PART 1: Skin and Body Membranes – aids in loss or retention of body heat as controlled by the

– cover body surfaces nervous system

– line body surfaces – aids in excretion of urea and uric acid
– form protective sheets around organs – synthesizes vitamin D

Classified into: How it accomplishes its functions:

Epithelial membranes – it contains keratin, which toughen cells; fat cells to cushion
Cutaneous membranes blows, and both pressure and pain receptors, which alert the
Mucous membranes nervous system to possible damage
Serous membranes – contains pain receptors
– has an unbroken surface and acid mantle. Phagocytes ingest
Connective tissue membranes foreign substances and pathogens, preventing them from
Synovial membranes penetrating into deeper body tissues.
– melanin produced by melanocytes offers protection from UV
EPITHELIAL MEMBRANES: damage.
– simple organs – contains heat/cold/pain receptors
– covering and lining membranes – contains a water-resistant glycolipid and keratin
– contain epithelial tissue layer and connective tissue layer – activates sweat glands
– contained in perspiration produced by sweat glands
Cutaneous membrane (skin) – cholesterol molecules in skin converted into vitamin D
– dry membrane
– outermost protective boundary Structure of the skin:
– construction: epidermis (composed of keratinized stratified Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)
squamous epithelium) and dermis (dense/ fibrous connective – anchors the skin to underlying organs
tissue) – not technically part of the integumentary system
– composed mostly of adipose tissue
Mucous membranes (mucosae) – serves as a shock absorber and insulates deeper tissues.
– moist membranes
– line all body cavities that open to the exterior body surface.
– adapted for absorption or secretion
– construction: epithelium type depends on site and loose
connective tissue (lamina propria)

Serous membranes (serosae)

– line open body cavities that are closed to the exterior of the
body
– occur in pairs, separated by serous fluid, with a visceral and
parietal layer.
– construction: simple squamous epithelium and areolar
connective tissue
Specific serous membranes
Peritoneum (abdominal cavity)
Pleura (around the lungs)
Pericardium (around the heart)

CONNECTIVE TISSUE MEMBRANES Two kinds of tissues that compose the skin:
Synovial membranes 1. EPIDERMIS (Outer layer)
– loose areolar connective tissue only (no epithelial) – capable of being hard and tough
– line fibrous capsules surrounding joints (line bursae and line – Stratified squamous epithelium
tendon sheaths) – Keratinocytes (the most common cell) produce a –fibrous
– secrete a lubricating fluid to cushion organs moving against protein called keratin
each other during muscle activity. –Avascular
–Composed of five layers (strata)
Integumentary System
Summary of layers of the epidermis from deepest to most
Consists of the: superficial:
Skin (cutaneous membrane) Stratum basale or germinativum
Skin appendages – Deepest layer of epidermis
– Sweat glands – Lies next to dermis
– Oil glands – Wavy borderline with the dermis anchors the two together
– Hair – Cells undergoing mitosis
– Nails – Daughter cells are pushed upward to become the more
superficial layers
Functions: Stratum spinosum
– insulates and cushion deeper body organs – Cells become increasingly flatter and more keratinized
– protects the entire body from: mechanical damage (bumps Stratum granulosum
and cuts), chemical damage (acids and bases), thermal – contains 8 – 10 rows of polyhedral cells.
damage (heat or cold), ultraviolet radiation (sunlight), microbes – together with stratum basale they are called stratum
(bacteria), and desiccation (drying out). malpighii.
Stratum lucidum (thick, hairless skin only) Reticular Layer (deepest skin layer)
– clear cell layer – Blood vessels, Sweat and oil glands, adipose tissue and
– Formed from dead cells of the deeper strata nerves.
– Occurs only in thick, hairless skin of the palms of hands and – Made up of dense CT with most of its collagen fibers.
soles of feet – The rows of collagen forms langers line.
– Contains 3 – 4 rows of clear flat dead cells that contain – Deep pressure receptors (lamellar corpuscles)
eleidin. – Responsible for the striae gravidarum seen in some pregnant
Stratum corneum (Horny layer) women.
– Outermost layer of epidermis
– Shingle-like dead cells are filled with keratin (protective Cells in the skin:
protein prevents water loss from skin) Fibroblast
– Contains 3 – 5 rows of flat, dead cells containing keratin. Macrophage
– Effective barrier of the skin against injury and infection. Mast cells
Blood cells
Plasma cells
Melanocytes responsible for Mongolian spot

SKIN COLOR
Pigments that contribute to skin color:
Melanin - yellow, reddish brown, or black pigments
Carotene - orange-yellow pigment from some vegetables
Hemoglobin - red coloring from blood cells in dermal
capillaries. Oxygen content determines the extent of red
coloring

Redness (erythema)—due to embarrassment, inflammation,

hypertension, fever, or allergy
Pallor (blanching)—due to emotional stress (such as fear),
anemia, low blood pressure, impaired blood flow to an area
Jaundice (yellow cast)—indicates a liver disorder
Bruises (black and blue marks)—hematomas
Cells found in skin:
Melanocytes Appendages of the skin
– Melanin is a pigment produced by melanocytes Cutaneous glands
– mostly in the stratum basale of the epidermis Sebaceous glands
– Color is yellow to brown to black – located all over the skin except for palms and soles
– Melanin accumulates in membrane-bound granules called – produce sebum (oil)
melanosomes – Most have ducts that empty into hair follicles; others open
– Amount of melanin produced depends upon genetics and directly onto skin surface
exposure to sunlight – Glands are activated at puberty
– most abundant in the genital area and sparest in the trunk
Epidermal dendritic cells/Langerhans cells Sweat glands
– Alert and activate immune cells to a threat (bacterial or viral – produce sweat
invasion) – widely distributed
Merkel cells – types: eccrine and apocrine
– Associated with sensory nerve endings
– Serve as touch receptors called Merkel discs Eccrine glands
Keratinocytes – Open via duct to sweat pores on the skin’s surface
– Most abundant type of cell in the epidermis. – Concentrated in the palm and sole
– Responsible for the formation of keratin – Produce acidic sweat (Water, salts, vitamin C, traces of
– Makes up the major part of the cell. metabolic waste)
– Function in body temperature regulation
2. DERMIS – Under sympathetic ( cholinergic ) control.
– connective tissue Apocrine glands
– underlies the epidermis – Ducts empty into hair follicles in the armpit and genitals,
– Contain different skin appendages, blood vessels, nerves, scrotum, prepuce, labia minora, nipple and perianal region.
and lymphatic vessels. – Begin to function at puberty
– Release sweat that also contains fatty acids and proteins
2 layers of the dermis (milky or yellowish color)
Papillary layer (upper dermal region) contain projections – Play a minimal role in body temperature regulation
called dermal papillae – Produces a viscous secretion that develops a musky odor
– Indent the epidermis above when exposed to bacteria at the skin surface.
– Many projections contain capillary loops, and others house Hair
pain and touch receptors ( nerve ending , meissners – Produced by hair follicle
corpuscles) – Root is enclosed in the follicle
– On palm and sole surfaces, papillae increase friction and – Shaft projects from the surface of the scalp or skin
gripping ability – Consists of hard keratinized epithelial cells
– Fingerprints are identifying films of sweat – Melanocytes produce pigment for hair color
– Made up of loose CT. – Hair grows in the matrix of the hair bulb in stratum basale
Hair anatomy (cuticle, cortex, medulla) – Red, epidermal lesions covered with dry, silvery scales that
– Central medulla itch, burn, crack, or sometimes bleed
– Cortex surrounds medulla
– Cuticle on outside of cortex Burns
– Most heavily keratinized region of the hair – Tissue damage and cell death caused by heat, electricity, UV
Associated hair structures radiation, or chemicals
Hair follicle – Associated dangers
– Composed of an epithelial root sheath and fibrous sheath Protein denaturation and cell death
– Dermal region provides a blood supply to the hair bulb Dehydration and electrolyte imbalance
(deepest part of the follicle) Circulatory shock
– Arrector pili muscle connects to the hair follicle to pull hairs – Result in loss of body fluids and infection from the invasion of
upright when we are cold or frightened bacteria
Nails
– Heavily keratinized, scalelike modifications of the epidermis
– Stratum basale extends beneath the nail bed, which is
responsible for growth
– Lack of pigment makes nails colorless
– nail folds are skin folds that overlap the edges of the nail; the
cuticle is the proximal edge
– Root of nail is embedded in skin
– Growth of the nail occurs from nail matrix

