Manzoor Ahmad Awan

22
M.Sc. (Physics), MBA, PMP
MEASUREMENT Curriculum Research Department
Cell: 0333 5343 971
2.1 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES
There are some characteristics of every material object. For example, to specify the
characteristics of a brick, its length, width, height and mass. Such quantities are called
physical quantities. The building block of physics are the quantities that we use to express
the characteristics of objects and the laws of physics. Among these are length, time, mass,
force, speed, volume, density, temperature, electric charge, and may others like these.
2.1.1 BASE QUANTITIES
The quantities like length, mass, time, temperature, electric current, intensity of light
and amount of substance are called the base quantities.
2.1.2 DERIVED QUANTITIES
The quantities which can be described in terms of base quantities are known as
derived quantities .
2.1.3 SUPPLEMENTARY QUANTITIES
These are only in two in number as Radian and Steradian.
2.2 NEED OF A STANDARD FOR MEASURING PHYSICAL
QUANTITIES
Exact measurements and observations of physical quantities have great importance in
physics as well as in the other branches of science. Assume, if the length of one metre is
different for different persons, the cloth of four metre purchased by a customer from different
shopkeepers will have different lengths. Similarly, if the mass of one kilogram in not the same
for all persons, one kilogram of sugar bought by a person from different stores will have
different quantity. These example show that a particular standard is must for uniform
measurement of physical quantities.
In order to measure a physical quantity, we need to compare it with some standard quantity.
While measuring a physical quantity, we have to see that how many times this quantity is
bigger or smaller than the standard quantity. This standard quantity is known as “unit”.
2.2.1 BASE UNIT: The unit of a base quantity is called base unit and also known as
the fundamental unit.
2.2.1 DERIVED UNIT: The unit of derived quantity which is derived from base unit is
called derived unit.
2.2.3 SYSTEM OF UNITS: A set of base and derived units is called system of units.
Different systems of units for measurement have been used in
science at different time. The most commonly used system were:
1. F.P.S System: Foot, Pound, Second System. This
system was called the British Engineering System.
2. C.G.S System: Centimeter, Gram, Second System.
3. M.K.S System: Meter, Kilogram, Second System
2.2.4 INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS Do you know?
Egyptian Pyramids was built in
The fast transportation and communication systems have 300 BC. The each stone has
transformed the world into a global village. The people of the world uniform length, width and height.
But at that time there was no
have become so close that they felt the need of an uniform system standard exist. The builders
for measurement, which can be easily adopted by all nations of the defined King’s waistline as
reference (standard).
world.

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 12

Therefore, the 11th General Conference on Weights and Measurements held at Paris in 1960.
The conference recommended that all countries of the world should adopt a system of same
kind of standard units.
The conference recommended the use of system consisting of seven base units known as
“International System of Units”. It is abbreviated as SI. This system is in use all over the
world including Pakistan. According to this system the unit of length is ‘metre’, unit of mass is
‘kilogram’ and unit of time is ‘second’.
The seven base units of System International are given in following table.
Table 2.1: Base Units
Base Quantities SI Units’ Name Symbol

Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric Current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
an
Intensity of Light candela cd ad Aw MP
r hm BA, P tment
Amol
Amount of Substance mole zoo s), M epar
Man (Physic arch D 71
c. se 39
M.S lum Re 33 534
2.2.5 DEFINITIONS OF BASIC UNITS u 3
C urric Cell: 0
1. LENGTH: The SI unit of length is metre, which is used in all scientific laboratories in
the world.
Metre:
“Standard metre is the bar of an alloy of platinum and iridium kept under controlled
conditions at the ‘International Bureau of Weights and Measures’ near Paris. The
o
distance between two lines marked on bar measured at 0 C is considered one metre”. It
is represented by “m”. The prototype of this metre are also available in some other countries.

Modern Definition: In 1983, for more accuracy a new definition was given to metre. Metre
was redefined as:
“the distance travelled by a light wave in vacuum during a time of 1 /299,792,458
second”. It is denoted by “m”.
2. MASS: The SI unit of mass is ‘kilogram’,
Kilogram:
“ A standard kilogram is the mass of platinum and iridium alloy cylinder kept under
controlled conditions at the ‘International Bureau of Weights and Measures’ near
Paris.”. It is denoted by “kg”.
3. TIME: The SI unit of time is ‘second’,
Second:
“ Second was defined as 1/86,400 part of a solar day of year 1900”. It is denoted by “s”.

As the rotation of earth has been found to vary with time, so the need was left to redefine the
second for better accuracy. Thus in 1967, it was agreed to redefine one second in term of
vibration of cesium atom.

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 13

Modern Definition: “A second is the duration in which the cesium -133 atom completes
9,192,631,770 vibrations”. It is denoted by “s”. The cesium atomic clocks are considered to be
the most accurate now a days.
2.2.6 DERIVED UNITS
Other units which are expressed in term of fundamental (base) units are known as derived
units. E.g. the unit of volume, area, speed, force, pressure, acceleration, momentum etc, are
the derived units because the units of these quantities are obtained by means of mathematical
sign of multiplication and/ or division of two or more fundamental units. In other words, the units
of all other physical quantities are derived with the help of fundamental or basic units are called
derived units.

Examples of Derived Units

(i) Volume
Volume = Length x Breadth x Height
n
Unit of volume = Unit of length x Unit of breadth x Unit of height
Awa MP ent
P
Unit of volume = metre x metre x metre
m ad BA, artm
A h , M ep
3
Unit of volume = metre
3 oor sics) rch D 971
z 3
Unit of volume = m or cubic metre
M an (Phy esea 534
(ii) Speed . R 33
Sc
M. culum ll: 03
rri Ce
Cu

(iii) Acceleration

(iv) Force

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 14

(v) Pressure

.................(Eq. 1)

We know the unit of Force is “N”; Now we have to find the unit of area.
Area = Length x Length

A = Unit of Length x Unit of Length

A= m x m
a n
w P t
a d A , PMtmen A=m
2
(metre squared)
m
h M epa BA r
r A ) ,
oo ics h D 71 (By putting the unit of ‘F’ and ‘A” in Eq. 1)
a nz hys earc 43 9
M . (P es 53
Sc R 3
M. u l u m l : 0 3 3 -2
P = Nm Or Newton per metre squared
rr ic Cel
Cu Thus the unit of pressure is Nm
-2

-2
Nm = 1 Pascal i.e. Pa.

Some important derived units are expressed in Table 2.2: Derived Units
table 2.2. Physical SI Unit Name Symbol
Learning Outcomes: Dear students, after quantity
careful study of above mentioned examples and Area metre squared
exercise, you will be able to determine the unit of Volume cubic metre
physical quantity by adopting the following rule: Speed metre per second
?You should know at least three units of basic Velocity metre per second
quantities like length, mass and time; Acceleration Metre per second
?You should know the formula like A= l x l squared
?You should know the basic rules of Force Newton N
multiplication and division Pressure Pascal Pa.
?You can determine a comprehensive list of Work Joule J
derived unit by applying this rule. Electric coulomb C
Charge
NOTE: A comprehensive list of commonly used formulae of physical qualities is given in
Appendix-A of this book.

2.3 PREFIXES
The main advantage of System International is that its use is quite easy. The multiples and sub-
multiples of different units are obtained by multiplying or dividing with ten or power of ten. The
terms used internationally for multiples and sub-multiples are called prefixes.
Explanation: The diameter of a thin wire can be written in smaller units of centimetre or
milimetre instead of metre. Similarly, the long distance between two cities may be expressed in a
bigger unit of distance like kilometre.

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 15

Examples: Table: 2.3 System International Prefixes
a. The multiples and sub-multiples of Prefixes greater than 1 Prefixes less than 1
Multiples Prefix Symbol Sub- Prefix Symbol
base unit of length are given below:
Multiples
Table: Multiples and sub-multiples of length 101 deca da 10-1 deci d
1 cm 10 mm 1 mm 10-3 m 102 hecto h 10-2 centi c
1 m 100 cm or 10 cm 1 cm 10-2 m
2 103 kilo k 10-3 milli m
1 km 1000 m or 103 m 106 mega M 10-6 micro µ
109 giga G 10-9 nano n
b. The multiples and sub-multiples of 1012 tera T 10-12 pico p
base unit of mass are given below: 1015 peta P 10-15 femto f
1018 exa E 10-18 atto a
Table: Multiples &
Sub-multiples of c. The sub-multiples of base unit of time are expressed as:
kilogram Table: Sub- n
hmad Awa
1g 1000 mg multiples of time Manzoor A ), MBA, PMP
sics
1 kg 1000 g
1 ms 10-3 s M.Sc. (Phy earch Department
1 mg 10-3 g R e s
1g 10-3 kg 1 µs 10-6 s Curriculum 333 5343 971
Cell : 0

2.4 SCIENTIFIC NOTATION

A physicist has to deal with very large numbers like mass of sun, carrying thirty one digits and
very small numbers like mass of electron, carrying thirty zeros between decimal and the fist
digit. These very large and very small numbers are expressed more conveniently by
internationally accepted method, in which number are recorded using the powers of 10 or
prefixes which is known as scientific notation.

