Wireless Communication

Code: EC 1701

NIT Jamshedpur
Autumn Semester, 2024

Lecture # 1-2
Motivation and Introduction
Faculty: Dr. Surajit Kundu
Asst. Professor, ECE

[email protected] Mob. :+91-9832271039

 Suggested Reading
1.T. S. Rappaport, Wireless Communications, Principle &
Practice, 2nd edition, Prentice Hall

2.W. C. Y. Lee, Mobile Cellular Telecommunication, McGraw

Hill

3. A. Goldsmith, Wireless Communication, Cambridge Publication

4.Andreas F. Molisch, Wireless Communication, 2nd edition,

Wiley-IEEE

5.Lecture Notes by the concerned faculty

8/22/2024 [email protected] 2
 Prerequisites

Fundamentals
Probability
of
Communication Theory &
Math

Signals &
Systems
Mobile &Wireless
Communication Digital
Communica
tion
Open eye
& daily
practices EM Theory
Information & Wave
Theory & Propagation
Coding

[email protected] 3
 यास सादा तवानेत गु यमहं परम ् |
योगं योगे वरा कृ णा सा ा कथयत: वयम ् ||

vyasa-prasadac chrutavan
etad guhyam aham param
yogam yogesvarat krsnat
saksat kathayatah svayam

By the mercy of Vyasa, I have heard these most

confidential talks directly from the master of all mysticism,
Krisna, who was speaking personally to Arjuna.

8/22/2024 [email protected] 4
 Early Days of Communication
Sumerian script

Alexander Graham
Sheet metal
Gutenberg's press Bell’s Telephone 1876
Telephone 1894

Image8/22/2024
courtesy: Google Image [email protected] 5
James Clerk Maxwell Nikola Tesla Heinrich Rudolph Jagadish Chandra
1831-1879 1856-1943 Hertz 1857-1894 Bose 1858-1937
Maxwell had mathematically established that visible light is an EM
phenomenon. Hertz generated electromagnetic waves having 66
cm wavelength which traveled through space and produced a spark
at a distance. He carried out several experiments to show that these
waves have similar properties as light.
Nikola Tesla: Inventor of Radio telegraphy, Alternating current,
induction motors etc. Marconi used Tesla coils and earthing for his
transmitters
Guglielmo Marconi Marconi made history when he transmitted the Morse code of “S”
across the Atlantic, from Cornwall in England to Newfoundland in
1874- 1937
Canada on 12th December 1901.
8/22/2024 [email protected] 6
 Claude Elwood Shannon (April 30, 1916 – February 24, 2001) known
as "the father of Information Theory.
C. E. Shannon: "A mathematical theory of communication." Bell
System Technical Journal, vol. 27, pp. 379–423 and 623–656, July and
October 1948.

1897 - at Royal
Institution,
London

[email protected]
 SPUTNIK 1 (1957) ARYABHATA (1975) CHANDRAYAAN-3
(2023)

WEARABLE DEVICES 5G Communication: Networked society

Image courtesy: Google Image

 Homi Jehangir Bhabha (1909-1966)

C. V. Raman (1988-1970) Vikram Ambalal Sarabhai (1919-1971)

Sonam Wangchuk
(1966) Uddhab Bharali
(1962)
A. P. J. Abdul Kalam (1931-2015) Govind Swarup (1929)

Image courtesy: Google Image

What is Wireless Communication?

Why Wireless?

1. Human Connectivity considering global coverage

2. Remote Control of Instruments considering freedom from wires

3. Defence Sector

4. Emergency

5. Development of rural areas

6. Flexibility
Always Connected – Anytime-Anywhere-Anything
8/22/2024 Whenever – Whereever – with Whomever
[email protected] 11
 Advantages of Wireless Communication

1.Mobility
2.Increased Reliability
3.Ease of Installation
4.Rapid disaster Recovery
5.Lower cost

Disadvantage of Wireless Communication

Multipath Fading

Signal Interference

Security

Health Hazards
8/22/2024 [email protected] 12
 Challenges

1. Minimizing Power Requirement: transmitter design, link budget

2. Efficient Hardware design: Receiver algorithm, VLSI – CMOS

technology

3. Integrated Services: Delay, packet loss, BER, data rate, traffic

4. Mobility Support: handover, roaming

5. Maintaining QOS: multipath fading, shadowing

8/22/2024 [email protected] 13
 Wireless Era

Pioneer era (1860 - 1921):

1860s : Maxwell develops fundamental laws of Electromagnetics

1880s : Heinrich Hertz proves existence of EM waves

1890s: Nicola Tesla demonstrates radio telegraphy

1890s: Alexander Popov builds first radio receiver

1890s: Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose rings a bell remotely

1901s: Gugliemo Marconi - First Transatlantic radio communication

1912: Sinking of the Titanic highlights the importance of wireless

communications on the seaways. In the following years marine radio is established.

8/22/2024 [email protected] 14
 Pre – Cellular Era

1921 Detroit police department conducts field tests with mobile radio

1933 In the United States, four channels in the 30-40MHz range

1938 In the United States, ruled for regular services

1940 Wireless communications is stimulated by World War II

1948 First commercial fully automated mobile telephone system is

deployed in Richmond, United States

8/22/2024 [email protected] 15
 Pre – Cellular Era Contd.

