EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

[EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

(45 Lecture Hours)

Prerequisites: SCH 2120 Physical and Inorganic Chemistry, SPH 2173 Physics for
Engineers

Purpose
The aim of this course is to enable the student to;
1. Understand the relationship between the structure of materials and their properties
2. Understand the importance of material science in creation of alloys and their application
or subsequent forming
3. Interpret the microstructure of materials and relate mechanical properties to the crystal
structure

Course objectives
At the end of this course, the student should be able to;
1. interpret the microstructure for steels and other iron alloys
2. relate the mechanical properties of metals to the micro and macro structures
3. change properties of metals by alloying and heat treatment

Course description
Classication of Engineering Materials: Metals, alloys, ceramics, polymers and composites.
Atomic Structure and Bonding: Structure of the atom, bonding between atoms and
molecules; influence of bonding on strength. Crystal Structure: Types of crystal structures and
their characteristics: Simple cubic, BCC, FCC and HCP. Crystallographic planes and directions;
Miller indices and Bravais indices. Defects in Crystals: Point defects, line defects (or
dislocations), area defects
Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Stress and strain. Tensile test; stress-strain-curves, yield
stress, proof stress, ultimate tensile strength, elongation, ductility, toughness, brittleness, true
stress and true strain. Other mechanical tests; compression-, hardness-,
impact-, creep-, fatigue-, bending-, torsion-, shearing-tests. Ductile-brittle transition.
Alloy Theory and Equilibrium Diagrams: Alloying systems, cooling curves, phase diagrams,
composition and quantities of phases, lever rule.
Physical Properties: Electrical conduction, thermal behavior, optical properties, magnetism.

i
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Course text books

1. Higgins R.N.(1994), Properties of Engineering Materials, Hodder & Stroughton, 2nd Ed.
2. Srivastava C.M. and Srinivasa C. (1991) Mechanical Properties of Materials, Wesley
Eastern.
References
1. Pascoe K.J. (1962) An Introduction to the Properties of Engineering Materials, van
Nostrand Reinhold, 1st Ed.
2. Cottrell A.H. (1975) An Introduction to Metallurgy, Edward Arnold, 2nd Ed.
3. Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology
Teaching methodology: 2 hour lectures and 1 hour tutorial per week and at least three
3-hour-laboratory sessions per semester organized on a rotational basis.
Mode of assessment: 70% written exam, 30% Continuous assessment
Instruction materials/equipment
1. Mechanical Engineering laboratories and workshops;
2. Overhead projectors.

Introduction
Histological perspective: Stone Age, Bronze Age, Iron Age, steel age
Earliest man- had access to limited number of materials eg clay,stones,wood skin
Realized techniques of producing materials superior to those of natural material eg heat
treatment Clay, ceramic porcelain 1200-1400 degrees celcius low permeability Properties
associated with porcelain include low permeability and elasticity; considerable strength, hardness,
toughness, whiteness, translucency and resonance; and a high resistance to chemical attack and
thermal shock.
Stone Age, copper age Iron Age, steel age

Also they could combine different materials- limited combinations

100 years ago Relationship between structure and properties of materias A major
breakthrough in the understanding of materials occurred in the late 19th century, when the
American scientist Josiah Willard Gibbs demonstrated that the thermodynamic properties related
to atomic structure in various phases are related to the physical properties of a material.

Material science

ii
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

INTRODUCTION
The discipline of materials science involves investigating the relationships that exist
between the structures and properties of materials. In contrast, materials engineering is, on the
basis of these structure–property correlations, designing or engineering the structure of a material
to produce a predetermined set of properties.

‘‘Structure’’ relates to the arrangement of its internal components. Subatomic structure

involves electrons within the individual atoms and interactions with their nuclei. On an atomic
level, structure encompasses the organization of atoms or molecules relative to one another. The
next larger structural realm, which contains large groups of atoms that are normally
agglomerated together, is termed ‗‗microscopic,‘‘ meaning that which is subject to direct
observation using some type of microscope. Finally, structural elements that may be viewed with
the naked eye are termed ‗‗macroscopic.‘‘

Property is a material trait in terms of the type and magnitude of response to a specific
imposed stimulus. The property of a material is independent of its shape and size. For example,
a specimen subjected to forces will experience deformation; or a polished metal surface will
reflect light stimulus. Important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different
categories: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative.

Why do we study material science?

