KHUSHBOO CLASSES

CH: 14 Electronic Devices

Classification of Solids on basis of Energy Bands:

(i) Insulators:

 Insulators (e.g. wood, glass etc.) are those

substances which do not allow the passage of electric
current through them.
 In terms of energy band, the valence band
is full while the conduction band is empty. Further, the
energy gap between valence and conduction bands is
very large (Eg>3eV). Therefore, a very high electric field
is required to push the valence electrons to the
conduction band.
 For this reason, the electrical conductivity
of such materials is extremely small and may be
regarded as nil under ordinary conductions.
 At room temperature, the valence electrons of the insulators do not have enough
energy to cross over to the conduction band.

(ii) Conductors:
 Conductors (e.g. copper,
aluminum) are those substances which easily
allow the passage of electric current through
them.
 There are a large number of
free electrons available in a conduction band.
 In terms of energy band, the
valence and conduction bands overlap each other.
 Due to this overlapping, a slight potential difference across a conductor
causes the free electrons to constitute electric current.

(iii) Semiconductors:

 Semiconductors (e.g. germanium,

silicon etc.) are those substances whose electrical
conductivity lies in between conductors and
insulators.
 In terms of energy band, the valence
band is almost filled and conduction band is almost
empty.
 The energy gap between valence and
conduction bands is very small.
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 Sn is also a IV group element but it is a metal because the energy gap between
conduction and valence band is 0eV.

Intrinsic Semiconductors: A semiconductor in a pure form in called intrinsic semiconductor.

The impurity must be less than 0.01 ppm (parts per million) i.e. than 1 in 10 8 parts of
semiconductor atoms.

Crystal Structure: A simplified two-dimensional representation of Si or Ge structure showing

covalent bans at low temperature are shown in fig.

For silicon (14), 1s2, 2s22p6, 3s23p2 and Germanium (32), 1s2, 2s22p6, 3s23p63d10, 4s24p2. Both
have four valence electrons. Each of the four valence electrons takes part in forming covalent
bands with the four neighbouring atoms. A covalent band consists of two electrons, one from
each adjacent atom.

At absolute zero all the valence electrons are tightly bound, no free electron is available for
electrical conduction. In the band picture, at absolute zero of temp., the conduction band is
completely empty while the valence band is fully filled.

The semi conductor behaves as a perfect insulator at absolute zero.

At room temperature (~ 300K), some of the electrons may gain sufficient thermal energy and
move away i.e. the covalent band may be broken. The electron, so obtained is free to move in the
crystal and conduct electricity.

The vacancy created in the covalent bond is called a hole.

When a covalent bond is broken, the electron hole pair is created. Thus in intrinsic
semiconductor

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No. of holes = No. of free electrons nh = ne = ni , where ni intrinsic carrier concentration.

Since the energy gap in silicon is more than the germanium (E g(Si) =1.1eV and Eg(Ge) = 0.72eV).
There are less electron – hole pairs in the silicon, is comparison to the germanium at room temp.
Thus the conductivity of silicon is less than that of the germanium.

Suppose there is a hole at site 1 as shown is Fig. An e - from the covalent band at site 2 may jump
to the vacant site 1 (hole). Therefore now the hole is at site 2 and e - is at site 1. The hole has
moved from site 1 to site 2. The electron originally set is not involved in this process of hole
motion. The originally free electron give rise to an electron current Ie under an applied electric
field.

Motion of hole shows only the actual motion of bound electron, whenever there is an empty band
anywhere in the crystal. The holes moves towards negative potential giving the hole current, Ih
under the action of an electric field.

Total current I = Ie + Ih

Apart from the process of generation of conduction electrons and holes, a simultaneous process
of recombination occurs in which the electrons recombine with the hole. At equilibrium, rate of
generation =rate of recombination of charge carriers.

Energy Band Diagrams at T = 0K & T>0K:

An intrinsic semiconductor behave like insulator at T = 0K. At T>0K, some electrons excites from
valence band to the conduction band, leaving equal number of holes there.

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Extrinsic Semiconductors: A semiconductor in which a small amount say ~1 part per million
(ppm) of a suitable impurity is added, to increase the conductivity of the semiconductor then it is
called extrinsic semiconductor or impurity semiconductors.

The deliberate addition of a desirable impurity is called doping and the impurity atoms are called
dopants.

Sometimes, such a material is even called as doped semiconductor

There are two types of dopants used in doping to the tetravalent Si or Ge.

(i)Pentavalent(Valency 5) : Arsenic (As &Z=33); Antimony (Sb &Z=51), Phosphorous (P

&Z=15).

(ii)Trivalent (Valency 3) : Indium (In&Z=49); Boron (B&Z=5), Aluminum (Al&Z=13) .