1948 Claude Shannon publishes two benchmark papers on

Information Theory, containing the basis for data
compression (source encoding) and error detection and
correction (channel encoding)

1950’s Microwave telephone and communication links are

developed

1960’s Introduction of trunked radio systems with automatic

channel allocation capabilities in the United States

1970’s Commercial mobile telephone system operated in

many countries (e.g. 100 million moving vehicles on US
highways, B-Netz in (West-) Germany.
8/22/2024 [email protected] 16
 Cellular Era

1980’s Deployment of analogue cellular systems

1990’s Digital cellular deployment and dual mode

operation of digital systems

2000’s Future Public Land MobileTelecommunication Systems (FPL

MTS) /International Mobile Telecommunciations– 2000 (IMT-
2000) / Universal Mobile
Telecommunication Systems (UMTS) deployed with multimedia services

2010s Wireless broadband communications available with

OFDM and All IP

2010’s + Radio over fiber (such as fiber-optic microcells)

8/22/2024 [email protected] 17
 Image courtesy: NASA (https://earthdata.nasa.gov/learn/remote-sensing)
8/22/2024 [email protected] 18
8/22/2024 [email protected] 19
8/22/2024 [email protected] 20
 Wireless Era

Pioneer era (1860 - 1921):

1860s : Maxwell develops fundamental laws of Electromagnetics

1880s : Heinrich Hertz proves existence of EM waves

1890s: Nicola Tesla demonstrates radio telegraphy

1890s: Alexander Popov builds first radio receiver

1890s: Acharya Jagadish Chandra Bose rings a bell remotely

1901s: Gugliemo Marconi - First Transatlantic radio communication

1912: Sinking of the Titanic highlights the importance of wireless

communications on the seaways. In the following years marine radio is established.
1914-1918: 1st World War signified the relevance of communication technology.
8/22/2024 [email protected] 21
 Pre – Cellular Era

1921 Detroit police department conducts field tests with mobile radio

1933 In the United States, four channels in the 30-40MHz range

1938 In the United States, ruled for regular services

1940 Wireless communications is stimulated by World War II

1948 First commercial fully automated mobile telephone system is

deployed in Richmond, United States

8/22/2024 [email protected] 22
 Pre – Cellular Era Contd.

1948 Claude Shannon publishes two benchmark papers on

Information Theory, containing the basis for data
compression (source encoding) and error detection and
correction (channel encoding)

1950’s Microwave telephone and communication links are

developed

1960’s Introduction of trunked radio systems with automatic

channel allocation capabilities in the United States

1970’s Commercial mobile telephone system operated in

many countries (e.g. 100 million moving vehicles on US
highways, B-Netz in (West-) Germany.
8/22/2024 [email protected] 23
 Cellular Era

1980’s Deployment of analogue cellular systems

1990’s Digital cellular deployment and dual mode

operation of digital systems

2000’s Public Land Mobile Telecommunication Systems (FPLMTS) /

International Mobile Telecommunciations 2000 (IMT2000) /Universal
Mobile Telecommunication Systems deployed with multimedia services

2010s Wireless broadband communications available with

OFDM and All IP

2010’s + Radio over fiber (such as fiber-optic microcells)

2020’s+ 5G and Beyond 5G
8/22/2024 [email protected] 24
 FREQUENCY APPLICATION
Hz Hertz
0 Earth magnetic field, DC power transmission
16 Power supply for electric trains in Europe
50 Power supply system in most of the Countries
60 Power supply system in the United States &
Japan
400 Power supply in airplanes
KHz kiloHertz
10.5 Door openers, intrusion alarms
10 - 20 Anti-theft devices
10 - 150 Military, government communication
150 - 535 Long wave radio, beacons, maritime
communication
535 - 1700 AM radio band
1700 - 30 MHz Short wave radio band, government, military &
commercial, amateur radio (27 MHz CB)

8/22/2024 [email protected] 25
 MHz MegaHertz
27 Amateur CB radio band
30 - 50 Walkie-talkies
54 - 72 TV channels
72 - 76 Remote controls, eavesdropping bugs
76 - 88 TV channels
88-108 FM radio
108 - 148 Aeronautical, satellites, military and
amateur radio
173 LoJack car tracking system
150 - 174 Law enforcement, weather and maritime
174 - 216 TV channels
222 - 225 Amateur radio
225 - 420 Military and government
420 - 450 Amateur radio
470 - 700 TV channels

8/22/2024 [email protected] 26
 728 – 798 New cellular band (2009), previously TV channels

806 - 821 SMR uplinks

821- 824 Public safety uplinks
824 - 960 Cellular phones (GSM, TDMA, CDMA)
960-1610 Aviation navigation, amateur, maritime and radio
astronomie
1610-1616 Iridium satellite phones
1429 - 1850 Various satellite transmission, U.S. Government
1805 – 1990 PCS Cellular phone band (GSM 1800, CDMA,
UMTS)
1920 – 1930 DECT 6 cordless phones
1990 - 2110 Broadcast studio to transmitter link
2110 – 2170 New cellular phone band (WCDMA 2100)
2400 – 2500 Bluetooth, portable phone, remote controls
2412 – 2462 WLAN (wireless local area networks)
2500 – 2690 New cellular phone band (UMTS)
8/22/2024 [email protected] 27
 GHz GigaHertz

4-6 Future satellite TV

5.14 - 5.70 WLAN

5.8 New cordless phones

11.7 - 12.7 Satellite TV, small dish

28 - 29 Future wireless TV?

