive and diverse
Battery Aging algorithms for large-scale
comprehensive battery battery aging datasets to [59]
Dataset Generation battery aging
aging datasets. improve model training
dataset generation.
and validation.
Expand the feature set and
Feature-based data-driven Challenge in accurately
improve model
Battery Lifetime Prediction approach for battery predicting battery lifetime [60]
generalization for different
lifetime prediction. across various use cases.
battery use cases.
Enhance scalability and
Reinforcement learning for Limited scalability and adaptability of
EV Charging
EV charging adaptability in dynamic reinforcement learning [61]
Management Systems
management systems. grid environments. models for diverse
grid conditions.
Artificial neural network Simplify computational
Computational complexity
Energy Management of and convex optimization processes and reduce
and high dependency on [62]
Multi-source EVs for energy management in dependency on highly
precise model parameters.
multi-source EVs. specific model parameters.
Optimize the whale
Whale optimization
Inefficiencies in optimization algorithm for
Hybrid Electric algorithm for hybrid
handling large-scale better scalability [63]
Vehicle Charging AC-DC microgrid
charging demands. and efficiency in
in EV charging.
large networks.
AI algorithms (e.g., ML,
Develop scalable AI
AI Algorithms DL) improve EV charging Limited integration with
models and conduct [64]
for Optimization efficiency and reduce existing infrastructure.
real-world trials.
grid impact.
Enhances charging Gather extensive user
Insufficient data on
Predictive Analytics strategies by forecasting behavior data and validate [65]
long-term user behavior.
demand and user behavior. with long-term studies.
Enhances personalization
User Behavior Limited understanding of Conduct extensive user
and user satisfaction by [66]
Consideration diverse user behaviors. behavior studies.
incorporating behavior.
Improve real-time
Deep neural networks for
Gaps in real-time model adaptability and accuracy
Online online SOC estimation
adaptability for for online state-of-charge [67]
State-of-Charge Estimation using electrochemical
online applications. estimations using
impedance spectroscopy.
dynamic models.
Refine PSO algorithms to
Particle swarm
Suboptimal handling of better manage rapid
Hybrid Electric optimization for hybrid
rapid transitions in energy transitions and dynamic [68]
Vehicle EMS electric vehicle energy
demand and supply. energy demands in
management systems.
hybrid systems.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440 14 of 30

Table 4. Cont.

Aspect Research Summary Research Gaps Future Work Ref.

Metaheuristic Develop more efficient and
High computational
search methods less computationally
State-of-Charge Estimation overhead in [69]
for SOC estimation intensive algorithms for
practical applications.
in Li-ion batteries. real-time SOC estimation.
Lack of comprehensive Perform validation across
Prediction of SOC using
validation across different multiple EV models and
Prediction of SOC for EVs various machine [70]
EV models and battery types to ensure
learning algorithms.
battery types. generalizability of results.
Combine linear regression
Low accuracy in scenarios with other methods to
State-of-Charge Estimation Linear regression for SOC
with rapid transitions in enhance accuracy [71]
in EV Batteries estimation in EV batteries.
battery states. in rapidly
changing conditions.
Support vector machine for
Expand testing across
SOC and SOH Estimation SOC and SOH estimation Insufficient testing across
diverse LIB applications to [72]
for LIBs algorithms for different LIB applications.
improve generalization.
lithium-ion batteries.
Collect and analyze
Sliding mode control for Limited performance data
Fast Portable Charger real-world performance
fast portable chargers for in real-world [73]
for EVs data to enhance
electric vehicles. fast-charging scenarios.
fast-charging algorithms.
Improve robustness of
Transformer neural
Lacks robustness energy prediction models
network for
Energy Prediction for EVs across different by incorporating [74]
energy prediction in
driving conditions. a wider range of
electric vehicles.
driving conditions.
Expand thermal
Fast recursive algorithm
Thermal Monitoring Limited to small-scale monitoring systems for
for thermal monitoring of [75]
of LIBs testing environments. large-scale and real-time
lithium-ion batteries.
applications in EVs.

Advanced AI models, such as Random Forest (RF), Recurrent Neural Network (RNN),
Gaussian Process Regression (GPR), Support Vector Machine (SVM), and Reinforcement
Learning (RL), provide substantial technological benefits in optimizing smart EV charging
systems [45]. These models analyze historical and real-time data, such as user charging
patterns and grid conditions, to make informed decisions that enhance charging efficiency
and reduce operational costs. The station must also incorporate robust communication
infrastructure to facilitate seamless data exchange between the charging station, electric
vehicles, and the central management system. Advanced AI models for optimizing smart
EV charging systems are shown in Table 5.
In the realm of smart EV charging systems, integrating advanced AI optimization
techniques such as load forecasting, state of charge (SOC) optimization, optimization of
charging schedules, demand response (DR), renewable energy integration, energy storage
systems (ESS), and tackling combined optimization problems are paramount. These ele-
ments collectively enable efficient management of electric vehicle charging at scale. Load
forecasting ensures grid stability by predicting demand peaks and troughs, optimizing
when and where EVs draw power [76]. SOC optimization improves battery efficiency
and durability, which is essential for user happiness and sustainability. By adapting to
real-time data, dynamic charging schedule optimization maximizes grid efficiency while
minimizing expenses. Reducing dependency on fossil fuels through DR programs and
the inclusion of renewable energy supports environmental objectives. By storing extra
renewable energy and offering backup power, ESS increases resilience [77]. When com-
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440 15 of 30

bined, these AI-driven improvements guarantee that intelligent EV charging systems run
smoothly, and consistently satisfy changing energy needs.