We choose the dopant from nearly 5th & 3rd group, become size of the dopant is nearly the same
as that of Si or Ge.

(a) n – type Semiconductor : n-type semiconductor is obtained by adding a small amount of

pentavalent (V group) impurity to a small of intrinsic semiconductor.

An impurity atoms replaces a silicon atom in its crystalline structure. Since the amount of
impurity is very small (one part in one million or so), each impurity atom is surrounded, all
around, by silicon atoms.

The four valence electrons of the impurity atom form covalent bonds with the neighbouring Si
atoms while the fifth electron is free to move.

Thus, the pentavalent dopant is donating one extra electron for conduction and hence is known
as donar impurity. These electrons behave like free electrons and contribute in the conduction of
electricity.

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Impurity atoms produce donar energy levels just below the conduction band. The electrons from
these levels jump to the conduction band easily by gaining thermal energies (at room
temperature). At room temperature, most of the donar atoms get ionized but very few (˜10-12)
atoms of Si get ionized. So the conduction band will have most electrons coming from the donar
impurities.

There may be break some covalent bonds producing electron hole pairs, but their number is
small. Hence in n- type semi-conductor electrons are majority charge carriers and holes are
minority charge carriers.

For such material ne>> nh

Note:

When an atom of +5 valency element occupies the position of an atom in the crystal lattice of Si,
four of its electrons bond with the four silicon neighbors while the fifth remains very weakly
bound to its parent atom. As a result the ionization energy required to set this electron free is
very small and even at room temperature it will be free to move in the lattice of the
semiconductor. The energy required is 0.01ev for Ge and 0.05eV for Si, to separate this electrons
from it atom.

This is in contrast to the energy required to jump the forbidden band (0.72eV for Ge & 1.1eV for
Si) at room temperature in the intrinsic semiconductor.

(b) p – type semiconductor : p-type semiconductor is obtained by adding a small amount of

trivalent (III Group) impurity to intrinsic semiconductor.

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The three valence electrons of the impurity atom will form covalent bonds by sharing the
electrons of the adjoining three atoms of Ge/Si, while there will be one incomplete covalent bond
with a neighbouring Ge/Si atom, due to the deficiency of an electron. This deficiency is completed
by taking an electron from one of the Ge-Ge or Si-Si bonds. This creates a 'hole'. An electron-
moving from a Ge-Ge or Si-Si bond to fill a hole, leaves a hole behind. That is how, holes moves
in the semi-conductor structure.

The trivalent atoms are called 'acceptor atoms' and the conduction of electricity occurs due to
motion of holes i.e. positive charges or p-type carriers. So this semiconductor is called acceptor
type or p-type semiconductor.

Also, at ordinary temp., some of the covalent bonds may break, releasing equal number of holes
and electrons. Therefore, the total number of electrons is relatively small as compared to the
number of the hole in the p-type semi-conductor. Hence in the p-type semiconductor, electrons
are minority charge carriers & holes are majority charge carriers.

In the band picture, we say that an acceptor energy levels lie just above the valence band. These
levels accept electrons from the valence band and creates holes and ionize the acceptor
negatively. OR, by supply of very small energy to hole, the holes can sink down from E A to EC.

For p-type semiconductor nh >> ne.

NOTE :(1)The recombination occurs due to an electron colliding with a hole. Larger the value of
ne or nη, higher is the probability of their recombination with each other. Hence for an extrinsic
semiconductor

Rate of recombination  ne nh

Rate of recombination = R nenh …(i)

Where R = recombination coefficient.

For intrinsic semiconductor ne = nh = ni hence for intrinsic semiconductor rate of recombination

= Rni2 ----- (ii)

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The rate of recombination or rate of generation will remain same so long as the crystalline
structure remains the same. Therefore

Rate of recombination for extrinsic semiconductor = Rate of recombination for intrinsic

semiconductor.

Rnenh = R ni2

nenh = ni2 (iii) important equation for semiconductor physics [Mass Action Law]

The crystal maintains an overall charge neutrality as the charge of additional charge
carriers is just equal and opposite to that of the ionized cores in the lattice.
 In extrinsic semiconductors, because of the excess majority current carriers, the minority
carriers produced thermally have more chance of meeting majority carriers and thus
getting destroyed. Therefore, the dopant, by adding a large number of current carriers,
indirectly helps reduce the intrinsic concentration of minority carriers.
Distinction between Intrinsic and Extrinsic Semiconductors:

Intrinsic Semiconductor Extrinsic Semiconductor

1. It is pure semiconductor material 1. It is prepared by doping a small quantity of

and no impurity atoms are added to impurity atoms to the pure semiconductor
it. material.