Large Numbers: Number larger than one are expressed as powers of 10 with positive
2 3 30
exponents. e.g. 100=10 ; 1000 = 10 ; The mass of sun can be expressed as 2.0 x 10 kg

Small Numbers: Numbers smaller than one are expressed as powers of 10 with negative
-3 -5
exponents. e.g. 0.001 means 1/1000= 10 ; 0.00001 means 1/100000=10 ; similarly, the
-31
mass of electron can be expressed as 9.1 x 10 kg.

Calculation with Scientific Notation

Multiplication: The exponents are added while multiplying exponential numbers. e.g.
5 3 5+3 8 9
3 x 10 x 7 x 10 = 3 x7 x 10 = 21 x 10 = 2.1 x 10
Division: The exponents are subtracted while dividing exponential numbers. e.g.

11
9 x 10 = 2.25 x 1011-7 = 2.25 x 104
7
4 x 10
9
8 x 10 = 1.6 x 10(9)-(-14) = 9+14 23
-14 1.6 x 10 = 1.6 x 10
5 x 10

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 16

2.5 MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
Generally, a metre rod is used to measure the length of a body. A metre rod can measure the
length of the body up to a millimetre. The length less than 1 mm cannot be measured accurately
by using metre rod. Therefore, 1 mm is considered the least count of a metre rod.
In everyday life the measurement by using metre rod is quite sufficient. But in Physics, we have
to measure the smaller objects more accurately and precisely such as radius of a small sphere
or a cylinder. In order to measure the objects more accurately and precisely, we use special
measuring instruments like Vernier Callipers and Screw Gauge (Micrometer).
We will discuss also some important instruments like physical balance, stop watch and
measuring cylinder in this section.
(I) Vernier Callipers
Vernier Callipers can measure smaller objects more accurately up to one tenth (1/10) of a
millimetre. We can measure the length, diameter (outer and inner), and depth of the smaller
objects by using Vernier Callipers.
C D Screw Clamp Stem for measuring
Construction: depth

n
A
Object
B
a d Awa MP
Vernier Scale Main Scale P t
o r Ahm, MBA, artmen
zo cs ) ep
Man (Physi arch D 971
c. s e 3
A, B; Jaws for measuring outer dimensions M.S lum Re 33 534
C, D; Jaws for measuring inner dimensions u 3
Fig: 2.1 (a); C urric ofCVernier
Parts e l l:
0
Callipers

Vernier Callipers consists of two parts. One part is called main scale. The longer lines on this
scale represent centimetres and smaller lines millimetres. Jaw A and C are on its left side as
shown in fig. 2.1(a).
The second part of a Vernier Callipers consists of a Vernier scale which contains jaw B and
D on its left end. On the top of the vernier scale a screw clamp is exist, which is used to
tight the vernier scale on main scale. Vernier scale can be moved forward and backward on
the main scale. The length of this Vernier scale in 10 mm and it is divided into ten equal
parts. Each part is known as vernier division.
Uses: Vernier Callipers is used to measure the smaller objects. The common uses are
listed below:
a. We can measure the length, outer diameter of an object by using jaws A and B of
Vernier Callipers.
b. We can measure inner diameter of an object by using jaws C and D of Vernier
Callipers.
c. We can also measure the depth of an object by using the stem of Vernier Callipers.
1 Main Scale Division 1mm
Least Count = = = 0.1mm
Total Number of Vernier Scale Division 10mm

Note: The least count depends upon the vernier scale number of divisions.

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 17

Working of Vernier Callipers: Information:
The diameter of a small sphere is measured with the Two different vernier calipers
help of the Vernier Callipers by the following method: have different number of equal
1. Note of least count of the vernier. The least divisions on their vernier scales:
count of a vernier can be calculated by the following VC I. 10 equal divisions and
formula: VC II. 50 equal divisions
1 Main Scale Division Which can measure more
Least Count =
Total Number of Vernier Scale Divisions accurately?
Answer:
2. Determine the Zero Error: Move the vernier
scale so that the jaws A and B join together. If zeros of
main scale and vernier scale are exactly infront of
each other then there is no zero error as shown in fig.
2.1 (b). 0 1
Main Scale
The Vernier Callipers II with
0.02mm of L.C can measure up to
Vernier Scale 0.02mm accurately. Hence the
accuracy of Vernier Callipers II is
0 5 10 more than Vernier Callipers I.
Fig. 2.1(b). Showing no zero error
0 1
Fig. 2.1 (b),Showing no zero error (zero of main Main Scale
scale and vernier scale are exactly infront of each
other) Vernier Scale
2 (a). If the zero of the vernier is on the right side of
the zero of main scale, then this instrument will show 0 5 10
slightly more than the actual length. Hence this zero Fig. 2.1(c). Showing +ve zero error
error should be subtracted from the observed
measurement. In order to determine the zero error, 0 1
Main Scale
note the number of division of the vernier scale
which is exactly infront of any division of the main
scale as shown in fig. 2.1 (c). Multiply this number Vernier Scale
with the least count. The resultant number is the
zero error of this instrument. 0 5 10
Zero error = Observed error x Least Count Fig. 2.1(d). showing -ve zero error; -0.02cm

Calculation of zero error: Look at the fig. 2.1(c), the second is the number of division of
vernier scale coinciding with the any number of division of main scale. Now 2 should be be
multiplied with the least count.
2 x 0.1 =0.2mm; hence the zero error is 0.2mm or 0.02cm

2 (b). If the zero of the vernier is on the left side of the zero of the main scale as showing in
fig. 2.1 (d), this instrument will show slightly less than the actual length. Thus the zero error
should be added in the observed measurement.
Calculation of zero error: Look at the fig. 2.1 (d), the 8 is the number of division of vernier
scale coinciding with the any number of division of main scale. Now 8 should be subtracted
Manzoor Ahmad Awan
M.Sc. (Physics), MBA, PMP
Curriculum Research Department
Cell: 0333 5343 971 Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 18
from 10 i.e. 10 - 8 = 2, and then resultant number i.e. 1 will be multiplied with the least
count.
2 x 0.1 = 0.2mm; hence the zero error is 0.2mm or 0.02cm

3. Move the vernier scale towards right, fix the sphere in between the jaws A & B and
tight the vernier callipers with the help of screw. Read number on main scale infront of zero
of vernier. For example, in Fig. 2.1 (e), it is after 21mm but before 22mm. It means the
diameter of sphere is slightly more than 21mm.
4. In order to know the part more than 21mm, we look
the line (division) of vernier which is coinciding with a main
scale division. In Fig. 2.1 (e), it is the 8th division.

If we multiply 8 by the least count i.e. 0.1mm and add the

value ( 8 x 0.1mm) to 21 mm, the sum comes out to be
21.8mm which is the correct diameter of the sphere.

Diameter of Sphere = 21+ (8 x 0.1) =21.8mm or 2.18cm

(1cm=10mm) Fig. 2.1 (e); Reading of vernier
callipers (Courtesy: PTB)

TEST YOUR SKILL

5 6
Main Scale (cm)

Vernier Scale

0 5 10

Your Answer: ..................... cm

0 1
Main Scale (cm)

Vernier Scale

0 5 10 n
Awa MP nt
d , P me
Your Answer: ..................... cm hma MBA part
A , e
o or ics) ch D 971
nz hy s r
a 43
Ma . (P Rese 3 53
Sc 3
M. culum ll: 03
rri Ce
Cu

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 19

II) Screw Gauge (Micrometer)
Screw gauge is used to measure the thickness of very small objects like card, a strip of metal, or a
wire accurately up to one hundredth (1/100) part of a millimetre.
Construction: It consists of U-shaped metal frame. The smaller side ‘A” is known as the anvil
or stud and the longer one ‘C’ is called Spindle. The stud/anvil (A) is the fixed part of the
instrument.
Whereas, the spindle (C) moves as when
thimble (E) is moved. The object to be
measured is placed between anvil (A) and
spindle (C). The sleeve (B) connects the
frame to the cylindrical tube. It is non-
moveable part of the screw gauge and has
scale in millimetre engraved over it parallel
to its axis along the straight line. This scale
is also known as main scale of the Manzoor Ahmad Awan
instrument. Moreover, it also carries the M.Sc. (Physics), MBA, PMP
most important part of the instrument -the Fig. 2.2 (a);
CurriculuGauge
Screw m Research Department
screw. Cell: 0333 5343 971
The screw is the heart of the screw gauge and is located inside the cylinder.
The thimble (E), is a circular scale, which usually is divided into 100 equal divisions. The thimble
can rotate over the sleeve (B). The ratchet (D) which is provided at the right end of the cylinder.
The ratchet is a kind of limiting device which applies a pressure by slipping at a predetermined
torque and prevents the spindle to more further. A lock nut is also located at the right end of the
frame which holds the scale at a particular position to prevent any kind of error while taking a
reading.