Table 5. Advanced AI models for optimizing smart EV charging systems.

AI Model Technological Benefits Limitations Solutions

Combines multiple decision
Can become computationally Use dimensionality reduction
trees for robust charging
expensive with large datasets; techniques and
Random Forest (RF) demand forecasting,
may not handle real-time implement real-time data
reducing overfitting across
data well. streaming solutions.
varied datasets.
Handles sequential data, ideal Implement Long Short-Term
Prone to vanishing gradient
Recurrent Neural for predicting time-series data Memory (LSTM) networks or
problems and may require
Network (RNN) such as user charging habits, Gated Recurrent Units (GRUs)
extensive training time.
enabling flexible load control. to address gradient issues.
Provides probabilistic
regression for accurate demand Utilize sparse approximations
Computationally intensive for
Gaussian Process forecasting with uncertainty and dimensionality
large datasets; may struggle
Regression (GPR) quantification, aiding in reduction techniques to
with high-dimensional data.
risk-aware decision-making in improve scalability.
charging operations.
Optimizes margin-based
classification for different
May not perform well with very Use kernel approximations and
Support Vector charging scenarios, improving
large datasets or when the scaling techniques to manage
Machine (SVM) the precision of demand
number of features is high. large feature sets and datasets.
response strategies by better
segregating load profiles.
Learns adaptive charging Implement more efficient
Requires extensive training data
strategies through interaction training algorithms and
Reinforcement and computational resources;
with the environment, adjusting adaptive learning rate
Learning (RL) may be sensitive to
to grid conditions, price techniques to reduce training
hyperparameter tuning.
fluctuations, and user behavior. time and resource consumption.

3. AI-Based Smart Charging Station

Advanced energy management techniques are integrated into AI-based smart charging
stations to improve sustainability and efficiency. Demand response methods allow the
system to dynamically modify charging schedules in response to user demand, energy
pricing, and real-time grid circumstances [77]. This optimizes energy utilization and
lessens the strain that peak load puts on the grid. Furthermore, the charging station
may prioritize clean energy and lessen its need on non-renewable sources thanks to the
incorporation of renewable energy sources like solar and wind. This strategy reduces the
carbon footprint associated with charging electric vehicles while simultaneously fostering a
more adaptable and robust energy infrastructure that can handle a range of energy supply
and demand situations.

3.1. Mathematical Equations for AI-Based Smart Charging System

The key mathematical equations used in AI-based optimization for smart EV charging
systems are given below.
Load forecasting is the process of predicting the total power demand from all electric
vehicles at a given time. This is crucial for planning and ensuring that the power grid can
handle the demand.
Load forecasting derivation is given below:
N
PEV (t) = ∑i=1 Pi (t) (1)
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440 16 of 30

where PEV (t) is total power demand from all EVs at time t, N is the number of EVs, Pi (t) is
the power demand of the i th EV at time t. The total power demand PEV (t) is calculated
by summing the power demand Pi (t) of all N EVs at time t.
The state of charge (SOC) is a measure of the energy level in an EV battery. It is
influenced by both the charging and discharging activities over time τ. The SOC at any
time t is calculated by integrating the net power (charging power minus discharging power)
over time, starting from an initial SOC, SOC (0). This provides a continuous update of the
battery’s energy level. The state of charge is calculated by

charge ( τ ) − Pdischarge ( τ )
Z t P
SOC (t) = SOC (0) + d(τ ) (2)
0 Cbattery

where SOC (t) is the state of charge of the EV battery at time t, SOC (0) is the initial state of
charge. Pcharge (τ ) is the charging power at time τ. Pdischarge (τ ) is the discharging power at
time τ, and Cbattery is the battery capacity.
Optimization of the charging schedule is formulated by

2 
T
minPcharge (t) ∑t=1 c(t).Pcharge (t) + λ. Ptotal (t) − Ptarget (3)

where the constraints are

Pcharge (t) ≤ Pmax
SOC min ≤ SOC (t) ≤ SOC max
where c(t) is the cost of electricity at time t. λ is a penalty factor for deviation from the
target. Ptotal (t) is the total power demand at time t. Ptarget is the target power demand. Pmax
is the maximum charging power. SOC min and SOC max are the minimum and maximum
state-of-charge limits. This optimization problem aims to minimize the cost of charging
while ensuring that the power demand remains close to a target value and that the SOC is
within acceptable limits. The objective function includes two terms: the cost of electricity
(weighted by c(t)) and a penalty for deviating from the target power demand (weighted by
λ). The constraints ensure that the charging power does not exceed a maximum limit and
that the SOC stays within predefined bounds.
Demand response mechanisms adjust the charging power based on signals from the
grid to maintain stability and efficiency [55]. The charging power Pcharge (t) is calculated
by adding a baseline charging power Pbase (t) to a term that adjusts the power based on
the difference between the grid signal Psignal (t) and the target power Ptarget , scaled by the
response coefficient α.
Demand response is formulated by
 
Pcharge (t) = Pbase (t) + α. Psignal (t) − Ptarget (4)

where Pbase (t) is the baseline charging power. α is the response coefficient indicating
how much the charging power should adjust in response to grid signals. Psignal (t) is
the signal from the grid indicating the desired adjustment in power. Ptarget is the target
power demand.
Renewable energy integration involves using power generated from renewable sources
like solar and wind to charge EVs. This is formulated by

