SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS 1

▶PREPARED BY

Mr. Yosef B.
Msc,
Department ofECE.
 COURSEOUTCOMES 2

▶ C321_1: Understand different types of signals and systems

▶ C321_2: Apply Fourier transform to solve problems.
▶C321_3: Analyze the spectral characteristics of signals using Fourier transform.
▶ C321_4: Apply the relation between bandwidth and rise time & energy and power spectral densities
in various applications
▶ C321_5: Apply transform techniques to analyse discrete-time signals and systems
 Signals and systems 3

Unit – I: Signals and Systems

Signals & Systems: Basic definitions and classification of Signals and Systems (Continuous time and discrete time), operations on signals,
Concepts of Convolution and Correlation of signals, Analogy between vectors and signals-Orthogonality, mean square error
Unit – II: Fourier Series and Fourier Transform
Fourier series: Trigonometric & Exponential, Properties of Fourier series, concept of discrete spectrum, Illustrative Problems.
Continuous Time Fourier Transform: Definition, Computation and properties of Fourier transform for different types of signals and
systems, Inverse Fourier transform. Statement and proof of sampling theorem of low pass signals, Illustrative Problems.

Unit – II: Fourier Series and Fourier Transform

Fourier series: Trigonometric & Exponential, Properties of Fourier series, concept of discrete spectrum, Illustrative Problems.
Continuous Time Fourier Transform: Definition, Computation and properties of Fourier transform for different types of signals and
systems, Inverse Fourier transform. Statement and proof of sampling theorem of low pass signals, Illustrative Problems.
Unit – IV: Signal Transmission through LTI systems
Signal Transmission through Linear Systems: Linear system, impulse response, Response of a linear system for different input signals,
linear time-invariant (LTI) system, linear time variant (LTV) system, Transfer function of a LTI system. Filter characteristics of linear
systems. Distortion less transmission through a system, Signal bandwidth, System bandwidth, Ideal LPF, HPF and BPF characteristics,
Causality and Paley-Wiener criterion for physical realization, Relationship between bandwidth and rise time, Energy and Power spectral
densities, Illustrative Problems
 Signals and systems 4

Unit – V: DTFT & Z-Transform

Discrete Time Fourier Transform: Definition, Computation and properties of Discrete Time Fourier transform for different types of
signals and systems.
Z–Transform: Definition, ROC, Properties, Poles and Zeros in Z-plane, The inverse Z-Transform, System analysis, Transfer function,
BIBO stability, System Response to standard signals, Solution of difference equations with initial conditions. Illustrative Problems.

Textbooks:
1.A.V. Oppenheim, A.S. Willsky and S.H. Nawab, “Signals and Systems”, 2nd Edition, PHI, 2009.
2. Simon Haykin and Van Veen, “Signals & Systems”, 2nd Edition, Wiley, 2005.
Reference Books:
1. BP Lathi, “Principles of Linear Systems and Signals”, 2nd Edition, Oxford University Press, 015.
2. Matthew Sadiku and Warsame H. Ali, “Signals and Systems A primer with MATLAB”, CRC Press, 2016.
3. Hwei Hsu, “Schaum's Outline of Signals and Systems”, 4thEdition, TMH, 2019
 Signals and systems overview 6

What is Signal?
It is representation of physical quantity (Sound, temperature, intensity, Pressure, etc..,)
which varies with respect to time or space or independent or dependent variable.
or
It is single valued function which carries information by means of Amplitude,
Frequency and Phase.
Example: voice signal, video signal, signals on telephone wires etc.
Signals and systems overview
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Signal with different Phases, Amplitudes and Frequencies

 Classification of Signals
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Types of Signals with respect to no. of variables or dimensions