60 Future short distance broadband wireless

access

8/22/2024 [email protected] 28
8/22/2024 [email protected] 29
8/22/2024 [email protected]
Courtesy: Lecture slides of Prof. S. S. Das, IIT Kharagpur 30
8/22/2024 [email protected] 31
 1G 2G 2.5G 3G Beyond 4G
3G
1970 1982 1992 2007 2010

Analog Digital Voice & Multimedia Broadband VoLTE/ VoIP;

IoT; Online
Voice Voice Data Services Multimedi gaming; True
a broadband
Multimedia

AMPS GSM GPRS WCDMA UMTS LTE

IS- 95 EDGE CDMA 2000 IMT-A
FM; Analog Digital Higher Anytime Broadband Heterogeneous
Switching; Modulation; throughput anywhere multimedia; N/W;
Hard Handover Error control; than 2G; data multimedia; High data rate; Guaranteed
soft handover compression Increase Higher QOS; QOS; Real
capacity Wide area Broadband with
broadband wide coverage

FDMA TDMA TDMA WCDMA WCDMA OFDMA

CDMA CDMA OFDMA
Limited Users 9.6-28.8 57-115 0.1-2 Mbps 10 Mbps 100s Mbps
Very low
throughput Kbps Kbps

8/22/2024 [email protected] 32
 Courtesy: Qualcomm Technologies, Inc.
8/22/2024 [email protected] 33
 Courtesy: Qualcomm Technologies, Inc.
8/22/2024 [email protected] 34
 Courtesy: Qualcomm Technologies, Inc.
8/22/2024 [email protected] 35
 Courtesy: Qualcomm Technologies, Inc.
8/22/2024 [email protected] 36
Targets in 5G: 1-10Gbps connectivity; 1 ms end-to-end round trip delay
(latency) ;1000x bandwidth per unit area; 10-100x number of connected
devices; (Perception of) 99.999% availability ; (Perception of) 100% coverage;
90% reduction in network energy usage; Up to ten year battery life for low
power, machine-type devices
Cognitive
Massive Radio Mobile
MIMO Cloud

Cooperative mm-Wave
Communication 5G Communication

Software Green
Defined N/W Communication

M2M/D2D
Comm.; eMBB;
IoT; Smart City
8/22/2024 [email protected] 37
 Applications Existing standards
Mobile telephony GSM, CDMA(IS-95), WCDMA,
UMTS, 3GPP LTE
Wireless LAN/MAN/WAN IEEE 802.11 (Wi-Fi), 802.16
(WiMAX)
Wireless Personal Area Network Bluetooth (802.15.1), UWB
(802.15.3a)
Digital audio broadcast, HD radio, DAB
DRM
Digital Video Broadcast, DTH DVB

Mobile satellite communication, Global Iridium, UMTS, GPS

Communication
Mobile Internet Access GPRS, M-IPV6, WAP

Wireless local loops DECT, CorDECT, CDMA, GSM

Mobile Ad-hoc Network WLAN, WMAN standards,

8/22/2024 bluetooth, sensor network
[email protected] 38
Technology Standard Usage Throughput Range Frequency band
(upto)
EDGE 2.5G WWAN 384 kbps 1-5 Miles 1900 MHz

CDMA 3G WWAN 2.4 Mbps 1-5 Miles 400/800/900/1700/

1800/1900/2100 Mz
2000
Bluetooth 802.15.1 WPAN 720 kbps 30 feet 2.4 GHz

Wi-Fi 802.11a WLAN 54 Mbps 300 feet 5 GHz

Wi-Fi 802.11b WLAN 11 Mbps 300 feet 2.4 GHz

Wi-Fi 802.11g WLAN 54 Mbps 300 feet 2.4 GHz

WiMAX 802.16d WMAN 75 Mbps (20 4 – 6 2 – 11 GHz

(fixed) MHz B.W) Miles
WiMAX 802.16e WMAN 30 Mbps (10 1 – 3 2 – 6 GHz
(portable) MHz B.W) Miles
WCDMA / 3G WWAN 2 Mbps; 10 1–5 1800/
UMTS Mbps(HSDPA) Miles 1900/2100 MHz
UWB 802.15.3a WPAN 110-480 Mbps 30 feet 7.5 GHz band
8/22/2024 [email protected] 39
3 GPP - 3rd Generation Partnership Project – Long Term
LTE Evolution
AMPS Advanced Mobile Phone System
CDMA Code Division Multiple Access
1xRTT 1 times Radio Transmission Technology
DECT Digital Enhanced Cordless Telephony
EDGE Enhanced Data Rates for GSM Evolution
FCC Federal Communication Commission
GPRS General Packet Radio Service
GPS Global System for Mobile Communication
GSM Global System for Mobile Communication