Prenewable (t) = Psolar (t) + Pwind (t) (5)

where the total renewable power Prenewable (t) is the sum of the power generated from solar
Psolar (t) and wind Pwind (t) sources at time t. Integration of renewable energy sources like
solar and wind reduces reliance on the grid and enhances sustainability.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440 17 of 30

The net power required from the grid Pgrid (t) is the difference between the total power
demand from EVs PEV (t) and the power generated from renewable sources Prenewable (t).
The formulation is given by

Pgrid (t) = PEV (t) − Prenewable (t) (6)

Energy storage systems (ESS) play a crucial role in balancing supply and demand
by storing excess energy and supplying it when needed. The net power flow PESS (t) into
or out of the ESS is calculated by considering the charging power Pcharge (t) multiplied
by the charging efficiency ηcharge and the discharging power Pdischarge (t) divided by the
discharging efficiency ηdischarge , which is

Pdischarge (t)
PESS (t) = ηcharge . Pcharge (t) − (7)
ηdischarge

This all-inclusive optimization issue seeks to minimize total cost while guaranteeing
effective utilization of storage and renewable energy systems, preserving the targeted
power levels, and adhering to SOC constraints. The cost of grid electricity and a penalty
for deviating from the goal power demand are included in the objective function. The
limitations guarantee that the SOC stays within predetermined boundaries, the charging
power does not exceed the maximum limit, and the net power flow into or out of the ESS is
appropriately modelled. The combined optimization problem is formulated by

2 
T
minPcharge (t), Pdischarge (t) ∑t=1 c(t).Pgrid (t) + λ. Ptotal (t) − Ptarget (8)

where the constraints are

Pcharge (t) ≤ Pmax
SOC min ≤ SOC (t) ≤ SOC max
Pgrid (t) = PEV (t) − Prenewable (t)
Pdischarge (t)
PESS (t) = ηcharge . Pcharge (t) −
ηdischarge
The proposed mathematical formulas form the core of AI-driven optimization for
intelligent electric car charging systems. The load forecasting, state of charge computation,
charging schedule optimization, demand response, integration of renewable energy, and
energy storage management are all covered by these equations. All of them work together
to make electric car charging systems inexpensive, ecologically friendly, and efficient.
Artificial intelligence is utilized to optimize various aspects of the system and achieve
optimal results.

3.2. Implementation of an AI-Based Smart Charging Station

For example, an office complex has 10 electric vehicles (EVs) that need to be charged
during the workday. The building has a total of 100 kWh of energy available for charging
these EVs between 9 AM and 5 PM (8 h). The AI-based smart charging system optimizes
the distribution of available power based on real-time demand, the state of charge (SOC) of
each EV, and the time available.
Parameters:
• Total available energy: Etotal = 100kWh
• Number of EVs: N = 10
• Charging time: Ttotal = 8 h
• Initial state of charge for each EV: SOC (0)i (varies for each EV)
• Required SOC to fully charge an EV: SOC f ull = 100%
• Power consumption rate per EV: Pi = 7 kW (assuming a standard Level 2 charger)
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440 18 of 30

Step 1: Calculate Energy Required for Each EV

For each EVi, the energy required to reach full charge can be calculated as
 
Ei = SOC f ull − SOC (0)i × Ci (9)

where Ci is the battery capacity of EVi (in kWh).

Step 2: Distribute Power Using AI Optimization
The AI algorithm distributes the available power among the EVs based on
1. Priority: EVs with lower SOC or higher urgency are prioritized.
2. Efficiency: The system balances the load to avoid overloading the grid.
The power allocated to each EVi at time t is given by

Ei
Pi (t) = (10)
Ttotal

The AI ensures the constraint: ∑iN=1 Pi (t) ≤ Pmax

Where Pmax is the maximum power capacity of the charging infrastructure.
Step 3: Calculate Energy Consumed Over Time
The total energy consumed by each EV over the charging period Ttotal is

Eiconsumed = Pi (t) × Ttotal (11)

The AI algorithm adjusts Pi (t) dynamically based on real-time data, ensuring that all
vehicles receive sufficient charge within the available time and power constraints.
Calculation:
• EV 1 has an initial SOC of 20% and a battery capacity of 50 kWh.
• EV 2 has an initial SOC of 50% and a battery capacity of 60 kWh.
Energy required:
From Equation (9),
E1 = (1 − 0.20) × 50 = 40 kWh
E2 = (1 − 0.50) × 60 = 30 kWh
Power distribution:
From Equation (10),
40
P1 (t) = = 5 kW
8
30
P2 (t) = = 3.75 kW
8
Total energy consumed:
From Equation (11),
E1consumed = 5 × 8 = 40 kWh
E2consumed = 3.75 × 8 = 30 kWh
The AI algorithm adjusts Pi (t) if other EVs require more energy or if constraints change.

3.3. Cost Comparison Analysis

Cost Components:
• Energy Cost (C E ): The cost of electricity used to charge the EVs.

Traditional System : CE,T = ET × RatekWh (12)

where ET is the total energy consumed and RatekWh is the cost per kWh.

AI − Based System : CE,AI = E AI × RatekWh (13)

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440 19 of 30

where E AI is the optimized energy consumption with the AI system.

• Operational Costs (C O ): Costs related to the maintenance and operation of the
charging infrastructure.

Traditional System : CO,T = Cmaintanance,T + Clabor,T (14)

AI − Based System : CO,AI = Cmaintanance,AI + Cmanagement,AI (15)

• Energy Savings (SE ): Savings achieved by optimizing energy usage with the AI system.