Working: When thimble is rotated clockwise, the spindle (C) moves forward. When thimble is
rotated anti-clockwise, the spindle (C) moves backward. When an object is to be measured, it is
placed between the anvil (A) and spindle face (F); and thimble is rotated clockwise to fit the object
between anvil and spindle face.

Pitch of Screw Gauge: The distance moved forward or backward in one complete rotation of
circular scale is called the pitch of the screw gauge. It is usually 1mm. It means, when circular
scale is rotated through 100 circular divisions, the spindle moves (forward or backward) 1mm. In
other words, if circular scale is rotated through only 1 division, the spindle will be displaced
forward or backward by 1/100mm or 0.01mm.

Least Count of Screw Gauge: The least count of screw gauge is calculated by dividing its pitch
by the total number of divisions on circular scale.
Pitch
Least Count =
Total Number of Divisions of Circular Scale

1
E.g. Least Count = = 0.01mm
Manzoor Ahmad Awan 100
M.Sc. (Physics), MBA, PMP
Curriculum Research Department
Cell: 0333 5343 971
Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 20
 Experiment: Measurement Diameter of a Sphere
The diameter of a sphere is measured using screw gauge by the following method:
1. Determine the pitch and least count: Note the pitch and least count of the screw
gauge. As mentioned earlier the least count of this screw gauge is 0.01mm.
2. Determine the zero error: Rotate the thimble so that the spindle touches anvil. If the
zero of circular scale is exactly infront of horizontal line (datum line) of main scale, then there is
no zero error as sown in fig. 2.1 (b). If the zero of circular scale is not coinciding with the zero of
main scale, then there is positive or negative zero error in the instrument.
2 (a). If the zero of the circular scale is above the horizontal line (fig. 2.1-c), then there is
negative zero error. This will show measure slightly less than the actual measurement. Hence
the zero error will be added in the observed measurement.
t
en
5 3 h D A, a n
97 a r P
43 e p PM
1 tm
33 arc MB Aw
0 3 se ) , d
l l : R e i cs m a
Ce m hys Ah
lu P r
cu . ( o
rri Sc nzo
Cu M. Ma

2 (b). If the zero of the circular scale is below the horizontal line (fig. 2.1-d), then there is
positive zero error. This will show measure slightly more than the actual measurement. Hence,
the zero error will be subtracted from the observed value.
3. Place the given sphere in between anvil and spindle, rotate the thimble so that sphere
fits tight between them.
4. Look at the main scale reading. For example, in fig. 2.2
(e), the edge of circular scale is laying between 7 and 8
millimetres. This shows the diameter of the sphere is more
than 7mm and less than 8mm.
5. To know the part more than 7mm, we look for the
division of circular scale which is infront of horizontal line i.e.
25.
6. Now multiply 25 by the least count which is 0.01mm Fig. 2.2 (e): Reading of Screw
and add the product to 7mm i.e. Gauge
(25 x 0.01) +7 = 7.25 mm
Thus 7.25 mm is the diameter of the sphere
(III) Physical Balance
A common balance shown in fig. 2.3 is used to measure the mass of a body.
Construction:
This balance consists of a beam and two scale pans
as shown in fig. 2.3. The beam contains two balancing
screws and stirrups to hang the scale pans. The
balancing screws are used to balance the scale pans.
The beam also contains a fixed pointer in its center. A
knob is situated at the base board and use to raise up
the scale pan.

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 21

Experiment: How to measure the mass of an object by using FOR YOUR INFORMATION:
physical balance? Mass: It is the total quantity of matter in
1. Use the leveling screws, attached beneath the base a body. It is a basic quantity and
board to make sure the beam is horizontal. It can be verified with remains constant throughout the
help of the plumb-line. universe. It is measured in kg. In other
words the unit of mass is ‘kg’.
2. Turn the knob A, so that the pans are raised up. Check 6
1 kg = 1000 g = 1000000 or 10 mg
the end of the pointer is on the central line of scale. If not, then 3
1 g = 1000 mg or 10 mg
turn the balancing screws forward or backward to bring the Measurement of Mass: Mass can be
pointer to the middle or zero mark on the scale. measured by comparing weight of it
3. Now turn the knob A to initial position to lower the scale with the weight of known mass, a
pans. standard mass. For this we can use
4. Place the object in the left hand pan and add the common balance or lever balance.
standard masses to the right hand pan until the beam become
horizontal and pointer on the central mark or zero of the scale.
(use the forceps to lift or add the standard masses)
5. The total of standard masses is the measure of the mass
of the object.
(IV) Stop Watch
The duration of time can be measured using a mechanical stop watch Fig. 2.3: The weight box; a
(Fig. 2.5). significant part of physical
balance
Construction: This mechanical stop watch usually contains two
needles one long needle represents seconds and the other minutes.
The dial is divided into 30 big circular divisions. Each part represents
one second. One big division is further divided into 10 equal parts.
Each small division represents one tenth (1/10) of a second. A button B
is used to start or stop the watch.
Least Count: The least count of this stop watch is 0.1 second. Fig. 2.4: Electronic balance;
Working: When the duration of time is to be measured, a button B on accurate and easy to use
its top is pressed down to start the watch. When it is required to be
stop, again the same button B is pushed. After noting the time, the
button B is again pushed to bring back the needles on zero position.
Information:
Now a days electronic / digital stop watches are also in use, which can
measure one hundredth part (1/100 or 0.01) of a second. Various
mobile phones also contain stop watch facility.
(V) Measuring Cylinder
A measuring cylinder is used to measured the volume of a liquid.
It is made of transparent plastic or glass, which has a vertical scale
3
in millilitre (ml) or cubic centimetre (cm ) as shown in fig. 2.6. Fig. 2.5: A mechanical stop
watch
When the liquid is poured in it, the volume of liquid is noted on the
scale infront of the meniscus (curved surface) of liquid. To measure
the volume of the liquid correctly, the following precautions should
be adopted:
a. the cylinder must be placed on a plain (horizontal)
surface;
Fig. 2.6: Measuring Cylinder (empty
b. the eye should be kept on a level with the bottom of and half filled)
meniscus. r A h m a d Awan
Manzoo MP
c . (P h y s i c s), MBA, P ent
M.S DepartmPhysics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 22
Research
Curriculum 333 5343 971
l: 0
FOR YOUR INFORMATION: Most liquids such as water and alcohol have meniscus that
curve downward. However, some liquids such as mercury has meniscus that curve upwards.
For such situations, read from the top of the meniscus.
2.6 ERROR AND UNCERTAINTY IN MEASUREMENT
When we measure a physical quantity by an instrument, there is some error or uncertainty in the
measured value. This error or uncertainty occurs due to the limitation of an instrument, fault in
instrument, in appropriate method, and carelessness of observer.
For example, if a certain thickness is measured with a metre rod, a vernier callipers or screw
gauge, the error in measurement with metre rod would be greater than the one made with the
help of the screw gauge. n
Awa
Generally, the errors in measurement are divided into the following types: Ahmad A, PMP nt
zoor ), MB rtme
(i) Personal error Man Physics ch Depa
(ii) Random error .( ear 71
(iii) Systematic error M.Sc um Res 5343 9
icu l 33 3
Curr Cell: 0
(i) Personal Error: This type of error occurs due to the carelessness and incompetence of
observer. The personal error can be minimized with experience and care.

(ii) Random Error: This type of error occurs due to environmental conditions such as noise,
temperature, moister, voltage, air etc. Such errors can be minimized by taking several readings
and then computing the mean value.
(iii) Systematic Error: This type of error occurs due to faulty instrument. Usually, such type
of errors occur because of the zero error of the instrument and non-uniform or wrongly marked
graduation. To eliminate systematic error, the measuring instrument is compared with a standard
instrument; this process is called calibration.
2.7 SIGNIFICANT FIGURES OF Accuracy in Measuring
Instrument Least Count
MEASUREMENT Protractor 1 degree
Wall Clock 1 second
Definition: “In any measurement the accurately Ruler 1 mm
known digits and the first doubtful digit are known Thermometer 1o
as the significant digits”. Vernier Callipers ( 10 division on vernier 0.1mm
scale)
Vernier Callipers ( 50 division on vernier 0.02mm
When ever we make any measurement, only the scale)
number of significant figures must be used. Additional Screw Gauge (100 division on circular 0.01 mm
scale)
number of digits must be avoided otherwise it will Screw Gauge (50 division on circular 0.02mm
mislead the readers. scale)
Explanation: The concept of significant figures can be Mechanical Stop Watch 0.1 second
explained with the help the following examples: Digital Stop Watch 0.01 second
Spring Balance 1 gram

1. Two students measure the length of a small metal cylinder with the help of common
metre scale. Metre scale has marks of centimetre and millmetre on it. Assume the edge of the
cylinder is between 13.4 cm and 13.5 cm. One student record the measurement of the cylinder
as 13.4 cm and second 13.5 cm. Since the length of cylinder is more than 13.4 cm but less than
13.5 cm, therefore the first student estimates it to be 13.4 as he thinks that the edge of cylinder is
nearer to 4 mm mark. Whereas the second student takes at as 13.5 cm, as he considers the
edge of cylinder is more nearer to 5mm mark. Both students agree on 13 cm but the third digit is
doubtful and it is known as the doubtful digit.