1. Selection of appropriate for a particular application
2. Selection of the right processing techniques

Topics to be covered
1. Classification of Engineering materials

iii
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

2. Atomic Structure and Bonding:

3. Crystal Structure & Defects in Crystals:
4. Mechanical Behavior of Materials:
 Stress and strain and tensile test
 Other mechanical tests; compression, hardness, impact creep, fatigue
bending-, torsion-, shearing-tests.
 Ductile-brittle transition.
5. Alloy Theory and Equilibrium Diagrams:
 Alloying systems,
 Cooling curves, phase diagrams,
 Lever rule.
6. Physical Properties:
 Electrical conduction,
 Thermal behavior,
 Optical properties,
 Magnetism.

iv
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

INTRODUCTION
The discipline of materials science involves investigating the relationships that exist
between the structures and properties of materials. In contrast, materials engineering is, on the
basis of these structure–property correlations, designing or engineering the structure of a material
to produce a predetermined set of properties.

‘‘Structure’’ relates to the arrangement of its internal components. Subatomic structure

involves electrons within the individual atoms and interactions with their nuclei. On an atomic
level, structure encompasses the organization of atoms or molecules relative to one another. The
next larger structural realm, which contains large groups of atoms that are normally
agglomerated together, is termed ‗‗microscopic,‘‘ meaning that which is subject to direct
observation using some type of microscope. Finally, structural elements that may be viewed with
the naked eye are termed ‗‗macroscopic.‘‘

Property is a material trait in terms of the type and magnitude of response to a specific
imposed stimulus. The property of a material is independent of its shape and size. For example,
a specimen subjected to forces will experience deformation; or a polished metal surface will
reflect light stimulus. Important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different
categories: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative.

v
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Chapter 1: Classification of Engineering Materials

Engineering materials are classified as: Metals, Ceramics, and Polymers based on
chemical makeup and atomic structure. Additional Classifications of Materials include
Composites and Advanced materials.

1.1 Metals
1. Composition: one or more metallic components and often non-metallic components e.g.
carbon, nitrogen, oxygen in relatively small amounts.
2. Atomic arrangement- very orderly manner consisting of atoms held together by the
delocalized electrons that overcome the mutual repulsion between the ion cores.
3. Mechanical characteristics: relatively stiff and strong yet are ductile, and are resistant to
fracture which accounts for their extensive use in structural applications.
4. In comparison to polymers and ceramics they are relatively dense
5. Lacks corrosion resistance.
6. Good conductors of electricity and heat.
7. Optical properties not transparent to visible light; a polished metal surface has a
lustrous appearance.
8. Some metals have desirable magnetic properties

Classifications: Pure metals, Alloyed metals, Ferrous metals, Non Ferous metals, Sintered
metals and Clad metals

Examples: Iron & steel, Aluminum, Platinum, Magnesium, Copper, Nickel

Some Application of Metals

 Electrical wiring
 Building and bridge structures
 Automobile: body, chassis, engine block, springs
 Air planes: engines, fuselage, landing gear
 Trains: rails, engine body, wheels
 Industrial machinery
 Machining tools: drills, hammers, saw blade
 Magnets

1
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

1.2 Ceramics
―A ceramic is a nonmetallic, inorganic solid.‖ Kingery et al. (1976)
1. Composition: Compounds between metallic and non- metallic elements
2. Structure are usually associated with ―mixed‖ bonding—a combination of covalent, ionic,
and sometimes metallic.
3. Mechanical behavior, relatively stiff and strong stiffness and strengths are comparable to
those of the metals; ceramics are usually very hard, but extremely brittle. High
compressive strength.
4. These materials are typically insulative to the passage of heat and electricity (i.e. low
electrical conductivities, and are more resistant to high temperatures and harsh
environments than metals and polymers.
5. Optical characteristics, ceramics may be transparent, translucent, or opaque
6. Some of the oxide ceramics (e.g., Fe3O4) exhibit magnetic behavior.

Examples: Alumina(Al2O3), Silica (SiO2), Silicon Carbide (SiC), Silicon Nitride (Si3N4),
Porcelain, Cement, Glass, Ferrites and Garnets.