ET − E AI
 
SE = × 100% (16)
ET
• Total Cost Comparison: The total cost for each system is

Traditional System : CT,T = CE,T + CO,T (17)

AI System : CT,AI = CE,AI + CO,AI (18)

The percentage difference in total costs between the two systems is:

CT,T − CT,AI
 
∆C T = × 100% (19)
CT,T

Calculation:
• Traditional System: Consumes the full 100 kWh.
• AI-Based System: Optimized to consume only 70 kWh.
• Rate per kWh: RatekWh = 0.20 USD.
• Operational Costs:
Traditional: CO,T = 500 USD.
AI-Based: CO,AI = 400 USD (considering maintenance and AI management).
Step 1: Calculate Energy Costs
From Equation (12),

Traditional System CE,T = 100 × 0.20 = 20 USD

From Equation (13),

AI − Based System : CE,AI = 70 × 0.20 = 14 USD

Step 2: Calculate Total Costs

From Equation (17),

Traditional System : CT,T = 20 + 500 = 520 USD

From Equation (18),

AI − Based System : CT,AI = 14 + 400 = 414 USD

Step 3: Calculate Energy Savings

From Equation (16),

100 − 70
 
SE = × 100% = 30%
100

Step 4: Calculate Total Cost Difference

 World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440 20 of 30

From Equation (19),

520 − 414
 
∆C T = × 100% = 20.38%
520

These percentages indicate the relative efficiency and cost-effectiveness of the AI-based
system over the traditional charging method. The AI-based system not only saves energy
but also reduces overall operational costs, providing significant savings in the long run.

4. AI-Driven Innovations in Malaysian EV Charging Systems

In order to facilitate the growing national adoption of electric vehicles, Malaysia is
actively building up its infrastructure for EV charging [78]. In order to accommodate
the rising number of EV users, the nation has been developing its public charging net-
work, concentrating on urban areas and main routes. The government has put in place
programs and incentives to promote the adoption of EVs, such as tax breaks for EV pur-
chases and funding for the construction of charging infrastructure. Figure 11 shows total
vehicle industry volume with variance. There is an overall increase of 6.6% in the total
number of vehicles from 1H2023 to 1H2024, equating to an additional 24,120 units [10].
Passenger vehicles saw a notable growth of 9.2%, with an increase of 30,162 units from
1H2023 to 1H2024. This suggests a significant rise in consumer demand for passenger
2024, 15, x FOR PEER REVIEW 21 of 30
vehicles. Interestingly, commercial vehicles experienced a decrease of 15.3%, translating
to 6042 fewer units in 1H2024 compared to 1H2023. This decline might reflect changing
market conditions, reduced demand, or shifts in commercial transportation strategies [10].

Total Vehicles

Commercial Vehicles

Passenger Vehicles

0 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000

Passenger Vehicles Commercial Vehicles Total Vehicles

Variance % 9.2 15.3 6.6
Variance Units 30,162 6,042 24,120
1H2023 326,697 39,479 366,176
1H2024 356,859 33,437 390,296

Figure 11. Total vehicle

Figureindustry volume
11. Total vehicle withvolume
industry variance.
with variance.

To ensure compatibility with various EV models, Malaysia is progressively imple-

To ensure compatibility with various EV models, Malaysia is progressively imple-
menting the CCS (Combined Charging System) for DC fast charging, while still relying
menting the CCSmostly
(Combined
on Type 2Charging
connectionsSystem) for DCEven
for AC charging. fastwith
charging, while stillthere
these developments, relying
are
mostly on Type 2still
connections
issues such theforrequirement
AC charging. Even with
for additional these developments,
rural charging there the
stations and maintaining are
dependability and upkeep of the current infrastructure. In the
still issues such the requirement for additional rural charging stations and maintaining future, Malaysia wants to
further its objectives of low carbon emissions and sustainable transportation by integrat-
the dependabilitying and upkeep of the current infrastructure. In the future, Malaysia wants
renewable energy sources, improving charging speeds, and growing its network of
to further its objectives of lowcharging
electric vehicle carbonstations.
emissionsTable 6and
lists sustainable transportation
Malaysia’s networks byofinte-
and providers EV
grating renewable energy
charging sources, improving charging speeds, and growing its network
infrastructure.
of electric vehicle charging stations. Table 6 lists Malaysia’s networks and providers of EV
charging infrastructure.

Table 6. EV charging infrastructure providers and networks.

Network Name Locations Charger Types

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440 21 of 30

Table 6. EV charging infrastructure providers and networks.

Provider Network Name Locations Charger Types

BMW Malaysia BMW i Charging BMW dealerships, selected locations Mode 3 AC, Mode 4 DC
Chargehere EV Solutions Chargesini Nationwide Mode 3 AC, Mode 4 DC
Various location including offices,
DC handal DC handal Mode 4 DC
malls
EV Connection JomCharge Nationwide Mode 3 AC, Mode 4 DC
Petronas Gentari Nationwide Mode 3 AC, Mode 4 DC
Shell Malaysia Shell Recharge Nationwide Mode 3 AC, Mode 4 DC
Various location including malls,
Tesla Tesla Mode 3 AC, Mode 4 DC
offices, etc.
Selected locations as part of pilot
TNB (Tenaga Nasional Berhad) TNB Electron Mode 4 DC
projects
Yinson Greentech Malaysia ChargeEV Nationwide Mode 3 AC, Mode 4 DC