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 23

 Therefore the accurately known digits are 13 and the first doubtful digit is 4 or 5.

2. The diameter of a wire is measured as 2.64 mm with the help screw gauge. While taking
the measurement the edge of circular scale is between 2.6 mm and 2.7 mm. The measurement
up to 2.6 is correct but the third digit i.e. 4 is doubtful. Therefor, the accurately known digits
are two i.e. 2.6 and one doubtful digit is 4. Thus here are three significant figures in this
measurement.

General Rules: To determine the significant figures, we can follow the general rules as given
below:
1. All the digits 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 are significant figures. In case of zeros, the following rules
may be observed.
2. The zeros in between the digits are considered significant. For example, 1.406, the
number of the significant figures are 4.
3. The zeros on the left side of the figures (digits), are not significant figures. For example,
(i) 0.0036, the number of significant figures is 2. (ii) 0.000136, the number of
significant digits is 3.
4. The zeros on the right side of a decimal are significant. For example, 2.540 the number of
significant figures is 4.
5. If number are recorded in scientific notation then all the digits before the power of 10 are
3
significant. For example, (i) 1.40 x 10 , the number of significant figures is 3.
-3
(ii) 1.00 x 10 , the number of significant figures is 3.

Rounding of Numbers: “The process of reducing the number of significant figures in a

measured quantity to the desired number is called ‘rounding-off numbers’”.

The following rules are observed for rounding-off the measured quantities in various numerical
problems:

Rule 1:The last significant figure is increased by 1, if the digit is to be dropped is greater than 5.

Rule 2:The last significant figure will remain unchanged, if the digit to be dropped is less than 5.

Rule 3:This rule sets the limit of rounding-off numbers. For example, if the given value in
numerical data is in three significant figures like 2.22, then your answer should be in
three significant digits.

Example 1: We measure the diameter of the sphere as 2.22 cm. Its radius is 1.11 cm. The
volume of this sphere is given by

By putting the values of and r= 1.11 cm in above eq.

wan
or A hmad A PMP
, Do you know?
Manzo ysics), MBA artment
h p
.Sc. (P esearch De 1
Diameter
3
v = 5.731025 cm = 5.73 cm
3 M R Radius =
ulum 4 3 97 2
Curric ell: 0333 53
C
Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 24
 Since the radius of the sphere i.e. 1.11cm contains three significant figures, therefore the
volume of the sphere can not contain more than three digits. Hence we have to round-off
the value by dropping 1025.
3
After rounding-off, the volume of the sphere will be recorded as 5.73 cm .

Example 2: The mass of the same sphere is determined by the physical balance as 71.60
g. Using the mass and volume, the density of the sphere can be determined by the following
formula:
n
a d Awa P
m PM OR
z oor Ah , MBA, rtment
a n i c s ) e p a
M ys D
.S c . (Ph esearch 3 971
M m R 33 53 4
iculu
3
3 By putting the values of m=71.60 g, v=5.73 cm in above eq.
Curr Cell: 0

3
According to the rounding-off rules, the density of the sphere will be taken as 12.50 g/cm .
-3
The density of sphere can also be written as 12.5 g cm , because data contains three least
significant figures (5.73), therefore answer should be in three significant figures.

2.8 RELATION BETWEEN PHYSICAL QUANTITIES

There is often a mutual relationship between physical quantities. Here, we need to know the two
basic relationships between two physical quantities.
Table: 2.4 Direct Relationship
between 'distance' and 'time'
1. Direct Relationship: If one quantity increases, the
other may increase . For example, with the passage of Time 't' (s)
Distance 'd' Speed 'v'
(m) (m/s)
time ‘t’, the distance ‘S’ covered by a car at constant
speed is given in table 2.4. On increasing the time, the 5 50 10
distance covered is also increased. This relationship 10 100 10
15 150 10
between two quantities like ‘S’ and ‘t’ is called the direct
20 200 10
relationship. 25 250 10
2. Indirect / Inverse Relationship: If one quantity
increases, the other may decrease. For example, the Table: 2.5 Inverse Relationship
speed (v) of a car and the time (t) it takes to travel between 'speed' and 'time'
distance of 300 m is an inverse relationship between Speed 'v' Distance
Time 't' (s)
two quantities ( v and t) as shown in table 2.4. (m/s) 'S' (m)

10 30 300
Independent Variable: A quantity which we can change with 20 15 300
our wish is known as independent variable quantity. 30 10 300
For example the speed of car in table 2.5 is an 40 7.5 300
independent variable quantity. 50 6 300
60 5 300
Dependent Variable: The quantity which changes due to 70 4.3 300
independent variable quantity (first quantity) is called 80 3.8 300
dependent variable quantity. For example the time is 90 3.3 300
dependent variable quantity in table 2.5. 100 3 300

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 25

The independent and depended variable quantities can also be illustrated by the following
example:
2
Area of a square can be calculated as A = side x side or A= l
The ‘l ’ is the independent variable quantity and ‘A’ is the dependent variable quantity.
Because, if the length (l) is changed, the area (A) also changes.

2.8.1 The Proportionality Constant

There is a proportionality constant between two variable quantities whether the relationship
between them is direct or inverse.
“ A number which is used to described the relationship between two quantities in the
form of an equation is called the proportionality constant”.

The quantities which have direct relationship between them, then they are directly proportional
to each other. The relation between ‘distance’ and ‘time’ is directly proportional. Because, on
increasing the time, the distance covered is also increased as shown in table 2.4. This
proportionality relationship can be expressed as

In this type of expression is called the sign of proportionality. The sign of proportionality can
be changed into the sign equality by a constant number. The constant number for this
expression is 10, and the equation can be written as S=10 x t . The number 10 is called the
proportionality constant. The universal method to write this equation is S= k x t , where ‘k’ is the
constant of proportionality.

Similarly, the inverse proportional can be written as as shown in table 2.5. The
equation can be written as
M
M.S anzoo
Cu r c r
ricu . (Phy Ahma
Where ‘k’ is constant of proportionality. l u m sics dA
Cel Rese ), MBA wan
l: 03 arch ,
SOLVED EXERCISE 33 5 Dep PMP
343 a
971 rtment
Q. 1: Why is the standard unit needed to measure a quantity correctly?

Answer: Exact measurements and observations of physical quantities have great

importance in physics as well as in the other branches of science. Assume, if the length
of one metre is different for different persons, the cloth of four metre purchased by a
customer from different shopkeepers will have different lengths.

Similarly, if the mass of one kilogram in not the same for all persons, one kilogram of sugar
bought by a person from different stores will have different quantity. These example
show that a particular standard is must for uniform measurement of physical quantities.

In order to measure a physical quantity, we need to compare it with some standard

quantity. While measuring a physical quantity, we have to see that how many times this
quantity is bigger or smaller than the standard quantity. Thus a standard is needed to
measure a quantity correctly. This standard quantity is known as “unit”.

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 26

Q.2: What is meant by base and derived units? Give three examples of derived
units and explain how are they derived from base units ?
Answer:
Base Units: The quantities like length, mass, time, temperature, electric current,
intensity of light and amount of substance are called the base quantities. The unit of a
base quantity is called base unit and also known as the fundamental unit. For example,
the unit of length is metre.

Derived Units: The quantities which can be described in terms of base quantities are
known as derived quantities . The unit of derived quantity which is derived from base
unit is called derived unit.
Examples:
Derived quantity How it is derived. Symbol
/Unit
Area

Volume

Speed n
wa
a d A , PMP ent
m
or Ah , MBA partm
nzo ics) De
Ma (Phys search 3 971
c. e 34
M.S ulum R 333 5
ric ell: 0
Cur C

Q.3: What is the number of base units in system international ? Write their
names and symbols.
Answer: There are seven (7) base units in System International. Their names and
symbols are given in the following table:
Base Quantities SI Units’ Name Symbol

Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric Current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Intensity of Light candela cd
Amount of Substance mole mol

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 27

Q. 4: Where multiples and sub-multiples of units are used? Describe some standard
prefixes which are internationally used.
Answer: A physicist has to deal with very large numbers and very small numbers. These
very large and small numbers are expressed more conveniently by internationally
accepted method, in which number are recorded using the power of 10 or prefixes.

The multiples and sub-multiples of different units are obtained by multiplying or dividing
with ten or power of ten. The terms used internationally for multiples and sub-multiples
3
are called prefixes. For example, the 1000 m can be written as 10 m. Some standard
prefixes used internationally are given below:

Curriculum Research Department

System International Prefixes

M.Sc. (Physics), MBA, PMP

Prefixes greater than 1 Prefixes less than 1

Manzoor Ahmad Awan

Cell: 0333 5343 971

Multiples Prefix Symbol Sub- Prefix Symbol
Multiples
101 deca da 10-1 deci d
2
10 hecto h 10-2 centi c
3 -3
10 kilo k 10 milli m
106 mega M 10-6 micro µ
109 giga G 10-9 nano n
1012 tera T 10-12 pico p
15 -15
10 peta P 10 femto f
1018 exa E 10-18 atto a
Q. 5: What is the use of vernier callipers? What is the meant by the vernier
constant?
Answer:
Uses of Vernier Callipers: Vernier Callipers is used to measure the length, outer & inner
diameter and depth of the smaller objects. It can measure smaller objects more
accurately up to one tenth (1/10) of a millimetre.