First-degree burn (superficial burn)

– Only epidermis is damaged
– Skin is red and swollen
Second-degree burn (partial-thickness burn)
– Epidermis and superficial part of dermis are damaged
– Skin is red, painful, and blistered
– Regrowth of the epithelium can occur
Third-degree burn (full-thickness burn)
– Destroys epidermis and dermis; burned area is painless
– Requires skin grafts, as regeneration is not possible
– Burned area is blanched (gray-white) or black
Homeostatic imbalance: Fourth-degree burn (full-thickness burn)
Acne - When sebaceous gland ducts are blocked by sebum, – Extends into deeper tissues (bone, muscle, tendons)
an active infection of the sebaceous glands. – Appears dry and leathery
Blackheads - If the accumulated material oxidizes and dries, – Requires surgery and grafting
it darkens. – May require amputation
whitehead - If the material does not dry or darken. Skin cancer
Seborrhea - “fast-flowing sebum”), known as “cradle cap” in – Most common form of cancer in humans
infants, is caused by overactivity of the sebaceous glands. – Most important risk factor is overexposure to ultraviolet (UV)
radiation in sunlight and tanning beds
Infections and allergies – Cancer can be classified two ways:
Athlete’s foot ​Benign - the neoplasm (tumor) has not spread
– Caused by fungal infection (Tinea pedis) ​Malignant - the neoplasm has invaded other body areas
– Itchy, red peeling skin between the toes – Most common types of skin cancer:
Boils (furuncles) and carbuncles Basal cell carcinoma
– Caused by inflammation of hair follicles – Least malignant and most common type of skin cancer
– Carbuncles are clusters of boils caused by bacteria Squamous cell carcinoma
Cold sores (fever blisters) – Early removal allows a good chance of cure
– Caused by human herpesvirus 1 – Believed to be induced by UV exposure
– Blisters itch and sting Malignant melanoma
Contact dermatitis – Most deadly of skin cancers, but accounts for only 5 percent
– Caused by exposure to chemicals that provoke allergic of skin cancers
responses – Arises from melanocytes
– Itching, redness, and swelling of the skin
Impetigo A = Asymmetry
– Caused by bacterial infection Two sides of pigmented mole do not match
– Pink, fluid-filled raised lesions around mouth/nose B = Border irregularity
Psoriasis Borders of mole are not smooth
– Triggered by trauma, infection, hormonal changes, or stress C = Color
Different colors in pigmented area
D = Diameter
Spot is larger than 6 mm in diameter
E = Evolution
One or more of the ABCD characteristics is evolving

Developmental aspects of skin and body membranes

Lanugo, a downy hair, covers the body by the fifth or sixth
month of fetal development but disappears by birth
Vernix caseosa, an oily covering, is apparent at birth
Milia, small white spots, are common at birth and disappear by
the third week
Acne may appear during adolescence
In youth, skin is thick, resilient, and well hydrated
With aging, skin loses elasticity and thins
Skin cancer is a major threat to skin exposed to excessive
sunlight
Balding and/or graying occurs with aging; both are
genetically determined; other factors that may contribute
include drugs and emotional stress

PART 2: Skeletal system

1. Fibrous Joints
— Immovable joints where bones are held together by tough
connective tissue.
Example: Sutures in the skull.

2. Cartilaginous Joints
— Partially movable joints where bones are connected by
cartilage.
Example: Joints between the vertebrae in the spine.

3. Synovial Joints
— Freely movable joints surrounded by a synovial membrane
that secretes lubricating fluid.
Examples:
Ball and Socket: Allows for a wide range of motion (e.g.,
shoulder, hip).
Hinge: Allows for movement in one direction (e.g., elbow,
knee).
Pivot: Allows for rotational movement (e.g., joint between the
first and second vertebrae in the neck).
Saddle: Allows for movement back and forth and side to side
(e.g., thumb joint).
Gliding (Plane): Allows bones to glide past each other (e.g.,
wrist, ankle).
Condyloid: Allows for movement but no rotation (e.g., wrist
joint connecting to forearm bones).
 Irritability (also called responsiveness) = ability to receive and
PART 3: Muscular System respond to a stimulus
Skeletal Contractility = ability to forcibly shorten when an adequate
- attached to bones stimulus is received
- multinucleate cells Extensibility = ability of muscle cells to be stretched
- voluntary Elasticity = ability to recoil and resume resting length after
- slow to fast stretching
- long cylindrical
Cardiac – Skeletal muscles must be stimulated by a motor
- walls of heart neuron (nerve cell) to contract
- chains of cells – Motor unit = one motor neuron and all the skeletal
- involuntary muscle cells stimulated by that neuron
- slow
- uninucleate The nerve stimulus and action potential:
Smooth Neuromuscular junction
- walls of organs – Association site of axon terminal of the motor neuron
- involuntary and sarcolemma of a muscle
- very slow Neurotransmitter
- uninucleate – Chemical released by nerve upon arrival of nerve
impulse in the axon terminal
FUNCTIONS: – Acetylcholine (ACh) is the neurotransmitter that
▪ Body movement stimulates skeletal muscle
▪ Maintenance of posture Synaptic cleft
▪ Respiration – Gap between nerve and muscle filled with interstitial
▪ Production of body heat fluid
▪ Communication – Although very close, the nerve and muscle do not
▪ Constriction of organs and vessels make contact
▪ Heart beat
When a nerve impulse reaches the axon terminal
Sarcolemma - specialized plasma membrane of the motor neuron,
myofibrils - long organelles inside a muscle cell Step 1: Calcium channels open, and calcium ions enter
● light (I) bands and dak (A) bands give the muscle its the axon terminal
striated (banded) appearance. Step 2: Calcium ion entry causes some synaptic
vesicles to release acetylcholine (ACh)
Banding pattern of myofibrils Step 3: ACh diffuses across the synaptic cleft and
I band = light band attaches to receptors on the sarcolemma of the muscle
— Contains only thin filaments cell
— Z disc is a midline interruption Step 4: If enough ACh is released, the sarcolemma
A band = dark band becomes temporarily more permeable to sodium ions
— Contains the entire length of the thick filaments — H zone is (Na+)
a lighter central area – Potassium ions (K+) diffuse out of the cell
— M line is in center of H zone – More sodium ions enter than potassium ions leave
– Establishes an imbalance in which interior has more
Sarcomere - contractile unit of a muscle fiber positive ions (depolarization), thereby opening more Na+
— structural and functional unit of skeletal muscle. channels
Step 5: Depolarization opens more sodium channels
myofilaments produce a banding (striped) pattern. that allow sodium ions to enter the cell
– An action potential is created
thick filaments - myosin filaments – Once begun, the action potential is unstoppable
— composed of the protein myosin – Conducts the electrical impulse from one end of the cell
— Contain ATPase enzymes to split ATP to release energy for to the other
muscle contractions Step 6: Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) breaks down
— Possess projections known as myosin heads acetylcholine into acetic acid and choline
— Myosin heads are known as cross bridges when they link – AChE ends muscle contraction
thick and thin filaments during contraction – A single nerve impulse produces only one contraction