2. Examples are crystalline forms of 2. Examples are silicon and germanium crystals
pure silicon and germanium. and impurity atoms of arsenic, antimony,
phosphorous etc. or indium, boron, aluminum
etc.

3. The number of free electrons in 3. The number of free electrons and holes is never
conduction band and the number of equal. There is excess of electrons in n-type
holes in valence band is exactly semiconductors and excess of holes in p-type
equal and very small indeed semiconductors.

4. Its electrical conductivity is low. 4. Its electrical conductivity is high.

5. Its electrical conductivity is a 5. Its electrical conductivity depends upon the

function of temperature alone. temperature as well as on the quantity of
impurity atoms doped in the structure.

Distinction between n type & p-type semiconductors:

n-Type Semiconductor p-Type Semiconductor

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1. It is an extrinsic semiconductor 1. It is an extrinsic semiconductor which is

which is obtained by doping the obtained by doping the impurity atoms of III
impurity atoms of Vth group of group of periodic table to the pure germanium
periodic table to the pure or silicon semiconductor.
germanium or silicon
semiconductor.

2. The impurity atoms added, provide 2. The impurity atoms added, create vacancies of
extra electrons in the structure, and electrons (i.e. holes) in the structure and are
are called donor atoms. called acceptor atoms.

3. The electrons are majority charge 3. The holes are majority charge carriers and
carriers and holes are minority electrons are minority charge carriers.
charge carriers.

4. The electron density (ne) is much 4. The hole density (nh) is much greater than the
greater than the hole density (nh) i.e. electron density (ne) i.e. nh>>ne.
ne >> nh.

5. The donor energy level is close to 5. The acceptor energy level is close to valence
the conduction band and far away band and is far away from conduction band.
from valence band.

p-n Junction : To make a p-n junction, the n-type and p-type silicon crystals are cut into thin
slices called wafers. The device formed by joining atomically a wafer of p-type semiconductor to
the wafer of n-type semiconductor is called p-n junction.

Immediate after a p-n junction is formed, the following process are initiated.

(i) Diffusion Current: We know that n-type semiconductor has a high concentration of
free electrons while p-type semiconductor has a high concentration of holes. Due to
difference in concentrations of charge carriers in the two regions of p-n junction, the
free electrons from n-region diffuse through the junction into p-region and holes from
p-region diffuse through the junction into n-region. This process is called diffusion. The
motion of charge carriers gives rise to diffusion current across the junction.

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(ii) Depletion region or Depletion Layer: When an electron diffuses from np, it leaves
behind an ionized donor atom in n-side, having positive charge which is immobile as it
is bounded to the surrounding atoms. As diffusion of electrons continues from np,
more positively charged donar atoms are created in n-region. Therefore a layer of
positive charge (i.e., a positive space charge region) on n-side of the junction is formed.
Similarly, when a hole diffuses from pn, it leaves behind an ionized acceptor (negative
charge) which is immobile. As the holes continue to diffuse, a layer of negative charge
(or negative space-charge region) on the p-side of the junction of developed.

The space-charge regions on both the sides of p-n junction which has immobile
ions, is called depletion region or depletion layer.

In this region, due to recombination of electrons and holes, depletion of free charge
carriers occurs. So this region is called depletion region. The thickness of depletion
th
1 7
layer is of the order of   of micrometer  10 m.
 10 

(iii) Drift Current: Because of thermal collisions, if a covalent bond is broken, or if an e-h
pair is created in the depletion region, the electron is quickly pushed by the electric
field towards the n-side and hole towards the p-side. There is almost no chance of
recombination of a hole with an electron in the depletion region.
As the e-h pairs are continuously created in the depletion region, there is a regular flow
of electrons towards the n-side and of holes towards the p-side. Due to this, there is
current from n-side to p-side. This is called drift current. The drift and diffusion
current are in opposite direction. In steady state, the diffusion current equals to the
drift current in magnitude.

(iv) In a p-n junction under equilibrium these is no net current.

Initially, diffusion current is large and drift current is small. As the diffusion process
continues, the space-charge region across the junction extends. As a result of it, the
strength of electric field across the junction increases and hence drift current also
increases. This process continues until the diffusion current becomes equal to the drift
current. When this stage is reached, the movements of majority charge carriers across

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the p-n junction stops. Now the p-n junction is said to be in equilibrium state and
there is no net current across the p-n junction.

(v) Potential Barrier: The loss of electrons from the n-region and the gain of electron by
the p-region cause a difference of potential across the junction of the two regions. The
polarity of this potential is such as to oppose further flow of carriers so that a condition
of equilibrium exists. This is called potential barrier.