Some Application of Ceramics

 Electrical insulators
 Thermal insulation and coating
 Abrasives
 Glasses: windows, TV screens, optical fiber
 Cement, concrete
 Ceramic tiles
 Furnace lining bricks

1.3 Polymers
1. Composition: compounds that are chemically based on carbon, hydrogen, and other
nonmetallic elements e.g. O, N, and S.
2. Structure: large molecular structures, often chain-like in nature that have a backbone of
carbon atoms. They are formed by covalent bonding of many simpler molecular units
called mers.
3. Mechanical characteristics: they are not as stiff nor as strong as ceramics and polymers,
however, on the basis of their low densities, many times their stiffness and strengths on a
per mass basis are comparable to the metals and ceramics.
4. Extremely ductile and pliable (i.e., plastic), which means they are easily formed into
complex shapes.
2
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

5. In general, they are relatively inert chemically and unreactive in a large number of
environments.
6. Low thermal resistance One major drawback to the polymers is their tendency to soften
and/or decompose at modest temperatures, which, in some in-stances, limits their use.
7. Poor conductors of electricity and heat.
8. Dimensionally unstable.
9. Non - magnetic.

Classification-examples
 Thermoplastics: polyethylene (PE), nylon, poly-vinyl chloride(PVC),
polyethylene terephthalate (PET), polystyrene (PS)
 Thermosets phenol formaldehyes (PF), urea-formaldehydes (UF), melamine-
formaldehydes (MF), epoxies (EP), polyurethanes (PU), and polyimides (PI).
 Elastomers- natural rubber, silicone rubber

Some Applications of Polymers

 Adhesive and glue
 Plastic products
 Coating and paints
 Solid lubricants: Teflon
 Sealing: gasket, O-rings, liquid seals
 Clothing and furniture covering

1.4 Composites
1. Composition: more than one material, the constituents retain their identity such that
they can be physically identified and they exhibit an interface between one another.
The body constituent gives the composite its bulk form, and it is called the matrix.
The other component is a structural constituent, sometimes called the reinforcement,
which determines the internal structure of the composite.
2. Properties: display a combination of the best characteristics of each of the
component material.

Classifications:
 Fiber composites (fiber is a particle longer than 100 µm with a length-to-
diameter ratio (aspect ratio) greater than 10:1)
 Particulate composites
 Paminar composites- distinct layers

3
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Examples:
 Fiberglass-strength from the glass and flexibility from the polymer
 Cermet- mixture of ceramics and metals used as cutting
 Steel-reinforced concrete
 Whisker -reinforced plastics
 Carbon-reinforced rubber

Some Application of Composites

1. Aerospace, Marine, Automotive
2. Sporting goods
3. Storage tanks
4. Coatings
5. Piping for oil, seawater, sewage

1.5 Advanced Materials

These are materials that are utilized in high-technology applications. They are typically
traditional materials whose properties have been enhanced or newly developed, high-
performance materials. They may be of all material types (e.g., metals, ceramics, and polymers).
They are normally relatively expensive. Applications: computers, fiber optic systems, spacecraft,
aircraft and rocketry.

1.5.1 Semiconductors
Semiconductors have electrical properties that are intermediate between the electrical
conductors and insulators. Furthermore, the electrical characteristics of these materials are
extremely sensitive to the presence of minute concentrations of impurity atoms, for which the
concentrations may be controlled over very small spatial regions. Semiconductors have made
possible the advent of integrated circuitry that has totally revolutionized the electronics and
computer industries.

1.5.2 Biomaterials
Composed of any material natural or synthetic that is designed to mimic, augment or
replace biological function. These materials must not produce toxic substances and must be
compatible with body tissues (i.e., must not cause adverse biological reactions). Metals, ceramics,
polymers, composites, may be used as biomaterials. Applications: Joint replacements, Dental
implants Heart valves, skin repair devices cochlear replacements, contact lenses, breast implants,
drug delivery mechanisms, stents.

4
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

1.5.3 Smart materials

Smart (or intelligent) materials are a group of new and state-of-the-art materials now being
developed that will have a significant influence on many of our technologies. Smart materials
have properties that react to changes in their environment. The adjective ―smart‖ implies that
these materials are able to sense changes in their environments and then respond to these changes
in predetermined manners traits that are also found in living organisms. This means that one of
their properties can be changed by an external condition, such as temperature, light, pressure or
electricity, pH, magnetic field. This change is reversible and can be repeated many times. There
are a wide range of different smart materials, each offer different properties that can be changed.
Examples: shape memory alloys, piezoelectric ceramics, magnetostrictive materials, and
electrorheological/magnetorheological fluids.