thin filaments - actin filaments Cell returns to its resting state when:
— composed of the contractile protein actin 1. Potassium ions (K+) diffuse out of the cell
— actin is anchored to the Z disc 2. Sodium-potassium pump moves sodium and
— At rest, within the A band there is a zone that lacks actin potassium ions back to their original positions
filaments called the H zone
— During contraction, H zones disappear as actin and myosin MUSCLE CONTRACTION: Sliding Filament Theory
filaments overlap What causes filaments to slide?
– Calcium ions (Ca2+) bind regulatory proteins on thin
Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR) filaments and expose myosin-binding sites, allowing
— Specialized smooth endoplasmic reticulum the myosin heads on the thick filaments to attach
— Surrounds the myofibril – Each cross bridge pivots, causing the thin filaments to
— Stores and releases calcium slide toward the center of the sarcomere
– Contraction occurs, and the cell shortens
– During a contraction, a cross bridge attaches and 3 Pathways:
detaches several times 1. Direct phosphorylation of ADP by creatine
– ATP provides the energy for the sliding process, which phosphate (CP)
continues as long as calcium ions are present - Fastest
- Muscle cells store CP, a high-energy molecule
In a relaxed muscle fiber, the regulatory proteins - After ATP is depleted, ADP remains
forming part of the actin myofilaments prevent - CP transfers a phosphate group to ADP to regenerate
myosin binding. When an action potential ATP
(AP) sweeps along its sarcolemma and a muscle - CP supplies are exhausted in less than 15 seconds
fiber is excited, calcium ions (Ca2+) are released - 1 ATP is produced per CP molecule
from intracellular storage areas (the sacs of the 2. Aerobic respiration
sarcoplasmic reticulum). - ATP at rest and during light/moderate exercise
- A series of metabolic pathways, called oxidative
The flood of calcium acts as the final trigger for phosphorylation, use oxygen and occur in the
contraction, because as calcium binds to the mitochondria
regulatory proteins on the actin filaments, the - Glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and water,
proteins undergo a change in both their shape and - releasing energy (about 32 ATP)
their position on the thin filaments. This action - This is a slower reaction that requires continuous
exposes myosin-binding sites on the actin, to which delivery of oxygen and nutrients
the myosin heads can attach, and the myosin 3. Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid formation
heads immediately begin seeking out binding sites. - Reaction that breaks down glucose without oxygen
- Glucose is broken down to pyruvic acid to produce
The free myosin heads are “cocked,” much like an about 2 ATP
oar ready to be pulled on for rowing. Myosin - Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid, which causes
attachment to actin causes the myosin heads to snap muscle soreness
(pivot) toward the center of the sarcomere in a rowing - This reaction is not as efficient, but it is fast
motion. When this happens, the thin filaments are - Huge amounts of glucose are needed
slightly pulled toward the center of the sarcomere. ATP
provides the energy needed to release Muscle fatigue
and recock each myosin head so that it is ready to – occurs if muscle activity is strenuous and prolonged
attach to a binding site farther along the thin filament. – caused by: Ion imbalances (Ca2+, K+), Oxygen deficit and
lactic acid accumulation, and Decrease in energy (ATP) supply
Contraction of a skeletal muscle as a whole: – oxygen is repaid by rapid, deep breathing
Graded responses
– Muscle fiber contraction is “all-or-none,” meaning it will Muscle contractions:
contract to its fullest when stimulated adequately Isotonic contractions
– Within a whole skeletal muscle, not all fibers may be – Myofilaments are able to slide past each other during
stimulated during the same interval contractions
– Different combinations of muscle fiber contractions – The muscle shortens, and movement occurs
may give differing responses Example: bending the knee; lifting weights, smiling
– Graded responses—different degrees of skeletal Isometric contractions
muscle shortening – Muscle filaments are trying to slide, but the muscle is
– produced in two ways: By changing the frequency of muscle pitted against an immovable object
stimulation and by changing the number of muscle cells being – Tension increases, but muscles do not shorten
stimulated at one time Example: pushing your palms together in front of you
Muscle response to increasingly rapid stimulation
– muscle twitch Muscle tone
– As a result, contractions are “summed” (added) – State of continuous partial contractions
together, and one contraction is immediately followed – Result of different motor units being stimulated in a
by another systematic way
– When stimulations become more frequent, muscle – Muscle remains firm, healthy, and constantly ready for
contractions get stronger and smoother action
– Contractions are smooth and sustained
Muscle response to stronger stimuli Effect of exercise on muscles:
– Muscle force depends upon the number of fibers – increases muscle size, strength, and
stimulated endurance
– Contraction of more fibers results in greater muscle Aerobic - results in stronger, more flexible muscles with greater
tension resistance to fatigue. It makes body metabolism more efficient
– When all motor units are active and stimulated, the and it improves digestion coordination
muscle contraction is as strong as it can get Resistance - increases muscle size and strength

ATP Anatomy of muscle fibers

– Only energy source that can be used to directly power Aponeurosis – broad sheath like tendons.
muscle contraction Retinaculum – band of CT that hold down the
– Stored in muscle fibers in small amounts that are tendon at each wrist and ankle.
quickly used up Origin – or head most stationary end of the
– After this initial time, other pathways must be utilized to muscle.
produce ATP Insertion – end of the muscle attached to bone
that occurs the greatest movement.
Belly – part of the muscle between the origin - From coracoid process to arm -coracobrachialis
and insertion. 7. action
Prime mover – the muscle that carries out the - Extend (extensor carpi ulnaris), flex (flexor carpi
movement. ulnaris), and levator (levator scapulae)
Fixator – prevents movement of movable point
of attachment. Head and Neck Muscle
Synergist – muscles that inhibits the
movements that are not needed.
Antagonist – opposes the action of prime
mover.