Several nations, including the US, China, and several in Europe, have made significant
strides in building extensive EV charging networks [44]. Wireless charging, AI-powered
smart charging and V2G technologies have raised industry standards. Studying other
countries’ successful AI implementations in EV charging networks is instructive. European
programs like GridMotion study V2G technology to stabilize grids, while Tesla’s Super-
charger network optimizes charging times and distribution via AI. Artificial intelligence-
driven solutions are revolutionizing Malaysia’s EV charging environment by improving
efficiency, reliability, and user experience. These innovations increase grid integration,
dynamic charging station management, and demand forecasting using AI. AI algorithms
assess real-time traffic, weather, and user behavior data to maximize charging schedules
and energy distribution. This predictive capability balances load and integrates renewable
sources effectively, promoting sustainable energy and operational efficiency. AI-driven
solutions also personalize consumer experiences with intelligent suggestion systems, im-
mediate charging station availability information, and simple payment options. Malaysia
is leading the way in the development of a more intelligent and responsive EV charging
infrastructure that is in line with global trends towards sustainable mobility and smart
city projects by encouraging cooperation between technology suppliers, governmental
organizations, and utilities [79]. Malaysia’s approach to smart EV charging compared to
other countries is shown in Table 7.
Table 7. Malaysia’s approach to smart EV charging.

Aspect Malaysia Other Countries (e.g., USA, Germany, China)

Stringency of regulations, incentives
Regulatory Framework Development of EV policies and incentives
for EV adoption
Extent of public and private
Infrastructure Deployment Coverage and density of charging stations
charging infrastructure
Use of advanced technologies in grid
Technological Integration Adoption of AI, IoT in charging networks
management and analytics
Collaboration between government Partnership models supporting rapid
Public–Private Partnerships
and industry infrastructure development
Reduce range anxiety; increase accessibility Convenience, reliability, and user
User Experience
and payment options feedback mechanisms
Infrastructure Extent of public and private charging
Coverage and density of charging stations
Deployment infrastructure
Use of advanced technologies in grid
Technological Integration Adoption of AI, IoT in charging networks
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440 management and analytics 22 of 30
Public–Private Collaboration between government and Partnership models supporting rapid
Partnerships industry infrastructure development
Table 7. Cont.
Reduce range anxiety; increase Convenience, reliability, and user feedback
User Experience
accessibility and payment options mechanisms
Aspect Malaysia Other Countries (e.g., USA, Germany, China)
Environmental Integration with renewable energy Green energy initiatives, carbon footprint
Green energy initiatives, carbon footprint
Sustainability
Environmental Sustainability sourcesIntegration with renewable energy sourcesreduction strategies
reduction strategies
Innovation Ecosystem Support for startups and tech innovation Investment in R&D, incubation programs
Innovation Ecosystem Support for startups and tech innovation Investment in R&D, incubation programs

As of 2022, the Klang Valley is home to roughly 9 million people in Malaysia. There
As of 2022,
are 263,220 the Klang
serviced Valleyunits
apartment is home to roughly
in Malaysia 9 million
[80]. people
Assuming aninaverage
Malaysia. There
of two cars
per serviced apartment unit in Malaysia and 30% of BEVs, as targeted by the LCMB,cars
are 263,220 serviced apartment units in Malaysia [80]. Assuming an average of two there
perbe
will serviced
a totalapartment
of 157,932unit in Malaysia
BEVs by 2030.andSome30% of BEVs,building
high-rise as targeted by the LCMB,
managers do not there
allow
will be a total of 157,932 BEVs by 2030. Some high-rise building managers do not allow
EV users to install charging stations in the building, even if the users are paying for it.
EV users to install charging stations in the building, even if the users are paying for it.
Sometimes, this is because the building’s power supply distribution board at the car park
Sometimes, this is because the building’s power supply distribution board at the car park
does not have the power margin for EV chargers [81]. Existing building electrical capacity
does not have the power margin for EV chargers [81]. Existing building electrical capacity
and
andalso
alsoEV
EVdriver
driveruser
user demand will be
demand will be two
twoparameters
parametersofofimportance
importance inin determining
determining thethe
demand response control mechanisms. Figure 12 shows energy usage by
demand response control mechanisms. Figure 12 shows energy usage by condominium in condominium
ineach
eachMalaysian
Malaysian state.
state.

Selangor 2586.82

Kuala Lumpur 4550.57

Penang 1473.7

Johor 494.7

0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000

Usage (kWh)

Figure 12. Energy usage by condominium in Malaysia.

Figure 12. Energy usage by condominium in Malaysia.