▶ One Dimensional or 1-D Signal: If the signal is function of only one variable or If
Signal value varies with respect to only one variable then it is called “One
Dimensional or 1-D Signal”
Examples: Audio Signal, Biomedical Signals, temperature Signal etc.., in which
signal is function “time”
 Classification of Signals
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▶ Two Dimensional or 2-D Signal: If the signal is function of two variable or If Signal
value varies with respect to two variable then it is called “Two Dimensional or 2-D
Signal”
Examples: Image Signal in which intensity is function of two spatial co-ordinates “X”
& “Y” i,.e I (X,Y)

▶ Three Dimensional or 3-D Signal: If the signal is function of

three variable or If Signal value varies with respect to three
variable then it is called “Three Dimensional or 3-D Signal”
Examples: Video Signal in which intensity is function of two
spatial co-ordinates “X” & “Y” and also time “t” i.e v(x,y,t)
 Classification of Signals
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Types of Signal with respect to nature of the signal

Continuous Time Signal (CTS) or Analog Signal :
If the signal values continuously varies with respect to time then it is called “Continuous Time
Signal (CTS) or Analog Signal “. It contains infinite set of values and it is represented as
shown below.
Digital Signal: If the signal contains only two values then it is called “Digital Signal”.
Discrete Time Signal (DTS):
If signal contain discrete set of values with respect to time then it is called “Discrete Time
Signal (DTS)”. It contains finite set of values. Sampling process converts Continuous time
signal in to Discrete time signal.
Representation of Discrete Time Signal (DTS)
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 Basic Types of Signals
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▶Unit Step Function

Unit step function is denoted by u(t). It is defined as u(t) = 1 when t ≥ 0
and 0 when t < 0

▶ It is used as best test signal.

▶ Area under unit step function is unity.
 Basic Types of Signals
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 Unit Impulse Function

Impulse function is denoted by δ(t). and it is defined as δ(t) ={ 0; 𝑡≠0
∞; 𝑡=0}
 Basic Types of Signals
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▶ Ramp Signal
Ramp signal is denoted by r(t), and it is defined as r(t) =

Area under unit ramp is unity.

 Basic Types of Signals
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▶ Parabolic Signal
Parabolic signal can be defined as x(t) =
 Basic Types of Signals
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▶ Signum Function
Signum function is denoted as sgn(t). It is defined as sgn(t) =
 Basic Types of Signals
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▶ Exponential Signal
Exponential signal is in the form of x(t) = eαt
The shape of exponential can be defined by α.
Case i: if α = 0 → x(t) = e0= 1

Case ii: if α< 0 i.e. -ve then x(t) = e−αt,

The shape is called decaying exponential.

Case iii: if α> 0 i.e. +ve then x(t) = eαt,

The shape is called raising exponential.
 Classification of Signals
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Signals are classified into the following categories:

▶ Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals

▶ Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals

▶ Even and Odd Signals

▶ Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

▶ Energy and Power Signals

▶ Real and Imaginary Signals

 Classification of Signals
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▶ Continuous Time and Discrete Time Signals

A signal is said to be continuous when it is defined for all instants of time.

A signal is said to be discrete when it is defined at only discrete instants of time.

 Classification of Signals
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Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals

A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no uncertainty with respect to its value at any
instant of time. Or, signals which can be defined exactly by a mathematical formula are
known as deterministic signals.

A signal is said to be non-deterministic if

there is uncertainty with respect to its value
at some instant of time. Non-deterministic signals
are random in nature hence they are called
random signals. Random signals cannot be
described by a mathematical equation.
They are modelled in probabilistic terms.
 Classification of Signals
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Even and Odd signals

A signal is said to be even when it satisfies the condition x(t) = x(-t)
Example 1: t2, t4… cost etc.
Let x(t) = t2
x(-t) = (-t)2 = t2 = x(t)
∴ t2 is even function
Example 2: As shown in the following diagram, rectangle function x(t) = x(-t) so it is also even function.

A signal is said to be odd when it satisfies the condition x(t) = -x(-t)

 Classification of Signals
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Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

A signal is said to be periodic if it satisfies the condition x(t) = x(t + T) or x(n) = x(n + N).
Where, T = fundamental time period,
1/T = f = fundamental frequency.