Body movements:
flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation,
circumduction, lateral rotation, medial rotation, elevation,
depression, pronation, supination, protraction, retraction,
dorsiflexion, plantarflexion, Inversion, eversion, opposition,
reposition

5 Golden rules of skeletal muscle activity

1. all muscles cross at least one joint with few
exception.
2. the bulk of a muscle lies proximal to the
joint crossed.
3. all muscles have at least two attachment, the
origin and insertion Occipitofrontalis – raises the eyebrow,
4. muscles can only pull they never push. surprise muscle.
5. muscles insertion moves toward the origin Orbicularis Oculi – closes the eye, squint,
during contraction. blink and wink.
Orbicularis Oris – kissing muscle
Classification of muscle according to form: Buccinator – compresses the check as in
1. Unipennate – appear like a wing feather. blowing, sucking and whistling,
Ex. EDL, Tibialis posterior. zygomaticus major/minor – smiling muscle
2. Bipennate – resembles a symmetrical tail Depressor anguli oris – protrudes lower lip
feather. Levator labii superioris – elevate upper lips
Ex. FHL, Rectus femoris. Temporalis - elevates and retract mandible
3. Multipennate – multiple tendons with Masseter – elevates and protract mandible.
muscle fibers running between them. Lat. Pterygoids – protract and depresses
Ex.Subscapularis. mandible. Opening of the mouth.
4. Fusiform/Spindle shaped – usually rounded & Medial Pterygoids – protracts and elevates
tapered at ends. mandible.
Ex. Brachialis. Platysma – pull the corner of the mouth
5. Longitudinal/Parallel – long and straplike. inferiorly, horror expression or sad clown face.
Ex. Sartorius. Sternocleidomastoid – paired muscle,
6. Triangular/Convergent – fan shaped. individually rotate head and together flex or
Ex.Pectoralis major. extend head. Prayer muscle.
7. Quadrate/ Quadrilateral – four sided. Trapezius – 3 heads sup. Intermediate and inf.
Ex.Pronator quadratus, Rhomboids. fibers extend head and neck, suspend and rotation
8. circular – round of the scapula.
Ex. Orbicularis oris
Trunk Muscles (anterior):
Naming of skeletal muscles Pectoralis major – important in pushing,
1. Shape throwing and punching activities.
- Triangular (deltoid), round (teres), and straight (rectus Intercostal muscle – deep muscles found
femoris) between the ribs. Ext. intercostal muscle help to
2. Size raise the rib cage during inhalation while Int.
- Large (major, small-minor), broadest (latissimus), and intercostal muscle help to depress the rib cage
longest (longissimus) during exhalation.
3. Number of heads Rectus Abdominis – paired strap like muscle,
- Two (biceps brachii), three (triceps), four (quadriceps flex the trunk or lumbar spine, compress the
femoris), and two bellies (digastric) abdominal content during defecation & childbirth
4. Position External oblique – paired superficial muscle,
- Chest (pectoralis), above spine of scapula compress the abdomen, flex the thoracolumbar
(suspraspinatus), and arm (biceps/triceps brachii) spine against gravity or resistance, unilateral
5. Depth contraction ill cause lat. flex. On the same side
- Deep (profundus), superficial (superficialis), and and rotation to the opposite side.
external/internal (ext.and int. oblique) Internal Oblique – paired deep to ext. oblique
6. Attachment muscle, same action as ext. oblique but most
- From sternum to clavicle to mastoid process- active in trunk rotation among the abdominal
Sternocleidomastoid muscle muscles.
Transversus abdominis – deepest muscle, input and decides whether action is needed
compresses the abd. Content like a wide belt. Motor output
– A response, or effect, activates muscles or glands
Trunk Muscles (posterior):
Latissimus dorsi – 2 large flat muscle, involve STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION:
in extension and adduction of arm and aids in Central Nervous System (CNS)
lifting the pelvis. – Organs: brain and spinal cord
Erector Spinae – group of deep muscle act as – Functions: Integration; command center, interprets incoming
the prime mover of back extension ( iliocostalis, sensory information, and issues outgoing instructions.
longissimus and spinalis)
Quadratus Lumborum – flat muscle , bilateral Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
contraction will stabilize the pelvis and lumbar – Nerves extending from the brain and spinal cord
spine,unilateral contraction will flex the lumbar Spinal nerves = carry impulses to and from the spinal
spine to the same side. cord
Cranial nerves = carry impulses to and from the brain
Intramuscular site injection – Function: Serve as communication lines among sensory
1. deltoid – multi penniform muscle, responsible organs,
for the roundness of the shoulder, favorite the brain and spinal cord, and glands or muscles
injection site (less than 5ml), consist of 3 parts:
Anterior deltoid – shoulder flexion, horizontal FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION:
adduction and internal rotation of the humerus. Sensory (afferent) division
Middle deltoid – act with supraspinatus in – Nerve fibers that carry information to the central
shoulder abduction most active between 90 120° nervous system.
● Somatic sensory (afferent) fibers carry information
Posterior deltoid – contract in hyperextension and from the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints.
resisted horizontal abduction. ● Visceral sensory (afferent) fibers carry information
2. Gluteus medius - main hip abductor runs from from
the ilium to the femur, important in steadying the visceral organs
pelvis while walking. More than 5 ml. Motor (efferent) division
Quadriceps muscles – , important site for – Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central
intramuscular injection nervous system organs to effector organs (muscles and
Rectus femoris – superficial , 2 jointed muscle glands)
cross the hip and knee. Flexes hip and extend ● Somatic nervous system = voluntary
knee , site for IM injection also vastus lateralis. - Consciously (voluntarily) controls skeletal muscles
Vastus medialis &lateralis – middle , extend knee ● Autonomic nervous system = involuntary
Vastus intermedius – deep , extend knee. - Automatically controls smooth and cardiac muscles
and glands
Homeostatic imbalance: - Further divided into the sympathetic and
Muscular Dystrophy parasympathetic nervous systems
– a group of inherited muscle-destroying diseases that affect
specific muscle groups. NERVOUS TISSUE:
– Muscles appear to enlarge because of fat and connective Neurons (Nerve cells)
tissue deposits, but the muscle fibers degenerate and atrophy. – Cells specialized to transmit messages (nerve
– The most common and serious form is Duchenne’s impulses)
muscular dystrophy, which is expressed almost – Major regions of all neurons:
exclusively in boys. ● Cell body—nucleus and metabolic center of the cell
– This tragic disease is usually diagnosed between the ages ● Processes—fibers that extend from the cell body
of 2 and 7 years. – cell body is the metabolic center of neuron
– Active, normal-appearing children become clumsy and fall ● Nissl bodies— Rough endoplasmic reticulum
frequently as their muscles weaken ● Neurofibrils—maintain cell shape