The
Theinstallation
installation of
of aa 47 kW
kW DCDC charger
charger(Dual
(DualGun
GunCCS2)
CCS2)× ×4 4nos
nosat at
TheThe Curve
Curve in in
Mutiara Damansara,situated
Mutiara Damansara, situated alongside
alongside the(Malay:
the LDP LDP (Malay:
LebuhrayaLebuhraya Damansara–
Damansara–Puchong)
Highway, represents a significant advancement in Malaysia’s electric vehicle (EV) charg-
ing infrastructure, facilitated by Chargehere EV Solution Sdn. Bhd. (Platform: Char-
gesini); it is shown in Figure 13. Tesla’s largest charging station in Southeast Asia (2024) in
Gamuda Cove—a smart and sustainable low-carbon city, Sepang, Selangor Darul Ehsan,
Malaysia—is shown in Figure 14. This DC charger not only accommodates rapid charging
for EVs but also integrates sophisticated technologies for monitoring and data collection.
Robust mechanisms are incorporated into Chargehere EV Solution Sdn. Bhd. (Platform:
Chargesini)’s implementation to gather cloud data and charging parameters from EV charg-
ers. Important parameters like voltage, current, power output (kW), and charging time
must be monitored in real time for this to occur. These variables are necessary to guarantee
effective energy transmission, maximize battery life, and optimize charge durations.
The ability to gather data in the cloud makes it possible to effortlessly incorporate
charging data into a centralized platform that is accessible from a distance [82]. Opera-
tors may track charger performance, anticipate maintenance requirements, and examine
consumption trends by utilizing cloud-based information. This is vital information to
track and analyze EV driver behavior that allows AI algorithm prediction training; with
 infrastructure
Puchong) deployment and operation.
Highway, represents cost-effective
a significant advancement maintenance
in Malaysia’sstrategies.
electric vehicle
Ensuring
(EV)data privacy
charging and security,facilitated byImplement
infrastructure, Chargehererobust cybersecurity
EV Solution Sdn. Bhd. protocols,
(Platform:
Operational optimizing scalability,
Chargesini); it is overcoming
shown in Figureuser 13. Tesla’s
educate users
largest on benefits,
charging stationdesign scalableAsia
in Southeast
Efficiency acceptance
(2024)barriers,
in Gamuda andCove—a
integrating
smartwith systems
and sustainable with modular
low-carbon architecture,
city, Sepang, andDarul
Selangor integrate
Ehsan,
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, existing
440 energy Malaysia—is
management shown in Figure 14. This
systems. DC charger
seamlessly withnot only accommodates
existing infrastructure.23 rapid
of 30
charging for EVs but also integrates sophisticated technologies
Managing energy demand, optimizing energy Maximize use of renewable energy sources, for monitoring and data
Environmental collection.
use from renewable Robust mechanisms
sources, are incorporated
and reducing optimizeintocharging
Chargehere EV Solution
schedules based Sdn. Bhd.
on energy
(Platform: Chargesini)’s implementation to gather cloud data and charging
this information on board, the AI-driven smart charging system allows optimization of parameters
Impact carbon footprint through smart charging demand and availability, and implement energy-
from EV chargers.
electrical Important
infrastructure parameters
utilization like voltage,
and enhances current, power
user experience, outputin(kW),
especially and
reducing
strategies.
charging time must be monitored
efficient charging practices.
range anxiety concerns. This alsoin real time
balances for this
energy to occur.
demand andThese variables
speeds up theare neces-
switch to
sary to
renewableguarantee
energy effective
sources energy
while also Provideoperational
transmission,
improving user-friendly
maximize interfaces
battery life,
efficiency and
and
and real-time
optimize
supporting
Educating users on benefits, ensuring ease of
charge durations.
smart grid integration initiatives. updates on charging station availability, and
User Experience use, and addressing user concerns such as
educate users on the benefits of smart charging
range anxiety and charging availability.
and EV ownership.
Invest in AI-driven solutions for predictive
Integrating AI, IoT, and advanced analytics for
Technological maintenance, dynamic energy management, and
predictive maintenance, dynamic energy
Innovation grid interaction optimization, fostering
management, and enhanced grid interaction.
continuous technological advancement.
Grid capacity constraints during peak Grid capacity constraints during peak demand
demand periods, potential grid instability due periods, potential grid instability due to
Grid Limitations
to simultaneous EV charging, and strain on simultaneous EV charging, and strain on local
local distribution networks. distribution networks.

Some companies and initiatives represent key players and efforts in Malaysia’s evolv-
ing EV and smart charging landscape. They contribute to infrastructure development,
technology
Figure
Figure 13. 47
13. integration,
47 kW
kW DC chargerand
DC charger policy
(Dual advocacy
Gun CCS2) aimed
××44nos
nos Theat
atThe
at fostering
Curve
Curve sustainable
inMutiara
in Mutiara mobility
Damansara
Damansara (Beside solu-
(Beside
tions
LDP across
LDP Highway)
Highway) bythe country.
by Chargehere
Chargehere EV Solution Sdn. Bhd
Bhd (platform: Chargesini).
Chargesini).