The above signal will repeat for every time interval T0 hence it is periodic with period T0.
 Classification of Signals
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Energy and Power Signals

A signal is said to be energy signal when it has finite energy.

A signal is said to be power signal when it has finite power.

NOTE:A signal cannot be both, energy and power simultaneously. Also, a signal may be
neither energy nor power signal.

Power of energy signal = 0 and Energy of power signal = ∞

 Classification of Signals
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Real and Imaginary Signals

A signal is said to be real when it satisfies the condition x(t) = x*(t)

A signal is said to be odd when it satisfies the condition x(t) = -x*(t)

Example:
If x(t)= 3 then x*(t)=3*=3, here x(t) is a real signal.
If x(t)= 3j then x*(t)=3j* = -3j = -x(t), hence x(t) is a odd signal.

Note: For a real signal, imaginary part should be zero. Similarly for an imaginary signal,
real part should be zero.

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 Basic Operations on Signals
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There are two variable parameters in general:

▶ Amplitude
▶ Time
The following operation can be performed with amplitude:
Amplitude Scaling
C x(t) is a amplitude scaled version of x(t) whose amplitude is scaled by a
factor C.
 Basic Operations on Signals
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Addition
Addition of two signals is nothing but addition of their corresponding amplitudes. This
can be best explained by using the following example:

As seen from the previous diagram,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 0 + 2 = 2
-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 1 + 2 = 3
3 < t < 10 amplitude of z(t) = x1(t) + x2(t) = 0 + 2 = 2
 Basic Operations on Signals
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Subtraction
subtraction of two signals is nothing but subtraction of their corresponding amplitudes.
This can be best explained by the following example:

As seen from the diagram above,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) - x2(t) = 0 - 2 = -2
-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) - x2(t) = 1 - 2 = -1
3 < t < 10 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) - x2(t) = 0 - 2 = -2
 Basic Operations on Signals
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Multiplication
Multiplication of two signals is nothing but multiplication of their corresponding
amplitudes.
This can be best explained by the following example:

As seen from the diagram above,

-10 < t < -3 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) ×x2(t) = 0 ×2 = 0
-3 < t < 3 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) - x2(t) = 1 ×2 = 2
3 < t < 10 amplitude of z (t) = x1(t) - x2(t) = 0 × 2 = 0
 Basic Operations on Signals
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The following operations can be performed with time:

Time Shifting
x(t ±t0) is time shifted version of the signal x(t).
x (t + t0) →negative shift
x (t - t0) →positive shift
 Basic Operations on Signals
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Time Scaling
x(At) is time scaled version of the signal x(t). where A is always positive.
|A| > 1 → Compression of the signal
|A| < 1 → Expansion of the signal

Note: u(at) = u(t) time scaling is not applicable for unit step function.
 Basic Operations on Signals
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Time Reversal
x(-t) is the time reversal of the signal x(t).
 Basic Operations on Signals
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Convolution: Convolution between two continuous time signals can be written as

The following operations are required to compute convolution

1. Time reversal
2. Time Shifting ( Delay & Advance)
3. Signal Multiplication
4. Integration
Note: If two signals are finite duration then Graphical Method is used and Else Function
Method is employed to compute Convolution
 System Definition 35

What is System?
System is a device or combination of devices, which can operate on signals and
produces corresponding response. Input to a system is called as excitation and
output from it is called as response.
For one or more inputs, the system can have one or more outputs.
Example: Communication System
 Classification of Systems
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Systems are classified into the following categories:

▶ linear and Non-linear Systems

▶ Time Variant and Time Invariant Systems

▶ linear Time variant and linear Time invariant systems

▶ Static and Dynamic Systems

▶ Causal and Non-causal Systems

▶ Invertible and Non-Invertible Systems

▶ Stable and Unstable Systems

 Classification of Systems
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Linear and Non-linear Systems

