ME 101 FUNDAMENTALS

OF MECHANICAL
ENGINEERING
CHAPTER 6 (1): FLUIDS ENGINEERING

Dr. İpek AYTAÇ

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INTRODUCTION AND BASIC CONCEPTS

McGraw-Hill | 2
 Objectives
• Understand the basic concepts of Fluid Mechanics.
• Recognize the various types of fluid flow problems
encountered in practice.
• Model engineering problems and solve them in a
systematic manner.
• Have a working knowledge of accuracy, precision, and
significant digits, and recognize the importance of
dimensional homogeneity in engineering calculations.

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■ INTRODUCTION
Mechanics: The oldest physical
science that deals with both
stationary and moving bodies
under the influence of forces.
Statics: The branch of mechanics
that deals with bodies at rest.
Dynamics: The branch that deals
with bodies in motion.
Fluid mechanics: The science
that deals with the behavior of
fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in Fluid mechanics deals with liquids and
motion (fluid dynamics), and the gases in motion or at rest.
interaction of fluids with solids or
other fluids at the boundaries.
Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is also referred to as
fluid dynamics by considering fluids at rest as a special
case of motion with zero velocity.
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Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids
that can be approximated as incompressible (such as
liquids, especially water, and gases at low speeds).
Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics, which
deals with liquid flows in pipes and open channels.
Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that
undergo significant density changes, such as the flow
of gases through nozzles at high speeds.
Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases
(especially air) over bodies such as aircraft, rockets,
and automobiles at high or low speeds.
Meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology: Deal
with naturally occurring flows.

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Fluid: A substance in the What is a Fluid?
liquid or gas phase.
A solid can resist an applied
shear stress by deforming.
A fluid deforms continuously
under the influence of a shear
stress, no matter how small.
In solids, stress is proportional
to strain, but in fluids, stress is
proportional to strain rate.
Deformation of a rubber block placed
When a constant shear force is between two parallel plates under the
applied, a solid eventually stops influence of a shear force. The shear
deforming at some fixed strain stress shown is that on the rubber—an
angle, whereas a fluid never equal but opposite shear stress acts
stops deforming and on the upper plate.
approaches a constant rate of
strain.
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Stress: Force per unit area.
Normal stress: The normal
component of a force acting on
a surface per unit area.
Shear stress: The tangential
component of a force acting on
a surface per unit area.
Pressure: The normal stress in
a fluid at rest.
Zero shear stress: A fluid at rest
is at a state of zero shear stress.
When the walls are removed or
a liquid container is tilted, a The normal stress and shear stress at
shear develops as the liquid the surface of a fluid element. For
moves to re-establish a fluids at rest, the shear stress is zero
horizontal free surface. and pressure is the only normal stress.

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In a liquid, groups of molecules can move relative to each other, but the
volume remains relatively constant because of the strong cohesive
forces between the molecules. As a result, a liquid takes the shape of the
container it is in, and it forms a free surface in a larger container in a
gravitational field.
A gas expands until it encounters the walls of the container and fills the
entire available space. This is because the gas molecules are widely
spaced, and the cohesive forces between them are very small. Unlike
liquids, a gas in an open container cannot form a free surface.

Unlike a liquid, a gas

does not form a
free surface, and it
expands to fill the
entire available
space.
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Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in gases.
Solid: Molecules are arranged in a pattern that is repeated throughout.
Liquid: Molecules can rotate and translate freely.
Gas: Molecules are far apart from each other, and molecular ordering
is nonexistent.

The arrangement of atoms in different phases: (a) molecules are at

relatively fixed positions in a solid, (b) groups of molecules move about each
other in the liquid phase, and (c) individual molecules move about at random
in the gas phase. 9
Gas and vapor are often used as synonymous words.
Gas: The vapor phase of a substance is customarily
called a gas when it is above the critical temperature.
Vapor: Usually implies that the current phase is not far
from a state of condensation.

Macroscopic or classical approach: Does not require

a knowledge of the behavior of individual molecules and
provides a direct and easy way to analyze engineering
problems.
Microscopic or statistical approach: Based on the
average behavior of large groups of individual
molecules.

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On a microscopic scale, pressure is
determined by the interaction of individual
gas molecules. However, we can measure
the pressure on a macroscopic scale with
a pressure gage.
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Application Areas of
Fluid Mechanics

Fluid dynamics is used extensively in the

design of artificial hearts. Shown here is the
Penn State Electric Total Artificial Heart.

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13
14
■ THE NO-SLIP CONDITION
Consider the flow of a fluid in a
stationary pipe or over a solid
surface that is nonporous (i.e.,
impermeable to the fluid).
All experimental observations
indicate that a fluid in motion
comes to a complete stop at the
surface and assumes a zero
velocity relative to the surface.
That is, a fluid in direct contact
with a solid “sticks” to the
surface, and there is no slip. This
is known as the no-slip condition.
The development of a velocity
profile due to the no-slip condition The fluid property responsible for
as a fluid flows over a blunt nose. the no-slip condition and the
development of the boundary
layer is viscosity.
 Boundary layer: The
flow region adjacent to
the wall in which the
viscous effects (and thus
the velocity gradients) are
significant.
A fluid flowing over a stationary surface
comes to a complete stop at the surface
because of the no-slip condition.

Flow
separation
during flow
over a
curved
surface. 16
■ CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
Viscous flows: Flows in which the frictional effects are significant.
Inviscid flow regions: In many flows of practical interest, there are
regions (typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where viscous
forces are negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces.

The flow of an originally

uniform fluid stream over a
flat plate, and the regions
of viscous flow (next to the
plate on both sides) and
inviscid flow (away from
the plate).
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Internal versus External Flow
External flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such
as a plate, a wire, or a pipe.
Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or duct if the fluid is bounded by
solid surfaces.