8/22/2024 [email protected] 40
HIPERLAN High Performance Radio Local Area network
IEEE Institute for Electrical and Electronics engineer
IS Interim Standard
ISM Industrial, Scientific and Medical band (900 MHz, 2.4 GHz, 5.7
GHz band)
ITU International Telecommunication Union
OFDM Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
RAN Radio Access Network
RFID Radio Frequency Identification
SIM Subscriber Identity Module
UMTS Universal Mobile Telecommunication System
WAP Wireless Access Protocol
WCDMA Wideband CDMA
Wi-Fi Wireless Fidelity
WiMAX Worldwide Interoperability for Microwave Access
8/22/2024 [email protected] 41
 Wireless Communication
Code: EC 1701

NIT Jamshedpur
Autumn Semester, 2024

Lecture # 3
CONCEPT OF CELLULAR SYSTEM

Faculty: Surajit Kundu

Assistant Professor, ECE
M1
Cellular Concept
Various cell shapes:

Why hexagonal?

8/22/2024 [email protected] 43
Slide 43

M1 Microsoft, 02-08-2018
M1
Cellular Concept
Frequency Reuse
S: total available duplex channels
N: number of cells
K: frequency channels/cell

S= KN
Cluster: N cells which collectively
Use the complete set of available How to find the value of N?
frequencies.

Capacity C= MKN = MS
M: repetition numbers of cluster
1/N: frequency reuse factor

8/22/2024 [email protected] 44
Slide 44

M1 Microsoft, 02-08-2018
M1
Cellular Concept
30 MHz spectrum is allotted to a wireless FDD cellular
system which uses two 25 KHz simplex channels to
provide full duplex voice and control channels. Compute
the number of channels available per cell if a system uses
(a) 4-cell reuse
(b)7-cell reuse
(c) 12-cell reuse

If 1 MHz spectrum is dedicated to control channels,

determine the distribution of voice and control channels.

Ans: (a) 150 (b) 85 (c) 50

Part II. (a) 145+5 (b) 83+2 and/or 82+3 (c) 48+2 and/or 49+1

8/22/2024 [email protected] 45
Slide 45

M1 Microsoft, 02-08-2018
 Lecture # 4-7

INTERFERENCES IN
CELLULAR SYSTEM
 Sources of Interferences:
 Nature
 Another mobile in the same cell
 A call in progress in a neighbouring cell
 Different base stations operating in the same freq. band
 Energy leakage in cellular band from non-cellular systems

Effects of Interferences:
 Cross talk
 Call miss, call block and call drop
 System capacity reduced

System Generated Cellular Interferences:

 Co-Channel Interference
 Adjacent Channel Interference

8/22/2024 [email protected] 47
8/22/2024 [email protected] 48
8/22/2024 [email protected] 49
 Show that
Process:

 Find the distance between centres

of any two adjacent cells (AC).
Ans.: √3R

 Find out the relation between D

and R considering the fact that to
get nearest co-channel 1st move I
no. of cell and then move J no. of
cell after 60 degree rotation.

 Find out the ration between the area of large hexagonal cell (consists of 1st
tire co-channel cell) and small hexagonal cell.

 Now determine an expression of cluster size for large hexagon and compare
it with the result obtained in previous step.
8/22/2024 [email protected] 50
X movement: √3Ri + √3Rjcos60
=

Y movement: √3Rjsin60 =

8/22/2024 [email protected] 51
 No. of cells in large hexagon = Area
of large hexagon / Area of small
hexagon.

𝟐
Where area of hexagon
Here r is radius of hexagon.

Therefore No. of cells in large

hexagon is: 𝟐 𝟐)

From fig. it is clear that no. of cells enclosed by large hexagon = N + 6(N/3) = 3N

Therefore

8/22/2024 [email protected] 52
 S: Desired signal power of
Signal to interference ratio: desired base station
Ii: Interference power caused by
Received Power without ith interfering co-channel cell
impact of fading: i0 : No. of interfering co-channel
cells.

P0: Received power in reference location

d0: Reference distance
n: Path loss exponent
d: distance b/w Tx and Rx
8/22/2024 [email protected] 53
8/22/2024 [email protected] 54
 Lecture #

IMPROVING CAPACITY IN
CELLULAR SYSTEM
  Adjust to growing spatial traffic demand within available spectrum.
 Rescaled the high traffic dense cellular network by subdividing a congested
cell into smaller cells
 Each smaller cell has its own base station
 Base station antenna height and transmitted power is reduced
 Antenna down tilting to focus on local small cells
 Channel reuse is increased while
maintaining the co-channel reuse ratio (Q)
 Capacity increases due to additional
channels per unit area
 Strategic maintenance of earlier base station
with high transmission power and new base
stations with low transmission power to
avoid unnecessary hand-offs which also
reduces the computational load at MSC

8/22/2024 [email protected] 57
8/22/2024 [email protected] 58
8/22/2024 [email protected] 59
8/22/2024 [email protected] 60
8/22/2024 [email protected] 61
8/22/2024 [email protected] 62
8/22/2024 [email protected] 63
8/22/2024 [email protected] 64
8/22/2024 [email protected] 65
8/22/2024 [email protected] 66
8/22/2024 [email protected] 67
8/22/2024 [email protected] 68
8/22/2024 [email protected] 69
8/22/2024 [email protected] 70
 Co-channel interference reduced to increase capacity.