OR

The n material has lost electrons, and p material has acquired electrons. Therefore n
material is positive with respect to p material. Since this potential tends to prevent the
movement of electron from np or holes from pn, so it is called barrier potential.

OR

The potential difference created across the pn junction due to the diffusion of electrons
and holes is called potential barrier. For Ge, the potential barrier is 0.3V and for silicon
it is 0.6V.

Semiconductor Diode: A semiconductor diode is a p-n junction with metallic contact provided at
the ends for the application of an external voltage supply.

The direction of arrow indicates the conventional direction of current.

Biasing of the P-N junction or Applying voltage across p-n junction:

The potential difference across a p-n junction can be applied by two methods.

(i) Forward biasing (ii) Reverse Biasing

(1)Forward Biasing: A p-n junction is said to be forward biased if the positive terminal of the
external battery is connected to p-side and the negative terminal to the n-side of the p-n
junction.

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Circuit diagram for forward biasing of p-n junction & action of applied voltage:

(i) In forward biasing, the applied voltage V mostly drops across the depletion region and
the voltage drop across the p-side and n-side of the p-n junction is negligible small. It is
due to the fact that the resistance of depletion region is very high as it has no free
charge carriers.
(ii) In forward biasing, the forward voltage opposes the potential barrier VB. Due to this,
the potential barrier height is reduced and width of depletion layer decreases.
(iii) The effective height of the potential barrier in forward biasing is V B-V. If we increase the
applied voltage, then the barrier height decreases and more number of carriers will
cross the junction, so current also increases. Or this allows more diffusion to take
place.
(iv) The majority carriers, electrons in the n-side are repelled by the negative potential due
to battery and move towards the p-n junction, similarly the majority carriers, holes in
the p-side are repelled by the positive potential due to battery, and move toward the
junction.
The positive potential of p-region attracts the electrons from the n-region and negative
potential of n-region attracts the holes from the p-region. This process is called
minority carrier injection on crossing the junction, the number of the electrons and
hoes will combine with each other.

For each electron-hole combination that takes place near the junction, a covalent bond
breaks in the p-region near the positive pole of the battery. So the electron & hole is
produced, the electron is captured by the positive terminal, while the hole moves
towards the junction.

On the other hand, as soon as the hole is created in the p-region due to the breaking of
a covalent band, an electron is released from the negative terminal of the battery into
the n-region to replace the electron lost by the combination with a hole at the junction.
These electrons move towards the junction, where they again get neutralized on
meeting the new holes coming from left. As a result, a relatively large current, called
diode forwards current flow the junction. So resistance of p-n junction is low.

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The total diode forward current is the sum of hole diffusion current and conventional
current due to electron diffusion. The magnitude of this current is generally in mA.

(2) Reverse Biasing: A p-n junction is said to be reverse biased if the positive terminal of
the external battery is connected to n-side and negative terminal to p-side of the p-n
junction.
Circuit diagram of reverse biasing of p-n junction and action of applied voltage

(i) Action of applied voltage: The direction of applied voltage is same as that of potential
barrier. So, the barrier height increases and width of depletion region also increases.
The effective barrier height under reverse bias is VB + V. This makes it more difficult for
the majority charge carriers to diffuse across the junction.
(ii) This suppresses the flow of electrons from n to p and holes from p to n, so diffusion
current decreases, compared to the forward bias diffusion current.
(iii) The holes in the p-region are attracted towards the negative terminal and the electrons
in the n-region are attracted towards the positive terminal. Thus, the majority carriers
move away from the junction. So the width of depletion layer increases.
(iv) A very little current called reverse diode current flows due to minority carriers. It is
order of μA. The current is not limited by the magnitude of the applied voltage but is
limited due to the concentration of the minority carrier on either side of the junction.
Since the numbers of minority charge carriers are very small as compared to the
majority carriers, the reverse current is small. The resistance of p-n junction is high.

Comparative study or Summary of Forward and Reverse Bias:

S.No. Forward Bias Reverse Bias

1. A p-n junction is said to be forward A p-n junction is said to be reverse biased if the
biased if the positive terminal of positive terminal of external battery is connected to
external battery is connected to the the n-side and the negative terminal to the p-side
p-side and the negative terminal to of p-n junction.

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the n-side of p-n junction.

2. The effective height of the potential The effective barrier height under reverse bias is VB
barrier in forward biasing is VB-V. So + V. So the reverse bias voltage supports the
the forward bias voltage opposes the potential barrier.
potential barrier.

3. The width of depletion layer The width of depletion layer increases.

decreases.

4. The current flows in the p-n junction The current flows in the p-n junction (called
(called forward current) due to reverse current) due to minority carrier’s i.e
movement of majority carriers from electrons from p to n side and holes from n to p
n to p side and holes from p to n side across p-n junction.
side across the p-n junction.