The ability to gather data in the cloud makes it possible to effortlessly incorporate
charging data into a centralized platform that is accessible from a distance [82]. Operators
may track charger performance, anticipate maintenance requirements, and examine con-
sumption trends by utilizing cloud-based information. This is vital information to track
and analyze EV driver behavior that allows AI algorithm prediction training; with this
information on board, the AI-driven smart charging system allows optimization of elec-
trical infrastructure utilization and enhances user experience, especially in reducing range
anxiety concerns. This also balances energy demand and speeds up the switch to renew-
able energy sources while also improving operational efficiency and supporting smart
grid integration initiatives.
Further improving EV users’ comfort while travelling along the LDP Highway is this
installation at The Curve, which offers dependable access to fast charging stations. It high-
lights Malaysia’s dedication to environmentally friendly transportation options and es-
Figure14.
14.Tesla’s
Tesla’slargest
largest charging
charging station
station in Southeast
AsiaAsia (2024) in Gamuda Cove—A smart
and and
Figure
tablishes Chargehere EV Solution Sdn.inBhd.
Southeast
(Platform: (2024) in Gamuda
Chargesini) as a Cove—A smart
pioneer in the de-
sustainable low-carbon
sustainable low-carbon city, Sepang,
city, Sepang, All Selangor
Selangor Darul
Darul Ehsan, Malaysia.
Ehsan, Malaysia.
velopment of EV infrastructure. things considered, the integration of a DC charger
with extensive charging parameter monitoring and cloud data collecting demonstrates
Further improving EV users’ comfort while travelling along the LDP Highway is
how contemporary technologies are propelling the development of EV charging networks
this installation at The Curve, which offers dependable access to fast charging stations. It
and enhancing Malaysia’s transportation ecosystem in a cleaner and more effective man-
highlights Malaysia’s dedication to environmentally friendly transportation options and
ner. Challenges and solutions in implementing smart charging systems in Malaysia are
establishes Chargehere EV Solution Sdn. Bhd. (Platform: Chargesini) as a pioneer in the
shown in Table 8.
development of EV infrastructure. All things considered, the integration of a DC charger
with extensive charging parameter monitoring and cloud data collecting demonstrates how
contemporary technologies are propelling the development of EV charging networks and
enhancing Malaysia’s transportation ecosystem in a cleaner and more effective manner.
Challenges and solutions in implementing smart charging systems in Malaysia are shown
in Table 8.
Some companies and initiatives represent key players and efforts in Malaysia’s evolv-
ing EV and smart charging landscape. They contribute to infrastructure development,
technology integration, and policy advocacy aimed at fostering sustainable mobility solu-
tions across the country.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440 24 of 30

Table 8. Challenges and solutions in implementing smart charging systems in Malaysia.

Aspect Challenges Solutions

Standardize connector types (e.g., CCS,
Interoperability between EVs and charging
CHAdeMO), develop universal communication
Technical Compatibility infrastructure, diverse communication protocols,
protocols, and integrate advanced grid
and integration with smart grid systems.
management technologies.
Developing standards, tariff structures, and Establish clear regulatory guidelines, incentivize
Regulatory Framework regulatory policies supporting smart compliance with subsidies, and collaborate with
charging deployment. stakeholders to streamline regulatory processes.
High initial setup costs, ongoing maintenance Seek government grants, private investments,
Financial Viability expenses, and securing funding sources for and develop sustainable financial models with
infrastructure deployment and operation. cost-effective maintenance strategies.
Ensuring data privacy and security, optimizing Implement robust cybersecurity protocols,
scalability, overcoming user acceptance barriers, educate users on benefits, design scalable
Operational Efficiency
and integrating with existing energy systems with modular architecture, and integrate
management systems. seamlessly with existing infrastructure.
Managing energy demand, optimizing energy Maximize use of renewable energy sources,
use from renewable sources, and reducing optimize charging schedules based on energy
Environmental Impact
carbon footprint through smart demand and availability, and implement
charging strategies. energy-efficient charging practices.
Provide user-friendly interfaces and real-time
Educating users on benefits, ensuring ease of use,
updates on charging station availability, and
User Experience and addressing user concerns such as range
educate users on the benefits of smart charging
anxiety and charging availability.
and EV ownership.
Invest in AI-driven solutions for predictive
Integrating AI, IoT, and advanced analytics for
maintenance, dynamic energy management, and
Technological Innovation predictive maintenance, dynamic energy
grid interaction optimization, fostering
management, and enhanced grid interaction.
continuous technological advancement.
AI-driven systems that optimize charging
schedules based on real-time demand,
Grid capacity constraints during peak demand
prioritizing off-peak charging to alleviate peak
periods, potential grid instability due to
Grid Limitations demand strain. Enable EVs to send power back
simultaneous EV charging, and strain on local
to the grid during peak demand, helping
distribution networks.
stabilize the grid and act as distributed
energy resources.

AI-driven solutions are revolutionizing Malaysia’s EV charging infrastructure by

improving efficiency, reliability, and user engagement. By using cutting-edge AI algo-
rithms, Malaysia may increase grid integration to support renewable energy sources, better
anticipate and manage demand, and improve charging infrastructure efficiency. These
innovations simplify charging and enable real-time updates and intelligent suggestions
to personalize the user experience. AI-driven electric vehicle (EV) charging advances are
expected to be crucial in creating a more environmentally friendly and technologically
advanced transportation ecosystem, especially as Malaysia invests in smart city projects
and sustainable mobility solutions.

5. Future Prospects and Recommendations

AI might change sustainable transportation in Malaysia’s smart EV charging net-
works [83]. AI can increase EV charging infrastructure efficiency, reliability, and user experi-
ence. AI-driven predictive analytics may improve charging station operations by anticipat-
ing demand trends, regulating grid load, and integrating renewable energy sources [84,85].
This predictive capacity improves energy management and helps Malaysia reduce car-
bon emissions and promote green technology [86]. AI-driven predictive maintenance
may also detect and fix equipment issues, reducing charging station downtime. Proac-
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440 25 of 30