Omni-directional antenna at base station is replaced by by sectored

directional antennas.

A cell is Sectored usually into either 3 sectors each of 120 degree or 6

sectors each of 60 degree.

SIR improved which leads to cluster size reduction for improvement

of freq. reuse, i.e. system capacity.

Drawback: System cost, complexity and no. of hand-offs increased

8/22/2024 [email protected] 71
8/22/2024 [email protected] 72
  Repeaters for range extension : Amplify and redirect the base
station signal to the desired coverage region.

 Microcell Zone Concept

: To avoid multiple hand-offs

 Adaptive Antenna

8/22/2024 [email protected] 73
Lecture # 08-11
Spread Spectrum
Modulation
 Access Technologies
Dedicated Channel: An individually-assigned, dedicated pathway
through a transmission medium
for one user’s information

FDMA TDMA

Power Power

CDMA
FDM/ TDM: Physical Layer

FDMA/ TDMA: Data

Link Power
Layer
AMPS
Sending to BS: 824-849 MHz
Receiving from BS: 869-894 MHz
Band/ user: 30 KHz; Link B.W: 25 MHz
Digital Signal Service using TDM
 Code Multiplex
Power Time

UMTS USER 2

FDD
UMTS USER 1
UL DL
Frequency
5 MHz 5 MHz
Duplex Spacing: 190 MHz

Power DL
Time Code Multiplex
UL
UMTS USER 2 &
DL Time Division
DL
TDD UMTS USER 1
UL

666.67 s
5 MHz Frequency
CDMA – Multiple Access Method

 All CDMA users occupy the same frequency at the same time!
Frequency and time are not used as discriminators
 CDMA operates by using CODING to discriminate between
users
 Codes- Precisely Orthogonal with respect to all other Codes
 Uses the spread spectrum
 Bandwidth much higher than required
 Minimizes transmit power while maintaining acceptable quality
signal
What is spread spectrum?

 Methods by which energy generated in a particular bandwidth is

deliberately spread in the frequency domain, resulting in a signal with
a wider bandwidth.
 used for a variety of reasons, including the establishment of secure
communications, increasing resistance to natural interference and
jamming, and to prevent detection.

Why do we need this?

 Spreading

Code 1
Code 2
User 1 Code 3
User 2 Code 4
User 3 Code 5
User 4
User 5
Composite signal
Power spectrum

Codes discriminate users

5 MHz
 x(t) Tbit
Power spectrum
+a
Data sequence a2Tbit = Ebit
-a
x Tchip
spreading sequence
+1
Frequency
-1
1/Tbit
= +a
Transmitted/received sequence
Tchip = Echip
-a
Tchip
x +1
spreading sequence 1/Tchip

-1 a2Tchip
= +a Tbit
Data sequence
1/Tchip
-a

Transmitted
Data sequence Modulation Demodulation Data sequence
signal

Spreading sequence generator Spreading sequence generator

 General Model of Spread Spectrum System

Input fed into channel encoder

Produces narrow bandwidth analog signal around central frequency
Signal modulated using sequence of digits
Spreading code/sequence
Typically generated by pseudonoise/pseudorandom number generator
Increases bandwidth significantly
Spreads spectrum
Receiver uses same sequence to demodulate signal
Demodulated signal fed into channel decoder
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Each bit represented by multiple bits using spreading code

Spreading code spreads signal across wider frequency band

In proportion to number of bits used
10 bit spreading code spreads signal across 10 times
bandwidth of 1 bit code

One method:
Combine input with spreading code using XOR
Input bit 1 inverts spreading code bit
Input zero bit doesn’t alter spreading code bit
Data rate equal to original spreading code

S(t)= 𝒔
d(t) c(t) cos (2πfct+φ)
𝒔

Tc«Td ; Bs»Bd ; Process Gain: 𝒔

= 𝒅 𝒄 𝒔
𝒅 𝒄 𝒅 𝒅
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)

b
 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS)
Approximate
Spectrum of
DSSS Signal
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
Multiplexing Technique used with spread spectrum
Start with data signal rate D: Called bit data rate
Break each bit into k chips according to fixed pattern specific to each
user: User’s code
New channel has chip data rate kD chips per second
E.g. : k=6, three users (A,B,C) communicating with base receiver R
Code for A = <1,-1,-1,1,-1,1> Code for B = <1,1,-1,-1,1,1> Code for C =
<1,1,-1,1,1,-1>
 Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)
 n users each using different orthogonal PN sequence
 Modulate each users data stream: Using BPSK
 Multiply by spreading code of user
 Signal broadcast over seemingly random series of frequencies
 Receiver hops between frequencies in sync with transmitter
 Eavesdroppers hear unintelligible blips
 Jamming on one frequency affects only a few bits