Water flow in a pipe is

internal flow, and airflow
over a ball is external
flow.
The flow of liquids in a
duct is called open-
channel flow if the duct is
only partially filled with
the liquid and there is a
free surface.
External flow over a tennis ball, and the
turbulent wake region behind.
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Incompressible flow: If the Compressible versus
density of flowing fluid remains
nearly constant throughout Incompressible Flow
(e.g., liquid flow).
Compressible flow: If the
density of fluid changes during
flow (e.g., high-speed gas flow)
When analyzing rockets,
spacecraft, and other systems that
involve high-speed gas flows, the
flow speed is often expressed by
Mach number

Schlieren image of the spherical shock

Ma = 1 Sonic flow wave produced by a bursting ballon
at the Penn State Gas Dynamics Lab.
Ma < 1 Subsonic flow
Several secondary shocks are seen in
Ma > 1 Supersonic flow the air surrounding the ballon.
Ma >> 1 Hypersonic flow 19
 Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
Laminar flow: The highly
ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth
layers of fluid. The flow of
high-viscosity fluids such as
oils at low velocities is
typically laminar.
Turbulent flow: The highly
disordered fluid motion that
typically occurs at high
velocities and is
characterized by velocity
fluctuations. The flow of low-
viscosity fluids such as air at
high velocities is typically
turbulent.
Transitional flow: A flow
that alternates between Laminar, transitional, and
being laminar and turbulent. turbulent flows over a flat plate.
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Natural (or Unforced)
versus Forced Flow
Forced flow: A fluid is forced
to flow over a surface or in a
pipe by external means such
as a pump or a fan.
Natural flow: Fluid motion is
due to natural means such as
the buoyancy effect, which
manifests itself as the rise of
warmer (and thus lighter) fluid
and the fall of cooler (and thus
denser) fluid. In this schlieren image of a girl in a
swimming suit, the rise of lighter,
warmer air adjacent to her body
indicates that humans and warm-
blooded animals are surrounded by
thermal plumes of rising warm air.
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Steady versus Unsteady Flow

The term steady implies no change at a point with time.

The opposite of steady is unsteady.
In fluid mechanics, unsteady is the most general term
that applies to any flow that is not steady, but transient is
typically used for developing flows.
The term uniform implies no change with location over a
specified region.
The term periodic refers to the kind of unsteady flow in
which the flow oscillates about a steady mean.
Many devices such as turbines, compressors, boilers,
condensers, and heat exchangers operate for long
periods of time under the same conditions, and they are
classified as steady-flow devices.

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One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
A flow field is best characterized by its velocity distribution.
A flow is said to be one-, two-, or three-dimensional if the flow velocity
varies in one, two, or three dimensions, respectively.
However, the variation of velocity in certain directions can be small relative
to the variation in other directions and can be ignored.

The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe. V = V(r, z)

and thus the flow is two-dimensional in the entrance region, and
becomes one-dimensional downstream when the velocity profile fully
develops and remains unchanged in the flow direction, V = V(r).
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Flow over a car antenna is approximately
two-dimensional except near the top and
bottom of the antenna.

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Uniform versus Nonuniform Flow
Uniform flow implies that all fluid properties, such as velocity,
pressure, temperature, etc., do not vary with position.
A wind tunnel test section, for example, is designed such that
the air flow is as uniform as possible.
Even then, however, the flow does not remain uniform as we
approach the wind tunnel walls, due to the no-slip condition
and the presence of a boundary layer,
The flow just downstream of a well-rounded pipe entrance is
nearly uniform, again except for a very thin boundary layer near
the wall.
In engineering practice, it is common to approximate the flow in
ducts and pipes and at inlets and outlets as uniform, even
when it is not, for simplicity in calculations.

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■ SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME

System: A quantity of matter or a

region in space chosen for study.
Surroundings: The mass or region
outside the system
Boundary: The real or imaginary
surface that separates the system
from its surroundings.
System, surroundings,
The boundary of a system can be
and boundary
fixed or movable.
Systems may be considered to be
closed or open.

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Closed system (Control mass): A fixed amount of mass,
and no mass can cross its boundary.

A closed system with a

moving boundary.

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Open system (control volume): A properly selected region in space.
It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a compressor,
turbine, or nozzle.
Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
Control surface: The boundaries of a control volume. It can be real or
imaginary.

A control volume may involve fixed,

moving, real, and imaginary boundaries.
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■ IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions.

The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called units.
Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t, and
temperature T are selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity V, energy E, and
volume V are expressed in terms of the primary dimensions
and are called secondary dimensions, or derived
dimensions.
Metric SI system: A simple and logical system based on a
decimal relationship between the various units.
English system: It has no apparent systematic numerical
base, and various units in this system are related to each
other rather arbitrarily.

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30
Some SI and English Units

Work = Force  Distance The SI unit prefixes are used in all

1 J = 1 N∙m branches of engineering.
1 cal = 4.1868 J
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ

The definition of the force units.

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 The relative
magnitudes of the
force units newton W weight
m mass
(N), kilogram-force
g gravitational
(kgf), and pound- acceleration
force (lbf).

A body weighing 72 kgf

on earth will weigh only
12 kgf on the moon.
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Dimensional homogeneity
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous.

Unity Conversion Ratios

All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be formed

by combinations of primary units.

Some unity conversion ratios

Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and are

unitless, and thus such ratios (or their inverses) can be inserted
conveniently into any calculation to properly convert units.
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 Every unity conversion ratio (as well
as its inverse) is exactly equal to one.
Shown here are a few commonly used
unity conversion ratios, each within its
Always check the units in your own set of parentheses.
calculations.

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A quirk in the metric
system of units. 35