Myasthenia Gravis Nuclei - clusters of cell bodies in the CNS

– characterized by drooping upper eyelids, Ganglia - collections of cell bodies outside the CNS in
difficulty in swallowing and talking, and the PNS
generalized muscle weakness and fatigability. Tracts - bundles of nerve fibers in the CNS
– involves a shortage of acetylcholine receptors at Nerves - bundles of nerve fibers in the PNS
neuromuscular junctions caused by antibodies specific for White matter - collections of myelinated fibers (tracts)
acetylcholine receptors. Gray matter - mostly unmyelinated fibers and cell
– Antibodies are immune molecules that will mark bodies
the receptors for destruction.
Functional classification:
PART 4: Nervous System Sensory (afferent) neurons
– Carry impulses from the sensory receptors to the
FUNCTIONS: CNS
Sensory input—gathering information – Receptors include:
– Sensory receptors monitor changes, called stimuli, Cutaneous sense organs in skin
occurring inside and outside the body Proprioceptors in muscles and tendons
Integration (brain and spinal cord) Motor (efferent) neurons
– Nervous system processes and interprets sensory – Carry impulses to the viscera , muscles, and glands.
 Interneuron (association) neurons causes pore like openings to form, releasing the
– Connect the motor and sensory neuron in neural neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
pathways,, the cell bodies are located in the CNS Step 4: The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse across
the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on the
1. Resting membrane is polarized. membrane of the next neuron
2. Stimulus initiates local depolarization. Step 5: If enough neurotransmitter is released, a
3. Depolarization and generation of an action potential. graded potential will be generated. Eventually an action
4. Propagation of the action potential. potential (nerve impulse) will occur
5. Repolarization. in the neuron beyond the synapse
6. Initial ionic conditions restored. Step 6: The electrical changes prompted by
Neurotransmitter binding are brief.
Electrical conditions of a resting neuron’s membrane – The neurotransmitter is quickly removed from the
– The plasma membrane at rest is inactive (polarized) synapse either by reuptake or by enzymatic activity
– Fewer positive ions are inside the neuron’s plasma – Transmission of an impulse is electrochemical
membrane than outside – Transmission down neuron is electrical
– K+ is the major positive ion inside the cell – Transmission to next neuron is chemical
– Na+ is the major positive ion outside the cell
– As long as the inside of the membrane is more Reflexes
negative (fewer positive ions) than the outside, the cell – are rapid, predictable, and involuntary
remains inactive responses to stimuli
– occur over neural pathways called reflex
Action potential initiation and generation arcs
– A stimulus changes the permeability of the neuron’s Two types of reflexes:
membrane to sodium ions Somatic reflexes
– Sodium channels now open, and sodium (Na+) diffuses – Reflexes that stimulate the skeletal muscles
into the neuron – Involuntary, although skeletal muscle is normally under
– The inward rush of sodium ions changes the polarity at voluntary control
that site and is called depolarization Example: pulling your hand away from a hot object
– A graded potential (localized depolarization) exists Autonomic reflexes
where the inside of the membrane is more positive and – Regulate the activity of smooth muscles, the heart, and
the outside is less positive glands
– If the stimulus is strong enough and sodium influx Example: regulation of smooth muscles, heart and
great enough, local depolarization activates the neuron blood pressure, glands, digestive system
to conduct an action potential (nerve impulse)
Five elements of a reflex arc
Propagation of the action potential 1. Sensory receptor—reacts to a stimulus
– If enough sodium enters the cell, the action potential 2. Sensory neuron—carries message to the integration
(nerve impulse) starts and is propagated over the Center
entire axon 3. Integration center (CNS)—processes information and
– All-or-none response means the nerve impulse either is directs motor output
propagated or is not 4. Motor neuron—carries message to an effector
– Fibers with myelin sheaths conduct nerve impulses 5. Effector organ—is the muscle or gland to be
more quickly stimulated

Repolarization Two-neuron reflex arcs

– Membrane permeability changes again—becoming – Simplest type
impermeable to sodium ions and permeable to Example: patellar (knee-jerk) reflex
potassium ions Three-neuron reflex arcs
– Potassium ions rapidly diffuse out of the neuron, – Consists of five elements: receptor, sensory neuron,
repolarizing the membrane interneuron, motor neuron, and effector
– Repolarization involves restoring the inside of the Example: flexor (withdrawal) reflex
membrane to a negative charge and the outer surface
to a positive charge Central nervous system (CNS):
– Initial conditions of sodium and potassium ions are Functional anatomy of the brain
restored using the sodium-potassium pump
– This pump, using ATP, restores the original Brain regions:
configuration
– Three sodium ions are ejected from the cell while two
potassium ions are returned to the cell
– Until repolarization is complete, a neuron cannot
conduct another nerve impulse