Basic Operation
 Typically 2k carriers frequencies forming 2k channels
 Channel spacing corresponds with bandwidth of input
 Each channel used for fixed interval
 300 ms in IEEE 802.11
 Some number of bits transmitted using some encoding
scheme
 May be fractions of bit (see later)
 Sequence dictated by spreading code
 Slow and Fast FHSS
 Frequency shifted every Tc seconds
 Duration of signal element is Ts seconds
 Slow FHSS has Tc  Ts
 Fast FHSS has Tc < Ts
 Generally fast FHSS gives improved performance in noise (or
jamming)
Slow Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum Using MFSK (M=4, k=2)
 Slow and Fast FHSS
Fast Frequency Hop Spread Spectrum Using MFSK (M=4, k=2)
 Lecture # 16
Outdoor Propagation
Model
 A. Longley-Rice Model

 Point to Point communication

 Frequency range: 40 MHz to 100 MHz
 2-ray ground reflection model (signal strength prediction), Fresnel-
Kirchoff knife edge model (diffraction loss prediction), forward scatter
theory is used.
 Drawback: Multipath not considered, correction factor to account the
effect of building and foliages is missing.

B. Okumura Model

 Large Urban or semi urban Macrocell

 Frequency range: 150 MHz to 1900 MHz
 T-R Distance: 1 Km to 100 Km
 Base station antenna height: 30m to 1000m

8/22/2024 [email protected] 95
 PL50 (dB) = L(fc,d)+Au(fc,d)-G(ht)-G(hr)-Garea

PL50 : Median value of propagation path loss

L(fc,d) : Free space path loss at distance d and carrier frequency fc
Au(fc,d) : Median attenuation relative to free space
G(ht) : Base station antenna height gain factor
G(hr) : Mobile antenna height gain factor
Garea : Gain due to the type of environment

G(ht) = 20 log (ht / 200) ; 30 m < ht < 1000 m

G(hr) = 10 log (hr / 3) ; hr < 3 m and G(hr) = 20 log (hr / 3) ; 3 m <= hr <= 10 m

Drawback: Slow response to rapid changes in terrain. Not fit in rural areas.
8/22/2024 [email protected] 96
  Empirical formulation of the graphical path-loss provided by Okumura.
 Closed form formula, simplified path loss calculation.

PL50 (urban)|dB = 69.55 + 26.16 log (fc) - 13.82 log (ht) - a(hr)
+ {44.9 – 6.55 log (ht)} log (d))

fc : 150 MHz to 1500 MHz

Ht : 30 m to 200 m and hr : 1 m to 10 m, d is in km
a(hr) : Correction factor for the mobile antenna height based on the size of
coverage area.

For small to medium sized city,

a (hr) = (1.1 log(fc)) – 0.7) hr – (1.56 log(fc) – 0.8) dB

8/22/2024 [email protected] 97
For Large cities, and for fc > 300MHz, a (hr) = 3.2 (log (11.75 hr))^2– 4.97 dB

For Large cities, and for fc < 300MHz, a (hr) = 8.29 (log (1.54hr))^2 – 1.1 dB

PL50 (sub urban) |dB = PL50 (urban)|dB - 2 [log (fc / 28)]^2 – 5.4

PL50 (rural) |dB = PL50 (urban)|dB - 4.78 [log (fc)]^2 + 18.33 log (fc) – K
Where K ranges from 35.94 (country side) to 40.94 (desert).

Hata model is best fitted for large cell size mobile system (> 1 km cell radius)

PCS Extension of Hata model (EURO – COST 231)

Extension of Hata model to 2 GHz
PL50 (urban)|dB = 46.3 + 33.9log(fc) –13.82log (ht) – a(hr) + {44.9 – 6.55 log (ht)} log (d)) + Cm

fc= 1500 MHz to 2000 MHz ; ht = 30 m to 200 m ; hr = 1m to 10m ; d= 1 km to 10 km

Cm = 0 dB for small city and sub urban areas, and 3 dB for metropolitan areas.

8/22/2024 [email protected] 98
  Problem Statement:

 Find the median path loss in a suburban environment using Okumura’s

model for:
 T-R distance of 50 Km.
 Transmitter height of 100m
 Receiver height of 10m
 Au(900 MHz,50 Km) = 93 dB and Garea = 9 dB.

 If the base station transmitter radiates an EIRP of 1KW at a carrier

frequency of 900 MHz, find out the received power at unit gain
antenna.