5. A high forward current (in mA) flows A very small reverse current (in μA) flows in it.
in it.

6. The direction of current is from p to The direction of current is from n to p of p-n

n side of p-n junction. junction.

7. The junction resistance is low. The junction resistance is high.

8. Low voltage battery is required. High voltage battery is required.

Voltage –Current (V-I) Characteristics of a p-n junction diode:

The circuit diagram or arrangement for studying the V-I characteristics of a diode (i.e. the
variation of current as a function of the applied voltage) are shown in Fig.

The voltage is connected to the diode through potentiometer (or Rheostat) so that the voltage
applied to the diode can be changed. In forward bias measurement, we use a millimeter since the

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expected current is large, while a μA (micrometer) is used in reverse bias to measure the small
currents. For different values of voltages, the value of the current in noted.

In forward Biasing, the current first increases very slowing almost negligibly, till the voltage
across the diode crosses a certain value.

After the characteristic voltage, the diode current increases exponentially, even for a very small
increase in the diode bias voltage.This voltage is called the threshold voltage or cut-in voltage or
knee voltage. (~ 0.2 V for Ge diode & ~ 0.7 V for silicon diode).

Def : The voltage at which the current starts to increase exponentially is called threshold voltage
or cut-in or knee voltage

In reverse biasing, the current is very small (~μA) and almost remains constant with bias. It is
called reverse saturation current.

At very high reverse bias (Break down voltage) the current suddenly increases. The general
purpose diodes are not used beyond the reverse saturation current region, otherwise they burn
out due to large current.

Def : The reverse bias voltage at which current through the p-n junction will increase suddenly is
called breakdown voltage or zener voltage.

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Dynamic Resistance or Forward Bias Diode Resistance: It is defined as the ratio of a small
change in voltage ∆V applied across the p-n junction to a small change in junction current ∆I i.e.
V
rd 
I

The forward bias resistance is low (about few ohms) as compared to the reverse bias resistance
(about mega ohm).

Application of p-n diode as a Rectifier: Rectifier is a device which is used for converting
alternating current/voltage into direct current/voltage.

(a)Half-wave Rectifier:

Principle: Its working is based on the fact that the resistance of p-n junction becomes low when
forward biased and becomes high when reverse biased.

Circuit diagram:

A.C. to be rectified is connected to the primary P1 P2 of a step down transformer. S1S2 is the
secondary coil of the same transformer. S1 is contacted to the portion p of the p-n junction. S2 is
connected to the portion n through load resistance R.

Out put is taken across the load resistance R.

Working: During the positive half cycle of the input A.C., suppose P1 is negative and P2 is
positive. On account of induction S1 becomes positive, S2 becomes negative. The p-n junction is
forward biased. The resistance of p-n junction becomes low. The forward current flows in the
direction shown by arrow heads. Thus we get output across – load.

During the negative half cycle of the input A.C., P 1 is positive and P2 is negative. On account of
mutual induction S1becomes negative and S2 is positive. Now the p-n junction is reversed biased.
It offers high resistance and hence there is no flow of current and thus no output across load.
The process is repeated. In the output, we have current corresponding to one half of the wave, the
other half is missing.
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Thus, the output voltage, through still varying, is restricted to only one direction and is said to be
rectified. Since for only one-half cycle we get a voltage in the output, such a circuit is known as
HALF WAVE RECTIFIER.

(b)FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER:

Circuit Diagram:

Working: The circuit uses 2 diodes and a special type of transformer known as centre – tap
transformer. The secondary of the transformer is wound into two equal parts.

During the positive half of the input A.C., the upper p-n junction diode is forward biased and the
lower p-n junction diode is reverse biased. The forward current flows on account of majority
carriers of upper p-n junction diode in the direction shown in fig (i)

During the negative half cycle of input A.C., the upper p-n junction diode is reverse biased and
the lower p-n junction diode is forward biased. The forward current flows on account of majority
carriers of lower p-n junction diode.

We observe that during both the halves, current through R flows in the same direction. The input
and output waves are shown in Fig (ii)

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Thus, we get output voltage during the +ve as well as the –ve half of the cycle (during the full
wave). Therefore such a circuit is known as FULLWAVE RECTIFIER.

The rectified voltage is still varying voltage but restricted to only one direction. Through it is
unidirectional, but it does not have a steady value.