A system is said to be linear when it satisfies superposition and homogenate principles. Consider two
systems with inputs as x1(t), x2(t), and outputs as y1(t), y2(t) respectively. Then, according to the
superposition and homogenate principles,
T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] = a1 T[x1(t)] + a2 T[x2(t)]
∴ T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] = a1 y1(t) + a2 y2(t)
From the above expression, is clear that response of overall system is equal to response of individual
system.
Example: y(t) = x2(t)
Solution:
y1 (t) = T[x1(t)] = x12(t)
y2 (t) = T[x2(t)] = x22(t)
T [a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)] = [ a1 x1(t) + a2 x2(t)]2
Which is not equal to a1 y1(t) + a2 y2(t). Hence the system is said to be non linear.
 Classification of Systems
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Time Variant and Time Invariant Systems

A system is said to be time variant if its input and output characteristics vary with time.
Otherwise, the system is considered as time invariant. The condition for time invariant system is:
y (n , t) = y(n-t)
The condition for time variant system is:
y (n , t) ≠ y(n-t)
Where y (n , t) = T[x(n-t)] = input change
y (n-t) = output change
Example:
y(n) = x(-n)
y(n, t) = T[x(n-t)] = x(-n-t)
y(n-t) = x(-(n-t)) = x(-n + t)
∴ y(n, t) ≠ y(n-t). Hence, the system is time variant.
 Classification of Systems
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Liner Time variant (LTV) and Liner Time Invariant (LTI) Systems
If a system is both liner and time variant, then it is called liner time variant (LTV) system.
If a system is both liner and time Invariant then that system is called liner time invariant (LTI)
system.
Static and Dynamic Systems
Static system is memory-less whereas dynamic system is a memory system.
Example 1: y(t) = 2 x(t)
For present value t=0, the system output is y(0) = 2x(0). Here, the output is only dependent
upon present input. Hence the system is memory less or static.
Example 2: y(t) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3)
For present value t=0, the system output is y(0) = 2x(0) + 3x(-3).
Here x(-3) is past value for the present input for which the system requires memory to get
this output. Hence, the system is a dynamic system.
 Classification of Systems
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Causal and Non-Causal Systems

A system is said to be causal if its output depends upon present and past inputs, and does
not depend upon future input.
For non causal system, the output depends upon future inputs also.
Example 1: y(n) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3)
For present value t=1, the system output is y(1) = 2x(1) + 3x(-2).
Here, the system output only depends upon present and past inputs. Hence, the system is
causal.
Example 2: y(n) = 2 x(t) + 3 x(t-3) + 6x(t + 3)
For present value t=1, the system output is y(1) = 2x(1) + 3x(-2) + 6x(4) Here, the system
output depends upon future input. Hence the system is non-causal system.
 Classification of Systems
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Invertible and Non-Invertible systems

A system is said to invertible if the input of the system appears at the output.

Y(S) = X(S) H1(S) H2(S)

= X(S) H1(S) · 1(H1(S))
Since H2(S) = 1/( H1(S) )
∴ Y(S) = X(S)
→ y(t) = x(t)
Hence, the system is invertible.
If y(t) ≠ x(t), then the system is said to be non-invertible.
 Classification of Systems
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Stable and Unstable Systems

The system is said to be stable only when the output is bounded for bounded input. For a
bounded input, if the output is unbounded in the system then it is said to be unstable.
Note: For a bounded signal, amplitude is finite.
Example 1: y (t) = x2(t)
Let the input is u(t) (unit step bounded input) then the output y(t) = u2(t) = u(t) = bounded
output.
Hence, the system is stable.
Example 2: y (t) = ∫x(t)dt
Let the input is u (t) (unit step bounded input) then the output y(t) = ∫u(t)dt = ramp signal
(unbounded because amplitude of ramp is not finite it goes to infinite when t →
infinite).
Hence, the system is unstable.
Convolution and correlation of signals
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Convolution and correlation of signals
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Convolution and correlation of signals
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Convolution and correlation of signals
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Convolution and correlation of signals
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Convolution and correlation of signals
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Convolution and correlation of signals
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Convolution and correlation of signals
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