tive maintenance reduces operational costs, boosts customer satisfaction, and ensures
service reliability [87]. AI also improves EV charging station user experience. AI-derived
ideas can improve convenience and accessibility for EV customers by providing real-time
information on charging station availability, energy cost-optimal charging periods, and
nearby amenities.
Several suggestions can maximize AI’s potential in Malaysia’s EV charging infrastructure:
i. Incompatibility with EV Models: Currently, not all EV models can handle every
charging level, and not all public charging stations are equipped for high-power de-
vices. This discrepancy creates challenges for EV owners in finding suitable charging
infrastructure [88].
ii. Fixed Demand Fees: Users of fast charging stations often face a fixed monthly demand
fee, which can deter EV owners from using these facilities due to the inability to charge
based on a variable power tariff. Revising the fixed demand fee policy could address
some of these concerns [89].
iii. Inconsistent Charging Facility Layouts: Charging station layouts vary significantly
because they are installed by different businesses in diverse locations. Users struggle
with these inconsistencies, and a standardized charging facility layout, similar to
conventional internal combustion engine vehicle refueling stations, could enhance the
user experience [90].
iv. Barriers to Private Fast-Charging Facilities: Establishing private fast-charging fa-
cilities, such as those in homes, is often challenging and requires permissions from
local service providers and government authorities. This cumbersome process can
discourage EV owners from setting up their own private charging infrastructure.
v. Strategic Deployment: There is a need for strategic placement of EV charging stations
along major roads and in urban areas. The current lack of planning for charging
stations outside major cities is a concern for EV owners [91].
vi. Integration of Renewable Energy: Charging stations powered by renewable energy
sources, such as solar or wind, require substantial space and investment for design
and implementation. Vacant lots near roadways present promising locations for these
renewable energy-powered EV charging stations [92,93].
vii. Investment in Research and Development: Promote cooperation between the public
and private sectors to advance AI innovation in EV charging technology. Research
funds and incentives should be given out to encourage the creation of AI-driven
solutions that are suited to regional needs.
viii. Standardization and Interoperability: To guarantee a smooth user experience and
uninterrupted access across many platforms and places, establish guidelines for data
exchange and interoperability among charging networks.
ix. Public Awareness and Education: Inform customers and interested parties about
the advantages of AI-powered smart charging systems while addressing issues with
dependability, security, and data privacy.
x. Incentives for AI Adoption: Offer financial incentives, tax breaks, or subsidies to
businesses investing in AI technologies for EV infrastructure, accelerating deployment
and scalability [94].
xi. Regulatory Framework: Provide flexible regulatory frameworks that promote AI
technical developments and guarantee sustainability, equity, and safety in EV charging
operations [95]. Encourage the creation of legal frameworks that support innovation
and make it easier to integrate AI technologies into the infrastructure that is already
in place.
By implementing these suggestions, Malaysia can become a leader in intelligent
transport solutions, boost economic growth through technical innovation, and contribute
to global efforts to reduce carbon emissions and promote sustainable mobility. AI-driven
smart EV charging systems have the potential to revolutionize transportation and create a
greener, more efficient, and user-centric future.
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 440 26 of 30

6. Conclusions
An important step towards a more efficient, sustainable, and user-friendly transporta-
tion infrastructure has been taken by Malaysia with the integration of artificial intelligence
(AI) into their smart electric vehicle charging systems. With the help of AI, energy man-
agement can be optimized, demand patterns can be predicted, and EV charging stations
can be made more operationally reliable. The use of AI-driven predictive analytics will
help Malaysia achieve its goals of reducing carbon emissions and boosting environmental
sustainability by proactively managing grid integration, minimizing impacts of peak loads,
and encouraging the integration of renewable energy sources.
In addition to reducing downtime and increasing service availability, AI-enabled
predictive maintenance increases the lifetime and resilience of charging infrastructure.
This forward-thinking approach boosts operational efficiency and delights customers with
simple and reliable charging alternatives. The usefulness of artificial intelligence in electric
vehicle charging systems is illustrated by the enhanced user experiences that result from
customized recommendations and real-time data on the availability of charging stations.
Malaysia can encourage more people to use electric cars and speed up the shift to cleaner
transportation options by making charging stations more conveniently located and by
adjusting charging schedules according to projected energy prices and demand.
To ensure future innovation in electric vehicle charging operations that are sustainable,
equitable, and safe, Malaysia should prioritize investing in artificial intelligence research
and development, promote public–private partnerships, and construct robust legislative
frameworks. Public education initiatives and financial incentives for artificial intelligence
usage will substantially facilitate the widespread implementation of smart electric vehicle
charging infrastructure. An important opportunity for Malaysia to become a global leader
in smart mobility solutions has presented itself in the form of smart EV charging systems
powered by artificial intelligence. Incorporating these ideas and technology into Malaysia’s
infrastructure would allow the country to build a strong system that can handle its current
and future energy demands while also paving the way for a greener, more sustainable
transportation system.
The scalable deployment of smart electric vehicle charging systems in Malaysia will be
the subject of future research that aims to improve AI algorithms for grid optimization and
demand forecasting, integrate edge computing for real-time monitoring, provide personal-
ized services to enhance user experience, tackle cybersecurity issues, build collaborative
environments, develop supportive policy frameworks, and analyze socioeconomic impacts.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, S.J.S.; Methodology, S.J.S. and M.T.S.; Validation, S.J.S.
and M.T.S.; Formal analysis, S.J.S. and M.T.S.; Investigation, S.J.S., M.T.S. and F.A.F.; Data curation,
M.T.S., S.P.T., S.T.S. and G.R.; Writing—original draft, S.J.S. and M.T.S.; Writing—review & editing,
S.J.S., M.T.S., F.A.F., S.P.T. and S.T.S.; Visualization, S.J.S., G.R. and S.P.T.; Supervision, G.R. and
S.P.T.; Funding acquisition, G.R. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: The APC was funded by Research management center, Multimedia University, Malaysia.
Acknowledgments: The all authors would like to thank Multimedia University, Malaysia and
Chargesini for their financial and logistic support throughout the entire journey.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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