P reviou s Ye ars So lved Q uestion s

Q.1. Name two factors on which electrical conductivity of a pure semiconductor at a
given temperature depends. CBSE OD 05C]
Ans. (i) The width of the forbidden band (ii) Intrinsic charge carrier concentration.
Q.2. How does the conductivity of a semiconductor change with the rise in its
temperature?
Ans. The conductivity of a semiconductor increases exponentially with temperature.
Q.3. Why does a semiconductor get damaged when a heavy current flows through it?
Ans. When a heavy current flows, the semiconductor gets heated up. Many covalent bonds
break liberating a large number of free electrons. The semiconductor loses its property of
controlled conduction. It becomes an ordinary conductor.
Q.4. What type of charge carries are there in a p-type semiconductor?
Ans. Holes as majority charge carries and electrons are minority charge carries.
Q.5. Name any one element, other than ‘As’ and ‘Sb’ which can be used as impurity with
germanium to form n-type semiconductor.[CBSE OD 96]
Ans. Phosphorous (P)
Q.6. Is the ratio of number of holes and number of electrons in an n-type extrinsic
semiconductor more than, less than or equal to 1? [CBSE D 97]
Ans. Less than 1.
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Q7. What type of charge carries are there in an n-type semiconductor?

Ans. Pentavalent atoms of Sb, As or P.
Q.8. Name one impurity each, which when added to pure Si, produces (i) n-type and (ii) p-
type semiconductor. [CBSE D 05C]
Ans. (i) As (ii) In.
Q.9. How does the energy gap of an intrinsic semiconductor vary, when doped with a
trivalent impurity?
Ans. The energy gap in the semiconductor decreases due to the creation of acceptor energy level
just above the top of the valence band.
Q.10. How does the energy gap in an intrinsic semiconductor vary,. When doped with a
pentavalent impurity? [CBSE D 2000]
Ans. The energy gap decreases when a semiconductor is doped with a pentavalent impurity due
to the creation of a donor energy level just below the bottom of the conduction.
Q.11. Why is the conductivity of n-type semiconductor greater than that of the p-type
semiconductor even when both of these have same level of doping?
Ans. This is because under a given electric field, free electrons have higher mobility than holes.
Q.12. What is depletion region in a p-n junction? [Haryana 05 ; CBSE D 92 ; ISCE 97]
Ans. It is a thin region around the junction of p-and n-sections which is devoid of free electrons
and holes and has immobile ions only.
Q.13. Which process causes depletion region in a p-n junction? [CBSE D 92]
Ans. The diffusion of electrons and holes across the p-n junction causes the depletion region.
Q.14. Name the type of biasing of a p-n junction diode so that the junction offers very high
resistance. Or
Which type of biasing results in very high resistance of a p-n junction diode? Draw a
diagram showing this bias. [CBSE Sample Paper 98]
Ans. Reverse biasing results in very high resistance of p-n junction diode,. Fig. shows a reverse
biased p-n junction diode.

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Q.15. How does the thickness of the depletion layer in a p-n diode vary with increase in
reverse bias? [CBSE OD 99, 02]
Ans. The thickness of the depletion layer in a p-n diode increases with the increase in reverse
bias.
Q.16. How does the width of the depletion region of a p-n junction vary, if the reverse bias
applied to it decreases? [CBSE OD 02]
Ans. If the reverse bias decreases, the width of depletion region of the p-n junction decreases.
Q.17. Define dynamic resistance of a junction diode. [CBSE D 93]
Ans. Dynamic resistance of a junction diode is defined as the ratio of the small change in
voltage (V) to the corresponding change in current (V). It is denoted by rd.
∆𝑉
𝑟𝑑 =
∆𝐼

Q.18. In Fig, is the diode D forward or reverse biases? [CBSE D 97]

Ans. The diode D is reverse biased because its p-side is at lower potential.
Q.19. Define the terms ‘potential barrier’ and ‘depletion region’ for a-p-n junction diode.
Explain how the thickness of depletion region will change when the p-n junction
diode is (i) forward biased (ii) reverse biased [CBSE OD 98 ; 06]
Ans. Depletion region: The small region in the vicinity of the p-n junction which is depleted of
free charge carriers and has only immobile ions is called depletion region.
Potential barrier: The potential difference set up across a p-n junction due to the
accumulation of opposite charges on its two sides is called potential barrier. It opposes the
further diffusion of electrons and holes across the junction.
When p-n junction is forward biased, the positive terminal of the battery pushes the holes
of p-region and negative terminal pushes the electrons of n-region towards the junction.
The presence of electrons and holes decreases the width of the p-n junction, as shown in
Fig.

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When p-n junction is reversed biased, the negative terminal of the battery pulls holes from
p-region and positive terminal pulls the electrons from the n-region away from the
junction. This increases width of depletion layer, as shown in Fig.