Vernier Constant: The difference between one main scale division and one vernier
division is called vernier constant.

Q. 6: Explain the statement “A micrometer screw gauge measures more

accurately than a vernier callipers”.
Answer:
Vernier Callipers can measure accurately up to one tenth (1/10) of a millimetre, whereas
the screw gauge can measure accurately up to one hundredth (1/100) part of a millimetre.
Therefore, a micrometer screw gauge measures more accurately than a vernier callipers.

Q. 7: What is meant by the significant figures of measurement? What are the

main points to kept in mind while determining the significant figures of a
measurement?
Answer:

Significant Figures: “In any measurement the accurately known digits and the first
doubtful digit are known as the significant digits”.

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 28

 When ever we make any measurement, only the number of significant figures must be
used. Additional number of digits must be avoided otherwise it will mislead the readers.

Main points to determine the significant figures: To determine the significant figures,
we can follow the main points as given below:

1. All the digits 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9 are significant figures. In case of zeros, the following rules
may be observed.

2. The zeros in between the digits are considered significant. For example, 1.406, the
number of the significant figures are 4.

3. The zeros on the left side of the figures (digits), are not significant figures. For example,
(i) 0.0036, the number of significant figures is 2. (ii) 0.000136, the number of
significant digits is 3.

4. The zeros on the right side of a decimal are significant. For example, 2.540 the number
of significant figures is 4.

5. If number are recorded in scientific notation then all the digits before the power of 10 are
3
significant. For example, (i) 1.40 x 10 , the number of significant figures is 3. (ii) 1.00 x
-3
10 , the number of significant figures is 3.

Q. 8: Differentiate between random error and a systematic error in the measurement of

a physical quantity.
Answer:

Random Error: This type of error occurs due to environmental conditions such as noise,
temperature, moister, voltage, air etc. Such errors can be minimized by taking several
readings and then computing the mean value.

Systematic Error: This type of error occurs due to faulty instrument. Usually, such type
of errors occur because of the zero error of the instrument and non-uniform or wrongly
marked graduation. To eliminate systematic error, the measuring instrument is
compared with a standard instrument; this process is called calibration.

Q. 9: What is the meant by the proportionality constant? Explain by giving an

example.
Answer:
Proportionality Constant:
“ A number which is used to described the relationship between two quantities in the
form of an equation is called the proportionality constant”.

Example:
If one quantity increases, the other may increase . For example, with the passage of
time ‘t’, the distance ‘S’ covered by a car at constant speed is expressed in the
following table: n
Manzoor Ahmad Awa
PMP
M.Sc. (Physics), MBA,
epartment
Curriculum Research D Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 29
Cell: 0333 5343 971
 On increasing the time, the distance covered is also increased. Time ‘t’ Distance
This relationship between two quantities like ‘S’ and ‘t’ is called (s) ‘S’ (m)
the direct relationship. 5 50
10 100
These quantities ( S and t) have direct relationship between 15 150
them, then they are directly proportional to each other. 20 200
Because, on increasing the time, the distance covered is also increased as shown in
table. This proportionality relationship can be expressed as

The sign of proportionality can be changed into the sign equality by a constant
number. The universal method to write this equation is S= k x t , where ‘k’ is the
constant of proportionality.

Q. 10: Tick on R, for right and on W, for wrong infront of the following
statements.

(i) There are seven base units in System International. R/W

(ii) The duration of one microsecond is 1000 times greater than a second. R/W

(iii) Vernier Callipers is an instrument used to measure mass. R/W

Answer: (i) R (ii) W (iii) W

Extra: Can you explain, why the statement ii and iii of above question are wrong?
Hint (ii): Look at the table of sub-multiples of time under the heading of prefixes.
Hint (iii): Go back to the topic of vernier callipers and physical balance.
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................................................
.

Q. 11: Fill in the blanks.

(i) One kilimetre have ____________ metres. (1000)
(ii) Length, mass and time are _____________ quantities. (base)
(iii) System International consists of seven ___________ units. (base)
(iv) Metre per second, Newton and cubic metre are ________ units. (derived)
(v) The radius of a wire is 0.022 cm. The number of significant figures in this
measurement is _________________ (two)

n
hmad Awa
Manzoor A PMP
.S c . (P h y sics), MBA, rtment
M epa
Research D 1
Curriculum 3 4 3 9 7
Cell: 0333 5

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 30

 SOLVED NUMERICAL PROBLEMS
Dear students, prior to solution of numerical problems, we would like to summarize
some important mathematical formulae used in this chapter.

FORMULA
Area of Rectangle
Aera Area of Square
Area of Circle

Volume of cube
Volume wan P nt
Volume of Sphere A PM me
ad BA, part
A hm), M De 71
r s h 9
Density z oo ysic earc 343
an h s 5
M c. (P Re 333
OR
.S m 0
Speed M iculu ell:
rr C
Cu
Force
Where ‘m’ is mass and ‘a’ is acceleration
Pressure

Where ‘F’ is force and ‘A’ is area

Work
Where ‘F’ is force and ‘d’ is distance

1. The length and breadth of a rectangular sheet are 19.23 cm and 3.2 cm
respectively. Determine the area of the sheet keeping in mind the correct
number of significant figures.
19.23 cm
Solution:
Given data:
3.2 cm
Length = 19.23 cm

Width = 3.2 cm

A=?
Area of rectangle = Length x Width

A = 19.32 cm x 3.2 cm
2
A = 61.536 cm
2
A = 62 cm
Note: Since the given data contains two least significant figures, therefore the answer
should be in two significant figures.

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 31

 3
2. The mass of a metallic sphere is 36.9 g and its volume is 3.9 cm . Find its
density expressed in correct number of significant figures.
M
Solution: M.S anzoo
C ur
Given data: ricu c. (Ph r Ahm
lum ysic ad
Cel Rese s), MB Awan
l: 0
mss = 36.9 g 333 arch D A, PM
53 4 e p a P
39 r
volume = 3.9 cm
3
71 tment

density = ?

3
d = 9.451538 g/cm
-3
d= 9.5 g cm

Note: Answer should be in two significant figures because in the given data, the number
3 -3
of least significant figures (volume= 3.9 cm ) is 2; so the answer is 9.5 g cm

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

(MCQs)

Dear students, these are possible Multiple Choice Questions related to this
chapter. You can evaluate you skill by selecting appropriate choice. At the end of
this section, the Self-Scoring Table, can be used as a means of evaluating your
weaknesses in this chapter and should help you plan your study program more
effectively. The use of Self-Scoring Table is very simple. Determine the number of
correct answers. This your correct score for this section. Record your score in
appropriate score boxes in the Self-Scoring Table.

Rules:
1. Read the statement carefully, and select (encircle) appropriate option.
2. Be honest ; Don’t see the answer table, while solving MCQs section.
3. Be careful about time; Don’t consume more than one minute on each question.
4. After completing this section match your answers with the answer table, given at the
end of this section. Calculate the number of your correct answers ( this is also your correct
score) and write your score in Self-Scoring Table.
5. Follow the instructions, mentioned in table
6. Deleting / overwriting is not allowed.

DON’T FORGET TO WRITE START TIME & END TIME

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 32

 TEST YOUR SKILL (Test-I)

Note: Circle the correct option i.e. A/B/C/D. Each question carry one mark.

START TIME: ____________ END TIME:__________ DURATION:__________

(write after completing the section)

UNIT 1: TOPIC COVERED: Physical quantities, International System of Units,

Prefixes and Scientific Notations

1. In order to specify the characteristics of a brick, its length, width, height and mass are
to be measured. Such characteristics are called _______________.

A. Unit B. Physical Quantities C. Constant D. Random

2. The quantities like length, mass, time, temperature, electric current, intensity of light
and amount of substance are called the ______________.