1.5.2 Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials are composed of structural component at the nanoscale 1-100 nanometer (10-
9
m) and they exhibit dimensions at the nanoscale. They manifest extremely fascinating and
useful properties, which can be exploited for a variety of structural and non-structural
applications. Examples: graphene fullerenes (eg carbon nanotube), nanoparticles. Methods of
obtaining nanoparticles:
 Top-Down Approach: Bulk materials are reduced to powder then to Nano particles
 Bottom up Approach: Atoms are clustered to obtain nanoparticles

5
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Chapter 2: Atomic Structure and Bonding

Definitions
Atom it is the basic unit of matter
Element: Consists of only one type of atom e.g. Cu, H, Ag.
Molecules: atoms which tend to exist together to form a stable configuration, they maybe
mono atomic, diatomic. triatomic or poly atomic

Atomic Structure
Atoms consist of a central, dense nucleus that is surrounded by one or more lightweight
negatively charged particles called electrons at relatively at great distance from the nucleus. The
nucleus is made up of positively charged particles called protons and particles called neutrons.
An atom is held together by forces of attraction between the electrons and the protons.

Atomic structure models

In the past century, scientist brought forth models to describe the atomic structure. The old
models have been improved based on the principles of classic and quantum mechanics. The
following are some of the models illustrated briefly.

1. Plum-pudding model
Proposed by J.J. Thomson in 1904, who had earlier discovered the electron. According to
this model the atoms of the elements are spheres consisting of a number of negatively charged
corpuscles enclosed in a sphere of uniform positive charge., Atoms are uniform spheres in which
electrons were distributed along with positive charges, like plums in a pudding.

Fig 2.1 Plum-pudding model

The models was invalidated 5 years later on both theoretical and experimental grounds in
favour of the Rutherford atomic model.

6
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Rutherford nuclear atomic model

Rutherford and coworkers in 1911 performed differential scattering experiments and
proposed a new atomic model. Rutherford directed particles emitted from a radioactive source on
a thin gold foil 4×10–6 m thick. Some particles passed through the film, while others were
scattered all around. Those particles passing through the thin gold film also scattered over a wide
area, and produced luminscence on a fluorescent screen of zinc sulphide (Fig. 2.2). Very small
number of particles were deflected through large angles, i.e. about 1 in 10,000 particles suffered
a deflection of more than 90°. Only very rarely a -particle reversed back along its own path, i.e.
suffered a deflection through 180°.

Fig 2.2: Rutherfold‘s alpha particles scattering experiment

The entire positive charge and mass of an atom are concentrated at the centre of the atom in
a nucleus of very small dimensions. The diameter of the nucleus is about 10–15 m whereas the
diameter of an atom is about 10–10 m. Thus there is a lot of empty space in the atom. An atom
consists of a positive nucleus with the electrons moving very rapidly around different orbits. The
positive charge of the nucleus equals to total negative charge of electrons, making atom
electrically neutral. An assumption that the electrons were orbiting around the nucleus was
faulted according to the classical electromagnetic theory, if a charged particle accelerates around
oppositely charged particles, the former will radiate energy. If an electron radiates energy, its
speed will decrease and it will go into spiral motion, finally falling into the nucleus. This does
not happen as then the atom would be unstable.

Bohr Model
In Bohr‘s model of the atom, the electrons are assumed to be in a definite planetary system
(in circular orbits) of fixed energy. These stationary states are called as energy levels. Since there
is a definite value of potential energy associated with each orbit. In this model of the atom, Bohr
considered that more than one energy level to be possible for any electron of the atom.

7
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Fig 2.3: Bohr‘s atomic model

The Bohr model is not completely correct, but it has many features that are approximately
the nature and behavior of atoms..

Wave atomic Model

This Bohr model was eventually found to have some significant limitations because of its
inability to explain several phenomena involving electrons. A resolution was reached with a
wave-mechanical model, in which the electron is considered to exhibit both wave-like and
particle-like characteristics. With this model, an electron is no longer treated as a particle moving
in a discrete orbital; rather, position is considered to be the probability of an electron‘s being at
various locations around the nucleus. In other words, position is described by a probability
distribution or electron cloud. Figure 2.3 compares Bohr and wave- mechanical models for the
hydrogen atom.

Figure 2.4: Comparison between Bohr and wave- mechanical models.