Q.20. In the following diagrams, indicate which of the diodes are forward biased and which
are reverse biased. [CBSE D 95C, 97; OD 02]

.
Ans. (i) Forward biased, because p-side is at higher potential (+ 7V) than n-side (0 5 V).
(ii) Reverse biased, because p-side is at lower potential (- 10 V) than n-side (0 V)
(iii) Reverse biased, because p-side is at lower potential (- 10 V) than n-side (0 V).
(iv) Forward biased, because p-side is at higher potential (-5 V) than n-side (-12 V).
Q.21. Fig. below shows two p-n junction diodes along with a resistance R and a d.c. battery
E. Indicate the path and direction of flow of appreciable current in the circuit.
[ISCE 98]

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Ans. In the given circuit, D1 is reverse biased and does not conduct while D2 is forward biased
and conducts current. So a current flows along the path E  R  D2  E.
Q.22. Determine the currents through the resistance of the circuits shown in fig.

Ans. (i) In Fig. (a), both the diodes D1 and D2 are forward biased and offer no resistance.
2.0 𝑉
 Current in the circuit = 20 
= 0.1 𝐴

(ii) In Fig. (b) diode D2 being reverse biased offers infinite resistance, so current through
the series circuit = zero.
(iii) In fig. (c) D1 and D2 are forward biased and offer zero resistance.
2.0 𝑉
 Current in the circuit = 20 
= 0.1 𝐴

(iv) In Fig. (d) no current flows through D 2 as it is reverse biased.

2.0 𝑉
= 20 
= 0.1 𝐴

Q.23. The circuit shown in the figure has two oppositely connected ideal diodes connected
in parallel. Find the current flowing through each diode in the circuit.

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Ans. (i) Diode D1 is reverse biased, so it offers an infinite resistance. So no current

flows in the branch of diode D1.
(ii) Diode D2 is forward biased, and offers no resistance in the circuit.
𝑉 12𝑉
𝐼= = = 2𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑞 2+4

Q.24 At what temperature would an intrinsic semiconductor behave like a perfect

insulator?
Ans. An intrinsic semiconductor behaves as a perfect insulator at temperature 0 K.
Q.25 How does the energy gap in a semiconductor vary, when doped with a pentavalent
impurity?
Ans. The energy gap decreases by mixing pentavalent impurity.
Q.26 What type of extrinsic semiconductor is formed when:
(i) Germanium is doped with indium?
(ii) Silicon is doped with bismuth?
Ans. (i) Indium is trivalent, so germanium doped indium is an n-type semiconductor.
(ii) Bismuth is pentavalent, so silicon doped bismuth is a p-type semiconductor.
Q.27. What happens to the width of depletion layer of a p-n junction when it is (i) forward
biased, (ii) reverse based?
Ans. (i) When forward biased, the width of depletion layer decreases.
(ii) When reverse biased, the width of depletion layer increases.
Q.28. Give the ratio of number of holes and number of conduction electrons in an intrinsic
semiconductor.
Ans. Ratio 1 : 1.
Q.29. In a semiconductor of the concentration of electrons 8 1013 cm3 is and that of holes
is 5 1012 cm3 . Is it a p-type or n-type semiconductor?
Ans. As concentration of electrons is more than the concentration of holes, the given extrinsic
semiconductor is n-type.
Q.30. The energy gaps in the energy band diagrams of a conductor, semiconductor and
insulator are E1, E2 and E3. Arrange them in increasing order.
Ans. The energy gap in a conductor is zero, in a semiconductor is  1eV and in an insulator is
 3eV.
 E1  0, E 2  1eV, E 3  3eV
 E1  E 2  E 3 .
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Q.31. Why are elemental dopants for Silicon or Germanium usually chosen from group 13
or group 15?
Ans. The size of dopant atoms should be such as not to distort the pure semiconductor lattice
structure and yet easily contribute a charge carrier on forming co-valent bonds with Si or
Ge.
Q.32. Sn, C, Si and Ge are all group 14 elements. Yet, Sn is a conductor, C is an insulator
while Si and Ge are semiconductors. Why?
Ans. If the valance and conduction bands overlap (no energy gap), the substance is referred as a
conductor. For insulator the energy gap is large and for semiconductor the energy gap is
moderate. The energy gap for Sn is 0 eV, for C is 5.4 eV, for Si is 1.1 eV and for Ge is 0.7
eV, related to their atomic size.
Q.33. Can the potential barrier across a p-n junction be measured by simply connecting a
voltmeter across the junction?
Ans. No, because the voltmeter must have a resistance very high compared to the junction
resistance, the latter being nearly infinite.
Q.34. What is an ideal diode? Draw the output wave form across R for the input waveform
given below.