8/22/2024 [email protected] 99
 MIMO WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

8/22/2024 [email protected]
Ref.: http://pages.cs.wisc.edu/~suman/courses/707/lectures/mimo.pdf 100
 MIMO WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
C = K * B * M* log (1+SINR)

K: No. of AP
M: No. of Antennas

MIMO: K= 1-4; M=2-8

Massive MIMO: K=16-64;
M:100-1000

8/22/2024 [email protected] 101

 MIMO WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

Advantages of MIMO

Multiple Antennas employ spatial diversity

MIMO increases data rate by transmitting several information
streams in parallel after spatial multiplexing.
Greater spectral Efficiency (More Bits/Sec/Hz).
Enhanced Reliability and assured QoS

Challenges in MIMO Systems

Phase synchronization of diverse MIMO signals: Pre-coding

Optimal power allocation to the transmitted signals: Water
Filling Algorithm
Successive Interference Cancellation (SIC): V-BLAST
MIMO Beam forming; Adaptive beams.
8/22/2024 [email protected] 102
 MASSIVE MIMO (mMIMO) SYSTEM

What is Massive MIMO?

Use of 100s of BS antennas allows optimal
performance with linear processing to serve
multiple users at the same time.

Advantages of Massive MIMO: Massive

MIMO delivers higher spectral efficiency,
significantly improves spatial multiplexing,
reliability, beam forming.

8/22/2024 [email protected] 103

Image courtesy: https://www.mwrf.com/technologies/systems/article/21849222/differentiate-between-4g-lte-and-nonstandalone-5g-nr-antennas
 INTRODUCTION TO UWB

Narrowband and Ultra wideband

FCC Spectral Mask for UWB communication.

• Ultra Wide Band (UWB) Technology : Wireless digital
technology that can transmit large data with a
minimum power.
• Ultra Wideband is defined as any communication
technology that occupies more than 500 MHz of
bandwidth, or greater than 20% of the operating
center frequency.
• FCC allocation (March 2002): 3.1 – 10.6 GHz band for
Coverage & throughput of unlicensed use.
UWB and other techniques • Concept of Absolute and Fractional bandwidth for UWB
*Image Courtesy : Scheers, B. Ultra-Wideband Ground Penetrating Radar, with Application to the Detection of Anti
Personnel Landmines, Doctoral Thesis, Universite Catholique de Louvain Laboratoire D’Hyperfrequences Louvain-la-Neuve,
22-Aug-24 104
Belgium, pp. 38-48, 2001.
 INTRODUCTION TO UWB

Applications of UWB as per FCC:

Imaging systems: Ground penetrating radar (GPR) systems, Wall imaging

systems, Through-wall imaging systems, Surveillance systems, Medical systems

Vehicular radar systems: 22-29 GHz frequency band

Communications and measurement systems: short range indoor and

outdoor wireless communication systems (WPAN).

Present Days’ Applications of UWB:

Ranging and Localization, High Speed Data Link, Wireless sensor network,
Wireless Personal Area Network, Body area network (BAN), UWB-based
radar, Microwave Imaging, Bio-Medical Imaging

8/22/2024 [email protected] 105

 COGNITIVE RADIO (CR)
J. Mitola, “The software radio architecture,” IEEE
Communications magazine, vol. 33, no. 5, 1995, pp. 26-38
[cited by 3531]

J. Mitola and G. Q. Maguire, “Cognitive radio: making

software radios more personal,” IEEE personal
communications, vol. 6, no. 4, 1999, pp. 13-18 [cited by
11112]

In his thesis, Mitola wrote: “The term cognitive radio identifies the point at which
wireless personal digital assistants (PDAs) and the related networks are
sufficiently computationally intelligent about radio resources and related
computer-to-computer communications so that they can:
1) detect user communications needs as a function of usage context; and
2) provide radio resources and wireless services most appropriate to these
needs”.
Definition by FCC: “A cognitive radio is a radio that can change its transmitter
parameters based on interaction with the environment in which it operates”.
8/22/2024 [email protected] 106
 COGNITIVE RADIO (CR)
Expectation Reality

Environmental Parameters to be adopted:

Modulation Technique, MAC, Coding, Centre
Frequency, Bandwidth, Transmission time etc.

8/22/2024 [email protected] Image courtesy: Google Image 107

 COGNITIVE RADIO (CR)

Global occupancy of spectrum: spectrum allocation in 3 kHz to 300 GHz band, in the United States in
2003. Following this allocation it can be very easily observed that there is no more spectrum available for
new networks and services, except to manage this spectrum in a different way by taking into account its
real usage
Ref.: https://learning.oreilly.com/library/view/radio-engineering from/9781118602225/000_9781118602225_chapter1.html
8/22/2024 [email protected] 108
 COGNITIVE RADIO (CR)

Measurements of occupation of the 608–698 MHz band from 1 to 3 September 2004

Occupation measurements of 960–3,100 MHz band in an external environment in the city of

Barcelona. Received power, instantaneous temporal occupation on a scale of 24 hours
8/22/2024 [email protected] 109
Ref.: https://learning.oreilly.com/library/view/radio-engineering from/9781118602225/000_9781118602225_chapter1.html
 Cognitive Radio

Fully Cognitive Radio

Spectrum Sensing Cognitive Radio
(Mitola Radio)

Dynamic Exclusive Model Open Sharing Model Hierarchical Access Model

Interweave Overlay Underlay

8/22/2024 [email protected] 110

 COGNITIVE RADIO (CR)
Advantages of CR:
Resourceful utilization of spectrum; More space for new-fangled technologies
; Ability to make use of manifold channels ; Energy competence; Worldwide
operability ; Exploitation of spectrum band that is application precise ;
Financial benefit .