A. Measurement B. Base quantities C. Derived quantities D. Prefixes

3. The quantities which can be described in terms of base quantities are known as ____.

A. Derived quantities B. Physical quantities C. CGS D. MKS

4. The unit of base quantity is called______________.

A. Measurement B. Base unit C. Constant D. Derived unit

5. A set of base and derived units is called.

A. Base unit B. Derived unit C. System of units D. Measurement

6. The system international unit of length is:

A. Gram B. Centimetre C. Metre D. Kilogram

7. What is the unit of mass in system international?

A. Milligram B. Kilogram C. Centigram D. Gram

8. Which one the following is a derived quantity?

A. Metre B. Length C. Intensity of light D. Volume

9. The unit of a volume is a derived unit. The SI unit of volume is:

A. Kg m/s B. mm C. Metre D. Cubic metre

Manzoor Ahmad Awan
M.Sc. (Physics), MBA, PMP
Curriculum Research Department Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 33
Cell: 0333 5343 971
 10. What is the unit of torque, in system international unit? ( Torque = r x F)
A. Newton second B. Newton C. Newton per metre D. Newton metre

11. Which of the following is a derived unit?

A. Newton B. Kilogram C. Second D. Metre

12. Ampere is the unit of:

A. Temperature B. Electric current C. Intensity of light D. Newton

13. In SI, the unit of amount of a substance is:

2
A. Kilogram B. Second C. mole D. m

14. Which one of the following is correct formula to calculate the density?

A. B. C. D.

15. Which one of the following is not a base unit?

-1
A. Metre B. Candela C. Kelvin D. ms

16. The duration in which the cesium -133 atom completes 9,192,631,770 vibrations, is
called:

A. Second B. Atom C. Metre D. Length

17. The derived unit of work is: (w= F x d)

2
A. Newton B. joule C. Nm D. Kg.m/s

18. The terms used internationally for multiples and sub-multiples are called:

A. Prefixes B. SI C. Units D. Notation

19. The sub-multiple of one micro second is:

3 -3 -6
A. 10 B. 10 C. 10 D. None

20. Which one of the following prefix is greater than others?

A. pico B. nano C. micro D. milli

21. Which one of the following standard form is correct for 0.0045?
-1 -3 -4 -4
A. 0.045 x 10 B. 4.5 x 10 C. 0.45 x 10 D. 45 x 10
Manzoor Ahmad Awan
M.Sc. (Physics), MBA, PMP
Curriculum Research Department Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 34
Cell: 0333 5343 971
 Manzoor
M.Sc. (Ph Ahmad Awan
Estimated Time: 35 min Curriculum ysics), MBA, PMP
Your number of correct answers Your scores Researc
(correct answers x 1) Cell: 0333 h Department
5343 971

Excellent Answers
0-10 11-16 17-19 20-21 1. B 2. B 3. A 4. B
5. C 6. C 7. B 8. D
9. D 10. D 11. A 12. B
Correct your wrong 13. C 14. C 15. D 16. A
the next test
17. B 18. A 19. C 20. D
21. B

TEST YOUR SKILL (Test-II)

Note: Circle the correct option i.e. A/B/C/D. Each question carry one mark.

START TIME: ____________ END TIME:__________ DURATION:__________

(write after completing the section)

UNIT 2: TOPIC COVERED: Measuring Instruments (Vernier Callipers, Screw Gauge,

Stop Watch, Physical Balance, Measuring Cylinder)

1. The least count of metre rod is:

A. 0.01 mm B. 1 mm C. 1 cm D. 0.1 mm

2. Which instrument is most suitable for accurate measurement of thickness of wire:

A. Vernier Callipers B. Metre rod C. Screw Gauge D. Spring balance

3. The least count of vernier callipers is:

A. 0.1 mm B. 0.1 cm C. 0.01 mm D. 0.01m

4. Which instrument is used to measure the mass of a body?

A. Stop watch B. Screw Gauge C. Physical balance D. Cylinder

5. The difference between one main scale division and one vernier division is called:
A. Vernier pitch B. Vernier constant C. Least count D. Zero error

6. If the zero of the vernier scale is on the left side of the zero of main scale;
A. Then zero error is subtracted from the observed measurement
B. Then zero error is added in the observed measurement
C. Then, there is no zero error in the instrument
D. Then the zero error is neglected

7. If the zero of the vernier scale is on the right side of the zero of main scale;
A. Then instrument will show slightly more than the actual measurement
B. Then instrument will show slightly less than the actual measurement
C. Then instrument will show exact measurement
D. Then instrument will show accurate measurement

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 35

8. Usually, the least count of vernier callipers is calculated by dividing the length of one
division of main scale by the total number of divisions on:
A. Main scale B. Vernier Scale C. Pitch D. thimble

9. If the zero of circular scale is exactly infront of horizontal line of main scale; wan
a d A , PMP nt
A. Then there is a zero error in screw gauge hm A e
oo r A s), MB epartm
B. Then there is positive zero error in screw gauge nz ic D
C. Then there is no zero error in screw gauge Ma (Phys search 3 971
c . e 3 4
D. Then there is negative zero error in screw gauge. M.S lum R 333 5
ri c u l: 0
Cur Cel
10. The minimum length which can be measured by an instrument is known:
A. Vernier constant B. Least count C. Pitch D. zero error

11. If the number of divisions on vernier scale is 50, then the least count of vernier callipers
will be:
A. 0.01mm B. 0.02mm C. 0.1 mm D. 0.0002 mm

12. If zeros of main scale and vernier scale are exactly infront of each other then there is:
A. Zero error B. No zero error C. +VE zero error D. +/- 0.1 error

13. The distance moved forward or backward in one complete rotation of circular scale of
screw gauge is called:
A. Least count B. Pitch C. Constant D. No zero error

14. : The least count of screw gauge is calculated by dividing its pitch by the total number of
divisions on:
A. Circular scale B. Horizontal scale C. Vertical scale D. Ratchet

15. If the pitch is 1mm and the total number of divisions on circular of scale of screw is 100,
then the least count will be:
A. 0.1 mm B. 0.02 mm C. 0.01 mm D. 0.001 mm

16. If the pitch is 1mm and the total number of divisions on circular scale is 50, then the
least count of screw gauge will be:
A. 0.02 mm B. 0.002 mm C. 0.01 mm D. 0.05 mm

17. When bolt of screw gauge is rotated clockwise it moves:

A. Backward B. Forward C. Remains Stationary D. Upward

18. On joining the spindle and stud of screw gauge, if the zero of circular scale is above the
horizontal line of main scale; then there is:

A. Positive zero error

B. Negative zero error
C. No zero error
D. Zero error, but it is neglected

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 36

 19. On joining the spindle and stud of screw gauge, if the zero of circular scale is below
the zero of main scale, then there is: n
a d Awa MP
hm A, P en t
A. No zero error
zoor A s), MB epartm
B. Negative zero error Man (Physic arch D 71
c. se 9
C. Positive zero error M.S lum Re 33 5343
D. Zero error, but it can be neglected u
ric ell: 0 3
Cu r C
20. In order to get the correct thickness of an object, the negative zero error is:

A. Added to observed measurement

B. Subtracted from the observed measurement
C. Neither added nor subtracted, but divided
D. Neglected

21. The length less than one millimetre can not be measured accurately using:

A. Screw Gauge B. Vernier Callipers C. Metre rod D. Stop watch

22. The least count of mechanical stop watch is:

A. 0.01 second B. 0.1 second C. 1 second D. 1 min

23. A measuring cylinder is used to measure the:

A. Volume of gas B. Volume of liquid C. Volume of sphere D. Length

Estimated Time: 38 min

Your number of correct answers Your scores
(correct answers x 1)

0-12 13-17 18-20 21-23

1. B 2. C 3. A 4. C 5. B
6. B 7. A 8. B 9. C 10. B
11. B 12. B 13. B 14. A 15. C
16. A 17. B 18. B 19. C 20. A
21. C 22. B 23. B

TEST YOUR SKILL (Test-III)

Note: Circle the correct option i.e. A/B/C/D. Each question carry one mark.

START TIME: ____________ END TIME:__________ DURATION:__________

(write after completing the section)
UNIT 3: TOPIC COVERED: Errors and uncertainty in measurement, Significant
figures of measurement, Relation between physical quantities, The proportionality
constant

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 37

1. The error occurs due to the carelessness and incompetence of observer, is
known:

A. Zero error B. Random error

C. Personal error D. Systematic error

2. The error occurs due to the environmental conditions such as noise, temperature,
moister, voltage, air etc, is called:

A. Systematic error B. Random error

C. Personal error D. Zero error

3. The error occurs due to the fault in instrument is called:

A. Systematic error B. Personal error

C. Zero error D. Random error

4. Random error can be minimized by:

A. Taking one and then computing the zero error
B. Taking several readings and then computing the mean value
C. Taking several readings and then computing the zero error
D. Using other instrument

5. In order to eliminate the systematic error, the instrument is compared with:

Manzo
A. The other similar available instrument M.Sc. (P or Ahmad Aw
Curricu hysic an
B. The standard instrument lum Res s), MBA, PMP
C. The given object Cell: 03 earch Departm
D. The mass of the object 33 5343 ent
97 1
6. In any measurement, the accurately known digits and first doubtful digit are called:

A. Correct figures B. Real numbers

C. Significant figures D. Precise measured figures

7. The number of the significant figures in 0.0036 is:

A. 5 B. 4 C. 3 D. 2

8. The number of the significant figures in 2.540 is:

A. 3 B. 4 C. 1 D. None
3
9. The number of significant figures in 1.40 x 10 is:

A. 2 B. 5 C. 3 D. 1

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 38

 10. You are going to perform an experiment on an object, which is heat sensitive. If
the temperature fluctuates during the experiment. The error in reading will be
categorized as:

A. Systematic error B. Zero error

C. Personal error D. Random error

11. A rectangular block of plastic has length 6 cm, width 5 cm and height 10 cm. Its
mass is 150 g. What is the density of plastic?
3 3 3 3
A. 2 g/cm B. 1 g/cm C. 0.2 g/cm D. 0.5 g/cm