Transmission of the signal at synapses

Step 1: When the action potential reaches the axon
terminal, the electrical charge opens calcium channels
Step 2: Calcium, in turn, causes the tiny vesicles
containing the neurotransmitter chemical to fuse with * Cerebral hemispheres - paired (left and right)
the axonal membrane superior parts of the brain
Step 3: The entry of calcium into the axon terminal – Include more than half of the brain mass
– The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves – contains nuclei controlling heart rate, blood vessel diameter,
(sulci) respiratory rate, vomiting, etc.
– Fissures are deeper grooves Reticular formation (functional system):
– Lobes are named for the cranial bones that lie over – maintains cerebral cortical alertness
them – regulate skeletal and visceral muscle activity
Cerebellum:
Function of (L) hemisphere – processes information
1. Verbal, calculation, and abstract thinking – provides instructions
2. interpretation of speech – responsible for proper balance and posture
3. stereognosis
4. motor function of the right extremities Cerebral cortex:
– In 90% of cases, (L) hemisphere is dominant – Primary somatic sensory area
– Lesion of the (L) hemisphere will result in APHASIA – Located in parietal lobe posterior to central sulcus
Function of (R) hemisphere – Receives impulses from the body’s sensory receptors (Pain,
1. nonverbal, spatial, temporal and synthetic function temperature, light touch ;except for special senses)
2.appreciation of arts and music – Sensory homunculus is a spatial map
– Lesion in the (R) hemisphere is likely to result in: – Left side of the primary somatic sensory area receives
Loss of visual - spatial awareness and perceptual impulses from right side (and vice versa)
deficits Cerebral areas involved in special senses
Anosognosia - lesion in the right parietal lobe. Visual area (occipital lobe)
Dyspraxia Auditory area (temporal lobe)
Cortical extinction Olfactory area (temporal lobe)
Hemineglect
*Primary motor area
Main regions of cerebral hemisphere: – Located anterior to the central sulcus in the frontal lobe
1.gray matter – cerebral cortex which is – Allows us to consciously move skeletal muscles
the surface of the brain, presence of – Motor neurons form pyramidal (corticospinal) tract, which
gyri and sulci, cell bodies of the nuron. descends to spinal cord
2.White matter- the nerve fibers (axon) or – Motor homunculus is a spatial map
processes of the neurons. *Broca’s area (motor speech area)
3.Basal nuclei - deep pockets of gray – Involved in our ability to speak
matter – Usually in left hemisphere
*Other specialized areas
Functions of major brain regions – Anterior association area (frontal lobe)
*Cerebral Hemispheres – Posterior association area (posterior cortex)
Cortex: gray matters – Speech area (for sounding out words)
– Localizes and interprets sensory inputs
– controls voluntary and skilled skeletal muscle activity Cerebral white matter:
– acts in intellectual and emotional processing – Composed of fiber tracts deep to the gray matter
Basal nuclei: subcortical motor centers help control skeletal – Corpus callosum connects hemispheres
movements – Tracts, such as the corpus callosum, are known as
*Diencephalon commissures
Thalamus: – Association fiber tracts connect areas within a
– relays sensory impulses to cerebral cortex hemisphere
– relays impulses between cerebral motor cortex and lower – Projection fiber tracts connect the cerebrum with lower
motor centers CNS centers
– involved in memory
Hypothalamus: Basal Nuclei
– center of autonomic (involuntary) nervous system – “Islands” of gray matter buried deep within the white
– regulates body temperature, food intake, water balance and matter of the cerebrum
thirst – Regulate voluntary motor activities by modifying
– regulates hormonal output of anterior pituitary glands and instructions sent to skeletal muscles by the primary
acts as an endocrine organ motor cortex
Limbic system (functional system)
– includes cerebral and diencephalon structure *Diencephalon
– mediates emotional response – Sits on top of the brain stem
*Brain Stem – Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
Midbrain: – Made of three structures ;Thalamus, Hypothalamus, and
– contains visual and auditory reflex Epithalamus
– contains subcortical motor centers
– contains nuclei for cranial nerves III and IV Cerebrum
– contains protection fibers – Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
Pons: – Outer cortex of gray matter and inner region of white
– relays information from the cerebrum to the cerebellum matter
– corporates with the medullary centers – Controls balance
– contains nuclei cranial nerves V-VII – Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle activity and
Medulla oblongata: coordination of body movements
– relays ascending sensory pathway impulses from skin and
proprioceptors
Cerebral Lobes: of the spinal cord
*Frontal - voluntary motor control of skeletal muscles 3.CSF flows through the subarachnoid space
(personality, intellectual, and verbal communication) 4.CSF is absorbed into the dural venous sinuses via
Area 4 – primary motor area, contralateral voluntary the arachnoid villi
motor activity, fine motor movement
Area 6 – premotor area, sensorially guided Blood-brain barrier
movement. Gross motor movement – Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body
Area 8 – frontal eye field area, voluntary movement – Allows water, glucose, and amino acids to pass
of the eyes. through the capillary walls
Area 44 & 45 – Brocas motor speech area. – Excludes many potentially harmful substances from
Area 9, 10, 11 & 12 – Prefrontal cortex- abstract – entering the brain, such as wastes
thinking , foresight and judgement. Lesion may result – Useless as a barrier against some substances
to behavioral changes and change in cognitive
function Brain dysfunctions:
*Parietal - Somatesthetic interpretation, understanding and Traumatic brain injuries
utterance of speech. *Concussion
Area 3,1,2 – primary sensory area, receive tactile – Slight brain injury
sensation. – Typically little permanent brain damage occurs
Area 5 & 7 – sensory association area. *Contusion
Area 39 – 40 – Wernicke’s area, can speak but – Marked nervous tissue destruction occurs
not comprehend – Coma may occur
Area 39 – 40 Wernicke's aphasia/ receptive *Death may occur after head blows due to:
aphasia, can speak but not comprehend. – Intracranial hemorrhage
Area 43 – primary gustatory area. – Cerebral edema
*Temporal - interpretation of auditory and visual memory Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), or stroke
*occipital - integration of movements in focusing the eye; – Results when blood circulation to a brain area is
correlation of visual images with previous visual experiences; blocked and brain tissue dies
conscious seeing – Loss of some functions or death may result:
*Insular - memory; integration of other cerebral activities Hemiplegia—one-sided paralysis
Aphasia—damage to speech center in left hemisphere
Protection of central nervous system Transient ischemic attack (TIA)
Meninges: – Temporary brain ischemia (restriction of blood flow)
*Dura mater (pachymeninx) – Numbness, temporary paralysis, impaired speech
– Outermost leathery layer
– Double-layered external covering Spinal Cord
Periosteum—attached to inner surface of the skull – Extends from the foramen magnum of the skull to
Meningeal layer—outer covering of the brain the first or second lumbar vertebra
– Folds inward in several areas; – Cauda equina is a collection of spinal nerves at
Falx cerebri the inferior end
Tentorium cerebelli – Provides a two-way conduction pathway to and
*Arachnoid layer from the brain
– Middle layer – 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal
– Weblike extensions span the subarachnoid space to cord
attach it to the pia mater
– Subarachnoid space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid Gray matter of the spinal cord and spinal roots
– Arachnoid granulations protrude through the dura mater and – Internal gray matter is mostly cell bodies
absorb cerebrospinal fluid into venous blood – Dorsal (posterior) horns house interneurons
*Pia mater – Receive information from sensory neurons in the dorsal root;
–Internal layer cell bodies housed in dorsal root ganglion
– Clings to the surface of the brain and spinal cord – Anterior (ventral) horns house motor neurons of the
– Extending to all fissure and sulci, extend around blood somatic (voluntary) nervous system
vessels throughout the brain. – Send information out ventral root
– Gray matter surrounds the central canal, which is filled
Cerebrospinal fluid with cerebrospinal fluid
– Similar to blood plasma in composition White matter of the spinal cord
– Formed continually by the choroid plexuses – Composed of myelinated fiber tracts
Choroid plexuses—capillaries in the ventricles of the – Three regions: dorsal, lateral, ventral columns
Brain – Sensory (afferent) tracts conduct impulses toward
– CSF forms a watery cushion to protect the brain and brain
spinal cord – Motor (efferent) tracts carry impulses from brain to
– Circulated in the arachnoid space, ventricles, and skeletal muscles
central canal of the spinal cord
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) - consists of nerves and
Cerebrospinal fluid circulation ganglia outside the CNS
1.CSF is produced by the choroid plexus of each
ventricle Structure of a nerve
2.CSF flows through the ventricles and into the – Nerves are bundles of neurons found outside the
subarachnoid space via the median and lateral CNS
apertures. Some CSF flows through the central canal – Endoneurium is a connective tissue sheath that
surrounds each fiber Autonomic nervous system
– Perineurium wraps groups of fibers bound into a – Chain of two motor neurons:
fascicle Preganglionic neuron is in the brain or spinal cord
– Epineurium binds groups of fascicles Postganglionic neuron extends to the organ
– Has two arms: Sympathetic division & Parasympathetic
Mixed nerves - Contain both sensory and motor fibers division
Sensory (afferent) nerves - Carry impulses toward the CNS
Motor (efferent) nerves - Carry impulses away from the CNS Anatomy of the Parasympathetic Division:
Parasympathetic division is also known as the
Cranial Nerves craniosacral division
– OH OH OH TO TOUCH AND FEEL VES GIRL VAGINA AH – Preganglionic neurons originate in:
HEAVEN Cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X
– 12 pairs of nerves serve mostly the head and neck S2 through S4 regions of the spinal cord
– Preganglionic neurons synapse with terminal
(OH )Olfactory - purely sensory; carries impulses for the ganglia; from there, postganglionic axons extend
sense of smell to organs that are served
(OH) Optic - purely sensory; carries impulses vision Sympathetic division is also known as the
(OH) Oculomotor - supplies motor fibers to four to six muscles thoracolumbar division
that direct the eyeball – Preganglionic neurons originate from T1 through L2
(TO) Trochlear - supplies motor fibers for one external eye – Axons pass through a ramus communicans to enter a
muscle sympathetic trunk ganglion
(TOUCH )Trigeminal - conducts sensory impulses from the – Sympathetic trunk, or chain, lies near the spinal cord
skin of the face and mucosa of the nose and mouth; activates
chewing muscles Anatomy of the sympathetic division
(AND) Abducens - supplies motor fibers to the lateral rectus – After synapsing at the ganglion, the axon may
muscle, which rolls the eye laterally synapse with a second neuron at the same or
(FEEL) Facial - activates the muscle of facial expression different level
(VES) Vestibulocochlear - transmits impulses for the sense of – Or, the preganglionic neuron may pass through
balance; for the sense of hearing the ganglion without synapsing and form part of
(GIRL) Glossopharyngeal - promotes swallowing and saliva the splanchnic nerves
production – Splanchnic nerves travel to the collateral ganglion
(VAGINA) Vagus - promotes digestive activity and help – Collateral ganglia serve the abdominal and pelvic
regulate heart activity organs
(AH) Accessory - activates the sternocleidomastoid and
trapezius muscles Body organs served by the autonomic nervous
(HEAVEN) Hypoglossal - controls tongue movements system receive fibers from both divisions
Exceptions: blood vessels, structures of the skin, some
Spinal nerves glands, and the adrenal medulla
– 31 pairs
– Formed by the combination of the ventral and dorsal Autonomic Functioning
roots of the spinal cord When body divisions serve the same organ, they
– Named for the region of the spinal cord from which cause antagonistic effects due to different
they arise neurotransmitters
– Parasympathetic (cholinergic) fibers release
Ramus—branch of a spinal nerve; contains both motor acetylcholine
and sensory fibers – Sympathetic postganglionic (adrenergic) fibers release
Dorsal rami—serve the skin and muscles of the Norepinephrine
posterior trunk – Preganglionic axons of both divisions release acetylcholine
Ventral rami (T1–T12) —form the intercostal nerves that Sympathetic—“fight or flight” division
supply muscles and skin of the ribs and trunk – Response to unusual stimulus when emotionally or
Ventral rami (except T1–T12)—form a complex of physically stressed or threatened
networks (plexus) for the anterior – Takes over to increase activities
– Remember as the “E” division
Plexus—networks of nerves serving motor and Exercise
sensory needs of the limbs Excitement
– Form from ventral rami of spinal nerves in the Emergency
cervical, lumbar, and sacral regions Embarrassment
Four plexuses: Parasympathetic—“housekeeping” activities
Cervical, Brachial, Lumbar, and Sacral – “Rest-and-digest” system
– Conserves energy
Motor subdivision of the PNS – Maintains daily necessary body functions
– Consists only of motor nerves – Remember as the “D” division
– Controls the body automatically (and is also known as Digestion
the involuntary nervous system) Defecation
– Regulates cardiac and smooth muscles and glands Diuresis