Applications of CR:
Military and security ; Healthcare; Home appliances; Real-time applications ;
Transportation ; Assorted sensing.

Challenges in CR:
Misdetection probability and false alarm: Hardware issues: Intelligent Antenna
Development; Changes in topology ; Quality of service ; Fault tolerance ;
Selection of channel ; Power consumption ; Security ; High manufacturing costs.
8/22/2024 [email protected] 111
 Recent Developments
in Antenna Engineering
for 5G Communication
Technology
8/22/2024 [email protected] 112
 MOBILE PHONE ANTENNAS

SCR 300A Radio Set for US Military in 1940 World War II Bell System’s commercial Mobile Telephone
System in 1946
8/22/2024 [email protected] 113
Image courtesy: Google Image
 MOBILE PHONE ANTENNAS

Image courtesy: Google Image

8/22/2024 [email protected] 114
 ANTENNA REQUIREMENTS IN 5G

Image courtesy: Piterest

8/22/2024 [email protected] 115
 Basic concept of smart antennas
What is Smart Antenna/ Digital Beam Formed (DBF) array/
Adaptive array?

One’s ears act as acoustic sensors and receive the signal.

Because of the separation between the ears, each ear receives the signal
with different time delay.
The human brain, a specialized signal processor, does a large number of
calculations to correlate information and compute the location of the
received sound.

DSP unit computes the DOA of SOI and adjust gain, phase of signals to
produce desired radiation patterns.
8/22/2024 [email protected] 117
 Basic concept of smart antennas
Beam Steering via phase shifters to the direction of interest.

The term smart implies the use of signal processing in order to shape the
beam pattern according to certain conditions. Adaptive beamforming is a
dynamic process which updates the antenna array’s performance with time
by collecting feedback from the surrounding environment like the signals
being propagated, interfering objects (i.e., buildings, trees, cars), outside
electromagnetic interference (i.e., competing mobile users, radar jammers),
etc. to keep the array in an optimum state.

Criteria

Maximizing the signal-to-interference ratio(SIR)

Minimizing the variance
Minimizing the mean square error(MSE)
Steering toward a signal of interest
Nulling the interfering signals

8/22/2024 [email protected] 118

 Basic concept of smart antennas

Brief operation of smart antenna:

Beam steering: Placing antenna beam maxima towards signal of interest.

Null steering: Placing antenna beam nulls towards SNOI.
Spatial diversity: Allow multiple users to use the same space.

8/22/2024 [email protected] 119

 Advantages & Limitations

Advantages:

Capacity Improvement: High efficiency & high power for desired signal,
Interference Cancellation.
Coverage Improvement: Narrow beam width & Higher gain. Varying traffic
control using fewer base stations.
Security & Service quality improvement: SNR improvement, DOA/ SOA
calculation is important for applications like shielding, radars.

Limitations:

Cost, Size, Complexity (Handling the spatial, polarization and angle

diversity).

8/22/2024 [email protected] 120

 Smart antenna Functions
Estimation of Direction of arrival (DOA):
Time difference of signals arrival:

𝟏 𝟐

Beamforming:
Conventional (fixed beam) beam formers: It use a fixed set of weightings and time-
delays to combine the signals from the sensors in the array, primarily using only
information about the location of the sensors in space and the wave directions of interest.
Adaptive beam formers: Adaptive beamforming techniques generally combine the
information about the location of the sensors and the wave directions of interest with the
properties of the signals actually received by the array, typically to improve rejection of
unwanted signals from other directions. In adaptive beamforming the goal is to adapt
the beam by adjusting the magnitude and phase of each antenna element such that a
desirable pattern is formed .

8/22/2024 [email protected] 121

 Types of smart antenna system
Switched Beam:

In this type of array, there will be numerous amount of fixed beams

amongst which one beam will turn on or will be steered towards the
wanted signal. This can be done only with the help of adjustment in the
phase. In other words, as the wanted target moves, the beam will also be
steered.

8/22/2024 [email protected] 122

 Types of smart antenna system

Advantage:
Less expensive, Easy to implement, Can provide significant range
extension, capacity improvement, interference rejection when the desired
user is at the center of beam.

Limitations:

Not suitable for high interference zone.

Can results frequent hand-off when user moves from one beam to another
beam frequently.

Cannot suppress the multipath signals if the interfering signal DOA is

close to the same of desired signal.

8/22/2024 [email protected] 123

 Types of smart antenna system
Adaptive array:
In this type of antenna, there will be a change in the beam pattern
according to the movement of the wanted user and the movement of the
interference. The signals that are received will be weighted and later
combined to increase the wanted signal to interference in addition to the
noise and power ratio [S/N]. Thus, the direction of interference will be
balanced as the wanted signal will be in the direction of the main beam.
The antenna can easily steer the main beam to any direction, while at the
same time nullifying the interfering signal. The direction of the beam can
be calculated using the DOA method.

8/22/2024 [email protected] 124