12. Which of the following is the correct equation for measurement of volume of a
sphere:

A. B. C. D.

13. Which formula is used to calculate the density of an object?

A. B. C. D.

14. A number which is used to described the relationship between two quantities in
the form of an equation is called:

A. Proportionality constant B. Direct relationship C. Significant figure D. k

14. A number which is used to described the relationship between two quantities in
the form of an equation is called:

A. Proportionality constant B. Direct relationship C. Significant figure D. k

15. Two variables ‘a’ and ‘b’ are directly proportional, if they satisfy the relationship
of:

A. a=k x b B. C. D.

16. The graph mentioned below is expressing the relationship between distance (S)
and time (t). The relationship between ‘S’ and ‘t’ is:
250
an
Aw PMP nt
Distance (m)

a d 200
A hm MBA, artme
o r s), ep
nzo hysic arch D 971
150
a
M . (P
.S c R ese 5343 100
M u lu m 0 3 33
rric Cell: 50
Cu
5 10 15 20 25
Time (s)

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 39

 A. Inversely proportional
B. Linear relationship
C. Directly proportional
D. Straight line relationship

17. The quantity which changes due to change in the independent variable quantity
is known as:

A. Physical quantity
B. Dependent variable quantity
C. Independent variable quantity
D. Derived quantity

18. In an observation the zeros on the left side of the measured value are:

A. Significant
B. Not accurate but significant
C. Prefixes Manzoor Ahmad Awan
D. Not significant M.Sc. (Physics), MBA, PMP
Curriculum Research Department
Cell: 0333 5343 971

Answers (Test-III)
Self-Scoring Table (Test-III)
Estimated Time: 30 min 1. C 2. B 3. A
Your number of correct answers Your scores 4. B 5. B 6. C
(correct answers x 1) 7. D 8. B 9. C
10. D 11. D 12. C
13. B 14. A 15. A
Poor Fair Good Excellent 16. C 17. B 18. D
0-10 11-14 15-16 17-18

Write your scores in appropriate box

Go back and Go back and read the Identify the wrong Correct your wrong
read the topics topics again answers and read answer and go to
again the concerned topic the next test
again

Self-Scoring Table (Consolidated)

TESTS TEST-I TEST-II TEST-III TOTAL
SCORES 21 23 18 62
YOUR SCORES
(cumulative)

Rating Scale Poor Fair Good Excellent

0%-39% 40%-69% 70%-89% 90%-100%
Write your %age in box
Don’t go Don’t go to Identify Identify
to the next the next weak weak areas
chapter. chapter. areas and revise.
Remarks Read this Read this and Go to the
chapter chapter revise next
again. again. them. chapter

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 40

 SHORT AND LONG QUESTIONS
Unit-I: Topic Covered: Physical quantities, System International, Prefixes,
Scientific Notations.

1. What do you know about physical quantities? Differentiate between base

quantities and derived quantities.
ANSWER:
Physical quantities: There are some characteristics of every material object. For

Curriculum Research Department

example, to specify the characteristics of a brick, its length, width, height and mass. Such

M.Sc. (Physics), MBA, PMP

quantities are called physical quantities.

Manzoor Ahmad Awan

Cell: 0333 5343 971

Base quantities: The quantities like length, mass, time, temperature, electric current,
intensity of light and amount of substance are called the base quantities.

Derived quantities: The quantities which can be described in terms of base quantities
are known as derived quantities .

2. What is meant by unit? Differentiate between base units and derived units.
ANSWER:
Unit: In order to measure a physical quantity, we need to compare it with some standard
quantity. This standard quantity is known as “unit”.

Base units: The unit of a base quantity is called base unit and also known as the
fundamental unit. For example, the units of length, mass, time are called the base units.

Derived units: The unit of derived quantity which is derived from base unit is called
derived unit. For example, the units of speed, area, volume, density, force etc, are
derived from the base units.

3. What is meant by system of units? Write down the different system of units
used before SI.
ANSWER:
System of units: A set of base and derived units is called system of units.

Different system of units used before system international: Different systems of

units for measurement have been used in science at different time. The most commonly
used system were:
1. F.P.S System: Foot, Pound, Second system. This system was called the British
Engineering System (BES).
2. C. G.S System: Centimetre, Gram, Second system of units.
3. M.K.S: Metre, Kilogram, Second system of units.

4. What is system international? Write the number, names and symbols of

base units.
ANSWER:
System International: The 11th General Conference on Weights and Measurements
recommended the use of system consisting of seven base units known as
“International System of Units”.
Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 41
It is abbreviated as SI. This system is in use all over the world including Pakistan.
According to this system the unit of length is ‘metre’, unit of mass is ‘kilogram’ and unit of
time is ‘second’.
The number of SI base units is seven. These are given in the following table:
Base Quantities SI Units’ Name Symbol

Length metre m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric Current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Intensity of Light candela cd
Manz
Amount of Substance mole M.Sc oor Ahm mol
Curric . (Physic ad
ulum s), MB Awan
5. Why do we prefer system international unit? R A
Cell: 0 esearch D , PMP
ANSWER: 333 5 e p
343 9 artment
1. The system international is used in all over the world. 71
2. The use of this system is quite easy, because the multiples and sub-multiples of
units are obtained simply by multiplying or dividing with ten or power of 10.
3. The prototypes of standard used in SI are easily available.

6. Define three basic units of system international. OR Define metre, mass

and time.
ANSWER:

Metre: Standard metre is the bar of an alloy of platinum and iridium kept under
controlled conditions at the ‘International Bureau of Weights and Measures’ near Paris.
The distance between two lines marked on bar measured at 0oC is considered one
metre”. It is represented by “m”.

Modern Definition: The distance travelled by a light wave in vacuum during a time of
1 /299,792,458 second”. It is denoted by “m”.

Mass: A standard kilogram is the mass of platinum and iridium alloy cylinder kept
under controlled conditions at the ‘International Bureau of Weights and Measures’ near
Paris.”. It is denoted by “kg”.

Time: Second was defined as 1/86,400 part of a solar day of year 1900”. It is denoted
by “s”.

Modern Definition: A second is the duration in which the cesium -133 atom completes
9,192,631,770 vibrations”. It is denoted by “s”. The cesium atomic clocks are
considered to be the most accurate now a days.

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 42

7. What are the derived units? How they are derived. Give three examples.
ANSWER:
Derived units: The units which are expressed in term of fundamental (base) units are
known as derived units. E.g. the unit of volume, area, speed, force, pressure,
acceleration, momentum etc, are the derived units because the units of these quantities
are obtained by means of mathematical sign of multiplication and/ or division of two or
more fundamental units.

Examples of derived units:

Derived quantity How it is derived. Symbol
/Unit
Area

Volume

n
wa
Speed a d A , PMP ent
hm A m
oor A s), MB epart
n z i c D
Ma (Phys search 3 971
c . e 34
M.S ulum R 333 5
ric ell: 0
C ur C

8. Write the prefixes greater than 1 and less than 1; also convert 25 km in
metres. Write your answer in scientific notation.
ANSWER:
System International Prefixes
Prefixes greater than 1 Prefixes less than 1
Multiples Prefix Symbol Sub- Prefix Symbol
Multiples
101 deca da 10-1 deci d
2
10 hecto h 10-2 centi c
103 kilo k 10-3 milli m
106 mega M 10-6 micro µ
9
10 giga G 10-9 nano n
1012 tera T 10-12 pico p
1015 peta P 10-15 femto f
1018 exa E 10-18 atto a

(II). Since 1km=1000m, therefore we will multiply 25 km with 1000m.

4
25 x 1000= 25000 m, it can also be written as 2.5 x 10 m.

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 43

9. The unit of ‘work’ is ‘joule’ and it is derived unit . Prove it.
ANSWER:
We know W= F x d, where ‘F’ and ‘d’ represents force and distance respectively.
The unit of force is ‘Newton’ , which is derived unit and the unit of ‘distance’ is ‘metre’, that
is base unit of length.

So, W= N x m = Nm (1 Nm = 1 J)

W = J ( hence it is proved, the unit of work is joule and it is derived unit)

10. Define scientific notation. Write the importance of scientific notation.

ANSWER:
Scientific Notation: Scientific notation is an internationally accepted method, in which
numbers are recorded using the power of 10 or prefixes.

Importance of scientific notation: A physicist has to deal with very large numbers like
mass of sun, carrying thirty one digits and very small numbers like mass of electron,
carrying thirty zeros between decimal and the fist digit. These very large and very small
numbers are expressed more conveniently by internationally accepted method, which is
known as scientific notation. Manzoor Ahmad Awan
M.Sc. (Physics), MBA, PMP
Curriculum Research Department
****** Cell: 0333 5343 971
Unit-II: Topic Covered: Measuring Instruments (Vernier Callipers, Micrometer,
Physical Balance, Stop Watch, Measuring Cylinder)

1. What is the use of common metre rod? Write the least count of common
metre rod.
ANSWER:
Metre rod: The common metre rod is used to measure the length of a body. A common
metre rod contains three types of scales i.e. millimetre, centimetrr and inch.