Ans. The diode offering zero resistance in forward bias, infinite resistance in reverse bias an
having no potential barrier is called an ideal diode. In the first half cycle the diode is
forward biased and conducts, so output is

obtained across R; while in the next half cycle the diode is reverse biased and does not
conduct, so no output is obtained across R. the output waveform across R is shown in the
above figure.
Q.35. Describe briefly, with the help of a diagram, the role of the two important processes
involved in the formation of a p-n junction.
Ans. Two important processes occur during formation of a p-n junction are (i) diffusion and (ii)
drift
(i) Diffusion:

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(ii)
Drift: The drift of charge carriers occurs due to electric field. Due to built in
potential barrier an electric field directed from n-region to p-region is developed
across the junction. This field causes motion of electrons on p-side of the junction
to n-side and motion of holes on n-side of the junction to p-side. Thus a drift
current starts. This current is opposite to the direction of diffusion current.
Q.36. ‘Device X’ shown here, converts the input voltage waveform into the output voltage
wave from as shown in figure.

Name the device and draw its circuit diagram. Also give a brief description of its working.
Ans. The box contains the circuit of full wave rectifier. For circuit and working Refer to point 4
of Basic Concepts.
Q.37. Draw V – I characteristics of a p-n junction diode. Answer the following questions,
giving reasons:
(i) Why is the current under reverse bias almost independent of the applied
potential up to a critical voltage?
(ii) Why does the reverse current show a sudden increase at the critical voltage?
Name any semiconductor device which operates under the reverse bias in the
breakdown region.
Ans. (i) In the reverse biasing, the current of order of µ A is due to movement/drifting of
minority charge carriers from one region to another through the junction.
A small applied voltage is sufficient to sweep the minority charge carriers through
the junction. So reverse current is almost independent of critical voltage.
(ii) At critical voltage (or breakdown voltage), a large number of covalent bonds break,
resulting in the increase of large number of charge carriers. Hence current increases
at critical voltage.
Q.38 Describe briefly the following terms:
i) "Minority carrier injection" in forward bias.
ii) "Breakdown voltage" in reverse bias.
Q.39 Explain the terms ‘depletion layer’ and ‘potential barrier’ in a p-n junction diode. How are
the (a) width of depletion layer, and (b) value of potential barrier affected when the p-n
junction is forward biased? (CBSE 20, 2 Mark)
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Q.40 How does an increase in doping concentration affect the width of depletion layer of a p-n
junction diode? (CBSE 20, 1 Mark)
Q.41 With the help of a simple diagram, explain the working of a silicon solar cell, giving all
three basic processes involved. Draw its I-V characteristic. (CBSE 20, 3 Mark)
Select the most appropriate option from those given below each question:
1. In an n-type semiconductor, which of the following statements is true? [NEET 13]
(a)Electrons are majority carriers and trivalent atoms are dopants.
(b)Electrons are minority carriers and pentavalent atoms are dopants
(c) Holes are minority carriers and pentavalent atoms are dopants.
(d) Holes are majority carriers and trivalent atoms are dopants.
2. If a small amount of antimony is added to germanium crystal: [AIPMT]
(a) its resistance is increased(b) it becomes p-type semiconductor
(c) Antimony becomes an acceptor atom
(d) there will be more free electrons than holes in the semiconductor
3. When a p-n junction diode is forward biased, then : [AIEEE 04]
(a) the depletion region is reduced and barrier height is increased
(b) the depletion region is widened and barrier height is reduced
(c) both the depletion region and barrier height are reduced
(d) both the depletion region and barrier height are reduced are increased
4. A p-n junction is said to be forward biased, when : [AIPMT]
(a) the positive pole of the battery is joined to the p-semiconductor and negative pole to then-semiconductor
(b) the positive pole of the battery is joined to the n-semiconductor and p-semiconductor
(c) the negative pole of the battery is connected to n-semiconductor and p-semiconductor
(d) a mechanical force is applied in the forward direction
5. In a junction diode, the holes are due to : [AIPMT]
(a) extra electrons (b) neutrons
(c) protons
(d) missing of electrons
6. A full-wave rectifier circuit along with the output is shown in Fig. IX.6. The contribution (s) from the diode 1 is
(are) : [IIT]

(a) C (b) A, C (c) B, D (d) A, B, C, D

7. To a germanium sample, traces of gallium are added as an impurity. The resultant sample would behave like :
[AIIMS 03]
(a) a conductor (b)a p-type semiconductor (c) an n-type semiconductor (d) an insulator
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8. The circuit (Fig. ) has two oppositely connected ideal diodes in parallel. What is the current flowing in the
circuit? [AIEEE 06]

(a) 1.71 A (b) 2.0 A (c) 2.31 A (d) 1.33 A

9. The depletion layer in the p-n junction region is caused by : [AIPMT]
(a) drift of holes (b) diffusion of charge carriers
(c) migration of impurity ions (d) drift of electrons

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