Somatic nervous system Developmental Aspects of the Nervous

– Motor neuron cell bodies originate inside the CNS System
– Axons extends to skeletal muscles that are served – The nervous system is formed during the first
month of embryonic development Internal structures: Eyeball
– Any maternal infection can have extremely – Three layers, or tunics, form the wall of the
harmful effects eyeball
– Oxygen deprivation destroys brain cells Fibrous layer: outside layer
– The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the Vascular layer: middle layer
brain to develop Sensory layer: inside layer
– Severe congenital brain diseases include: – Humors are fluids that fill the interior of the
Cerebral palsy eyeball
Anencephaly – Lens divides the eye into two chambers
Hydrocephalus
Spina bifida Fibrous layer = sclera + cornea
– Premature babies have trouble regulating body Sclera
temperature because the hypothalamus is one of – White connective tissue layer
the last brain areas to mature prenatally – Seen anteriorly as the “white of the eye”
– Development of motor control indicates the Cornea
progressive myelination and maturation of a – Transparent, central anterior portion
child’s nervous system – Allows for light to pass through
– Brain growth ends in young adulthood. Neurons die Repairs itself easily
throughout life and are not replaced; thus, brain – The only human tissue that can be transplanted without
mass declines with age fear of rejection
– Orthostatic hypotension is low blood pressure due to
changes in body position Vascular layer
– Healthy aged people maintain nearly optimal – Choroid is a blood-rich nutritive layer that contains a
intellectual function pigment (prevents light from scattering)
– Disease—particularly cardiovascular disease—is the – Choroid is modified anteriorly into two smooth muscle
major cause of declining mental function with age structures:
– Arteriosclerosis is decreased elasticity of blood vessels *Ciliary body
*Iris—regulates amount of light entering eye
PART 5: SPECIAL SENSES Pigmented layer that gives eye color
Smell, Taste, Sight, Hearing, & Equilibrium Pupil—rounded opening in the iris

Special sense receptors Sensory layer

– large, complex sensory organs – Retina contains two layers
– localized clusters of receptors 1.Outer pigmented layer absorbs light and prevents it
from scattering
Eye and vision 2.Inner neural layer contains receptor cells
– 70 percent of all sensory receptors are in the eyes (photoreceptors)
– Each eye has over 1 million nerve fibers carrying *Rods - found towards the edges of the retina; allows
information to the brain vision in dim light and peripheral vision; all perception is in
gray tones.
Anatomy of the eye *Cones - allows detailed color vision, densest in the center
Eyelids - Meet at the medial and lateral commissure (canthus) of the retina
Eyelashes - Tarsal glands produce an oily secretion that – Electrical signals pass from photoreceptors via a
lubricates the eye two-neuron chain:
Ciliary glands are located between the eyelashes *Bipolar neurons
Conjunctiva *Ganglion cells
– Membrane that lines the eyelids and eyeball – Signals leave the retina toward the brain through the
– Connects with the transparent cornea optic nerve
– Secretes mucus to lubricate the eye and keep it moist – Optic disc (blind spot) is where the optic nerve leaves
Lacrimal apparatus = lacrimal gland + ducts the eyeball
Lacrimal gland—produces lacrimal fluid (tears);
situated on lateral end of each eye Lens
– Tears drain across the eye into the lacrimal canaliculi, – Flexible, biconvex crystal-like structure
then the lacrimal sac, and into the nasolacrimal duct, – Held in place by a suspensory ligament attached to the
which empties into the nasal cavity ciliary body
Tears contain: dilute salt solution, mucus, antibodies, lysozyme
Function of tears: cleanse, protect, moisten, lubricate the eye 1.Anterior (aqueous) segment
Extrinsic eye muscles Anterior to the lens
– Six muscles attach to the outer surface of the eye Contains aqueous humor, a clear, watery fluid
– Produce gross eye movements 2.Posterior (vitreous) segment
Posterior to the lens
Contains vitreous humor, a gel-like substance