Least Count (L.C) of metre rod: A metre rod can measure the length of the body
correct up to 1mm. In other words, the length less than 1mm can not be measured
accurately using a metre rod. Hence 1 mm is considered the least count of metre rod.

2. What are the uses of vernier callipers? What is meant by vernier constant
and least count?
ANSWER:

Uses of vernier callipers: Vernier Callipers is used to measure the smaller objects. The
common uses are listed below:
a. We can measure the length, outer diameter of an object by using the lower jaws of
Vernier Callipers.
b. We can measure inner diameter of an object by using the upper jaws of Vernier
Callipers.
c. We can also measure the depth of an object by using the stem of Vernier
Callipers.

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 44

Least Count: The minimum length which can be measured by a Vernier Callipers is
called its least count. Usually, the least count is calculated by dividing the length of one
division of main scale by the total number of divisions on the vernier scale.
1 Main Scale Division 1mm
Least Count = = = 0.1mm
Total Number of Vernier Scale Division 10mm

3. What is meant by zero error of vernier callipers? Describe the types of zero
error.
ANSWER:

urriculum Research Department C

On joining the jaw of main scale and vernier scale together, if the zero of vernier scale is not
exactly infront of zero of main scale, then there is zero error in the instrument.

M.Sc. (Physics), MBA, PMP

Manzoor Ahmad Awan
Types of zero error: There are two types of zero error in the instrument.

Cell: 0333 5343 971

a. Positive zero error
b. Negative zero error
Positive zero error: If the zero of the vernier scale is on the right side of the zero of main
scale then there is positive zero error. In this condition vernier callipers will show slightly
more than the actual measurement. Hence, this zero error (positive zero error) is
subtracted from the observed measurement.

Negative zero error: If the zero of the vernier scale is on the left side of the zero of main
scale then there is negative zero error. In this condition vernier callipers will show slightly
less than the actual measurement. Hence, the zero error (negative zero error) is added
to the observed measurement.

4. How the zero error of vernier callipers is calculated? Support your answer
with example.
ANSWER:
Correction of positive zero error: On joining the jaw of main scale and vernier scale
together, if the zero of vernier scale is on the right side of the zero of main scale, then the
zero error is subtracted from the observed measurement.

Correction of negative zero error: On joining the jaw of main scale and vernier scale
together, if the zero of vernier scale is on the left side of the zero of main scale, then the
zero error is added in the observed measurement.
Example:
Calculation of zero error: Suppose 6 is the number of division of vernier scale
coinciding with the any division of main scale. Then 6 is subtracted from 10 and the
resultant number is multiplied with the least count.
E.g.
10 - 6 = 4 (total number of division of vernier scale is
10)
4 x 0.1 = 0.4 mm (zero error) ( 0.1 mm is the least count)
Case-I: In case of positive zero error, 0.4 mm will be subtracted from the observed
measurement.
Case-II: In case of negative zero error, 0.4 mm will be added in the observed
measurement.

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 45

5. What are the uses of screw gauge? What is the meant by pitch of screw
gauge?
ANSWER:
Uses of screw gauge: It is a measuring instrument used to measure the thickness of
very small objects like a card board, a strip of metal or wire accurately up to one
hundredth part of a millimetre.

Pitch of Screw Gauge: The distance moved forward or backward in one complete
rotation of circular scale is called the pitch of the screw gauge. It is usually 1mm. It
means, when circular scale is rotated through 100 circular divisions, the spindle moves
(forward or backward) 1mm.

6. What is meant by the least count of a screw gauge? How it can be

calculated? Support your answer with example.
ANSWER:
Least count of screw gauge: The minimum length which can be measured accurately
by a screw gauge is called the least count of screw gauge.

Calculation of least count of screw gauge: The least count of screw gauge is

Curriculum Research Department

calculated by dividing its pitch by the total number of circular scale divisions.

M.Sc. (Physics), MBA, PMP

Manzoor Ahmad Awan

Cell: 0333 5343 971

Pitch = 1 mm
Total number of divisions on circular scale = 100

= 0.01 mm

Therefore, this screw gauge can measure accurate up to 0.01 mm.

7. How the zero error in screw gauge is determined ? Describe the types of
zero error.
ANSWER:
Determination of zero error: In order to find the zero error in screw gauge, the thimble
is rotated until the spindle touches the stud. If the zero of circular scale in not coinciding
the with the zero main scale, then there is zero error in the instrument.

a. Negative zero error: If the zero of the circular scale is above the horizontal line,
then there is negative zero error. This will show measure slightly less than the actual
measurement. Hence the zero error will be added in the observed measurement.

b. Positive zero error: If the zero of the circular scale is below the horizontal line,
then there is positive zero error. This will show measure slightly more than the actual
measurement. Hence, the zero error will be subtracted from the observed value.

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 46

8. What is the least count of a mechanical stop watch? Why it is called stop
watch?
ANSWER:
Least count of mechanical stop watch: The mechanical stop watch can measure the
time up to one tenth (1/10) part of a second. Therefore the least count of this watch is 0.1
second.

Why it is called stop watch: This watch is named stop watch because it can be started

Curriculum Research Department

or stopped at will as required. When the duration of period is to be measured, a button on

M.Sc. (Physics), MBA, PMP

its top is pushed. This will result in starting of watch. When it is required to be stopped,

Manzoor Ahmad Awan

the same button is pushed again.

Cell: 0333 5343 971

9. What is the least count of electronic or digital stop watches?
ANSWER:
The digital stop watch can measure the time up to one hundredth (1/100) part of a
second. Therefore the least count of digital stop watch is 0.01 second.

10. Which of the following instrument is more accurate for measurement the
diameter of a small sphere?
a. Metre rod b. Vernier callipers c. Screw gauge
ANSWER:
In order to know the more precise instrument for the measurement, we will analyze them
on the basis of least count.
a. Metre rod: The metre rod can measure the length accurately up to 1 mm.

b. Vernier callipers: The vernier callipers which is used in our school laboratories
can measure length accurately up to 0.1 mm.

c. Screw gauge: The screw gauge can measure the length accurately up to 0.01
mm.

Therefore, the most accurate instrument is ‘screw gauge’, which can measure up to 0.01
mm.
******

Unit-III: Topic Covered: Error and uncertainty in measurement, Significant figures of

measurement, Relation between physical quantities, The proportionality constant.

1. What is personal error? How are the personal error and random error
minimized?
ANSWER:
Personal error: The error occurs due to the carelessness and incompetence of
observer and inappropriate method of measurement is called the personal error.

Methods to minimized the personal and random error:

(1). Personal error can be minimized with experience and utmost care.
(2). Random error can be minimized by taking several readings and then
computing the mean value.

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 47

 2. What is systematic error? How is the systematic error eliminated? Give an
example of the systematic error.
ANSWER:
Systematic error: The error occurs due to the fault in measuring instrument is known as
systematic error.

Example: This error occurs due to systematic variation and zero error of the measuring
instrument.

Elimination of systematic error: The measuring instrument is compared with the

standard instrument. This process is called calibration and correction factor is applied.

3. What is meant by the proportionality constant? Give an example.

ANSWER:
Proportionality constant: A number which is used to describe the relationship
between two quantities in form of an equation is called proportionality constant.

Example: and
Where ‘v’ is the constant of proportionality.

4. What is significant figures? If the radius of a sphere is 1.11 cm, find its
volume in correct significant figures. Moreover, justify the correct significant
figures.
ANSWER:

Significant figures: In any measurement, the accurately known digits and the first
doubtful digit are called significant figures.

Volume of the sphere:

Radius of sphere = 1.11 cm

we know

an
A h m ad Aw PMP 3

a n z oor s), MBA, tment v = 5.731025 cm

M sic ar
. (Phy h D ep
M.Sc m Researc 43 971 v = 5.73 cm
3

r ri c u lu 3 3 53
Cu 03
Cell:
Justification: Answer should be in three significant figures i.e. 5.73, because the result
can not contain more number of significant figures than the minimum number of
significant figures in any of the observed quantity i.e. 1.11

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 48

5. What is independent and dependent variable quantities? Describe the
relationship between them with an example.
ANSWER:
Independent variable quantity: A quantity which we can change with our wish is called
independent variable quantity.

Dependent variable quantity: A quantity which changes due to change in independent

variable quantity is called dependent variable quantity.
2
Example: The area of square is determined by equation i.e. A=l . This equation shows
the relationship between two quantities like ‘area’ and ‘length’. The length is
independent variable quantity, while area is dependent variable quantity. Because,
change in length affects the area. E.g. length = 2,3,4, the area will be 4,9,16.

-3
Question: kgm is a derived unit of a derived physical quantity. Can you determine
that physical quantity?
HINT:

‘kg’ is unit of mass

and ‘m’ is the unit of
length.

Ma n
M.Sc zoor Ahm
Curri . (P a
culum hysics), Md Awan
R B
Cell: esearch D A, PMP
0333
5343 epartmen
971 t

Physics PLUS: Q-PLUS Centre for Excellence 49