Aqueous humor
– Watery fluid found between lens and cornea
– Similar to blood plasma
– Helps maintain intraocular pressure
– Provides nutrients for the lens and cornea
– Reabsorbed into venous blood through the scleral
venous sinus, or canal of Schlemm Convergence: reflexive movement of the eyes medially
Vitreous humor when we focus on a close object
– Gel-like substance posterior to the lens Photopupillary reflex: bright light causes pupils to
– Prevents the eye from collapsing constrict
– Helps maintain intraocular pressure Accommodation pupillary reflex: viewing close objects
causes pupils to constrict
Ophthalmoscope
– Instrument used to illuminate the interior of the eyeball The Ear: hearing and balance
and fundus (posterior wall) Ear houses two senses
– Can detect diabetes, arteriosclerosis, degeneration of 1.Hearing
the optic nerve and retina 2.Equilibrium (balance)
– Receptors are mechanoreceptors
Physiology of Vision – Different organs house receptors for each sense
– Pathway of light through the eye and light
refraction Anatomy of ear
– Light must be focused to a point on the retina for External (outer) ear
optimal vision – Auricle (pinna)
– Light is bent, or refracted, by the cornea, aqueous – External acoustic meatus (auditory canal)
humor, lens, and vitreous humor Narrow chamber in the temporal bone
– The eye is set for distant vision (over 20 feet away) Lined with skin and ceruminous (earwax) glands
Accommodation—the lens must change shape to Ends at the tympanic membrane (eardrum)
focus on closer objects (less than 20 feet away) – External ear is involved only in collecting sound waves
– Image formed on the retina is a real image (reversed from
left to right, upside down, and smaller than the object) Middle ear cavity (tympanic cavity)
– Air-filled, mucosa-lined cavity within the temporal bone
Visual fields and visual pathways to the brain – Involved only in the sense of hearing
Optic nerve – Located between tympanic membrane and oval
– Bundle of axons that exit the back of the eye carrying window and round window
impulses from the retina – Pharyngotympanic tube (auditory tube)
Optic chiasma – Links middle ear cavity with the throat
– Location where the optic nerves cross – Equalizes pressure in the middle ear cavity so the
– Fibers from the medial side of each eye cross over to eardrum can vibrate
the opposite side of the brain – Three bones (ossicles) span the cavity:
Optic tracts Malleus (hammer), Incus (anvil), andStapes (stirrup)
– Contain fibers from the lateral side of the eye on the Function
same side and the medial side of the opposite eye – Transmit vibrations from tympanic membrane to the
– Synapse with neurons in the thalamus fluids of the inner ear
Optic radiation – Vibrations travel from the hammer → anvil → stirrup →
– Axons from the thalamus run to the occipital lobe oval window of inner ear
– Synapse with cortical cells, and vision interpretation
(seeing) occurs Internal (inner) ear
– Includes sense organs for hearing and balance
Visual fields – Bony labyrinth (osseous labyrinth) consists of:
– Each eye “sees” a slightly different view Cochlea
– Field of view overlaps for each eye Vestibule
Binocular vision results and provides: Semicircular canals
– Depth perception (three-dimensional vision) – Bony labyrinth is filled with perilymph
Membranous labyrinth is suspended in perilymph and
A closer look contains endolymph
Emmetropia—eye focuses images correctly on
the retina vestibular apparatus - equilibrium receptors of the inner ear
Myopia (nearsightedness) 1.static equilibrium
– Distant objects appear blurry *maculae - receptors in the vestibule
– Light from those objects fails to reach the retina and – Report on the position of the head
are focused in front of it – Help us keep our head erect
– Results from an eyeball that is too long – Send information via the vestibular nerve (division of
Hyperopia (farsightedness) cranial nerve VIII) to the cerebellum of the brain
– Near objects are blurry, whereas distant objects are Anatomy:
clear – Hair cells are embedded in the otolithic membrane
– Distant objects are focused behind the retina – Otoliths (tiny stones) float in a gel around hair cells
– Results from an eyeball that is too short or from a “lazy – Movements cause otoliths to roll and bend hair cells
lens” 2.Dynamic equilibrium
Astigmatism *crista ampullaris
– Images are blurry – Responds to angular or rotational movements of the
– Results from light focusing as lines, not points, on the head
retina because of unequal curvatures of the cornea or – Located in the ampulla of each semicircular canal
lens – Tuft of hair cells covered with cupula (gelatinous cap)
– If the head moves, the cupula drags against the
Eye reflexes endolymph
 – Hair cells are stimulated, and the impulse travels the Filiform papillae
vestibular nerve to the cerebellum Gustatory cells- taste receptors
Possess gustatory hairs (long microvilli)
Hearing Gustatory hairs protrude through a taste pore
Spiral organ of Corti Hairs are stimulated by chemicals dissolved in saliva
– Located within the cochlear duct – Impulses are carried to the gustatory complex by
– Receptors = hair cells on the basilar membrane several cranial nerves because taste buds are
– Gel-like tectorial membrane is capable of bending hair found in different areas
cells Facial nerve (cranial nerve VII)
– Cochlear nerve attached to hair cells transmits nerve Glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX)
impulses to auditory cortex on temporal lobe vagus nerve (cranial nerve X)
Pathway of vibrations from sound waves – Taste buds are replaced frequently by basal cells
– Move by the ossicles from the eardrum to the oval
Window Five basic taste sensations
– Sound is amplified by the ossicles 1.Sweet receptors - respond to sugars, saccharine, some
– Pressure waves cause vibrations in the basilar amino acids
membrane in the spiral organ of Corti 2.Sour receptors - respond to H+ ions or acids
– Hair cells of the tectorial membrane are bent when the 3.Bitter receptors - respond to alkaloids
basilar membrane vibrates against it 4.Salty receptors - respond to metal ions
— An action potential starts in the cochlear nerve (cranial 5.Umami receptors - respond to the amino acid glutamate
nerve VIII), and the impulse travels to the temporal lobe or the beefy taste of meat
High-pitched sounds disturb the short, stiff fibers
of the basilar membrane Developmental aspects of the special senses
– Receptor cells close to the oval window are stimulated – Special sense organs are formed early in
Low-pitched sounds disturb the long, floppy fibers embryonic development
of the basilar membrane – Maternal infections during the first 5 or 6 weeks of
– Specific hair cells further along the cochlea are pregnancy may cause visual abnormalities as well
affected as sensorineural deafness in the developing child
– Vision requires the most learning
Hearing and Equilibrium Deficits – The infant has poor visual acuity (is farsighted)
and lacks color vision and depth perception at
Deafness - any degree of hearing loss birth
Conduction deafness results when the transmission of – The eye continues to grow and mature until age
sound vibrations through the external and middle ears 8 or 9
is hindered
Sensorineural deafness results from damage to the Age-related eye issues
nervous system structures involved in hearing – Presbyopia—“old vision” results from decreasing lens
Ménière’s syndrome affects the inner ear and causes elasticity that accompanies aging
progressive deafness and perhaps vertigo (sensation = Causes difficulty to focus for close vision
of spinning) – Lacrimal glands become less active
– Lens becomes discolored
Smell and Taste: – Dilator muscles of iris become less efficient, causing
Chemoreceptors pupils to remain constricted
Stimulated by chemicals in solution
Taste has five types of receptors – The newborn infant can hear sounds, but initial
Smell can differentiate a wider range of chemicals responses are reflexive
– Both senses complement each other and respond – By the toddler stage, the child is listening critically
to many of the same stimuli and beginning to imitate sounds as language
development begins
Olfactory receptors are in roof of nasal cavity
-Olfactory receptor cells (neurons) with long cilia known Age-related ear problems
as olfactory hairs detect chemicals – Presbycusis - type of sensorineural deafness that may
-Chemicals must be dissolved in mucus for detection by result from otosclerosis
chemoreceptors called olfactory receptors *Otosclerosis—ear ossicles fuse
– Impulses are transmitted via the olfactory – Congenital ear problems usually result from missing
filaments to the olfactory nerve (cranial nerve I) pinnas and closed or missing external acoustic meatuses
– Smells are interpreted in the olfactory cortex
– Taste and smell are most acute at birth and
Taste buds and the sense of taste decrease in sensitivity after age 40 as the number
Taste buds - house the receptor organs of olfactory and gustatory receptors decreases
Locations of taste buds
-Most are on the tongue
-Soft palate
-Superior part of the pharynx
-Cheeks
Papillae - projections that cover the tongue; contains taste
buds
Vallate (circumvallate) papillae
Fungiform papillae