8
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Quantum numbers
Using wave mechanics, every electron can be completely described in an atom is by four
parameters called quantum numbers. These quantum numbers describe the size, shape, and
orientation in space of the orbitals on an atom. The four numbers are described briefly below;

Principle Quantum Number (n= 1, 2, 3, …, ∞)

The principle quantum number specifies the energy of an electron and the size of the orbital
(the distance from the nucleus of the peak in a radial probability distribution plot). All orbitals
that have the same value of n are said to be in the same shell (level). A letter code: K, L, M, N …
is sometimes used to denote the shells (levels) 1, 2, 3, 4,… respectively.

Angular Momentum (Secondary, Azimunthal) Quantum Number (l): l = 0, 1,

2, ..., n-1.
It specifies the shape of an orbital with a particular principal quantum number. The
secondary quantum number divides the shells into smaller groups of orbitals called subshells
(sublevels). Usually, a letter code is used to identify l to avoid confusion with n:
l 0 1 2 3 4 5 ...
Letter s p d f g h ...
The subshell with n=2 and l=1 is the 2p subshell; if n=3 and l=0, it is the 3s subshell, and
so on. The value of l also has a slight effect on the energy of the subshell; the energy of the
subshell increases with l (s < p < d < f).

Magnetic Quantum Number (ml): ml = -l, ..., 0, ..., +l.

It specifies the orientation in space of an orbital of a given energy (n) and shape (l). This
number divides the subshell into individual orbitals which hold the electrons; there are 2l+1
orbitals in each subshell. Thus the s subshell has only one orbital, the p subshell has three
orbitals, and so on.

Spin Quantum Number (ms): ms = +½ or -½.

Spin quantum number specifies the orientation of the spin axis of an electron. An electron
can spin in only one of two directions (sometimes called up and down).

Electronic configuration
The electron configuration of an atom describes the orbitals occupied by electrons on the
atom. The following points should be considered when writing electronic configurations of
atoms
 The number of electrons in an atom is the atomic number (Z) or the amount of
protons of the atom.

9
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

 The number of electrons in an ion of an atom is the atomic number (Z) minus the ion
charge.
 Lowest Energy levels are filled first. (Hund's Rule)
 Within an orbital there can only be two electrons and each should have opposing
spins (Pauli Exclusion Principle).

Examples
Li (Z=3): 1s22s1 Li+ : 1s2
Na (Z=11): 1s22s22p63s1 Na+ : 1s22s22p6

C (Z=6): 1s22s22p 2 C4- : 1s22s22p6

F (Z=9): 1s22s22p5 F- : 1s22s22p6

Condensed Electron Configuration:

 Look at the element you want to find the configuration for and find the Noble gas
that comes directly before it (group 8).
 Place the noble gas in brackets before you continue the rest of your configuration.
 Continue the configuration with the next s orbital that follows the noble gas.
Example for Manganese: Expanded [Mn]1s22s22p63s23p64s23d5 , Condensed [ Ar] 4s23d5

Periodic Table
Elements have been classified according to electron configuration in the periodic table. The
elements are situated, with increasing atomic number, in seven horizontal rows called periods.
The arrangement is such that all elements arrayed in a given column or group have similar
valence electron structures, as well as chemical and physical properties. These properties change
gradually, moving horizontally across each period and vertically down each column.

The periodic table may also be divided into several numbered rectangular 'blocks'. The
elements belonging to a given block have this common feature: their highest-energy electrons all
belong to the same l-state (but the n associated with that l-state depends upon the period). For
instance, the leftmost two columns constitute the 's-block'. The outermost electrons of Li and Be
respectively belong to the 2s subshell, and those of Na and Mg to the 3s subshell.

10
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Fig 2.5 Periodic table showing blocks

Atomic Bonding in Solids

Atoms approach one another to certain distances to achieve a state of the highest
thermodynamic stability. These distances depend on the interaction forces present. When the
atoms are at large inter-atomic separation distance, they do not exert any force on each other.
When the distance is decreased, an attractive force F A starts to pull the atoms closer. FA increases
as the atoms gets closer, but as the atoms get closer a repulsive force FR begins to act. The net
force FN between the two atoms is given by:
FN = FA + FR

At some inter-atomic distance r0, FR exactly equals FA and FN becomes Zero

FN = 0 = FA + FR
r0 is called the equilibrium inter-atomic separation distance at which atoms enter into
bonding ro ≈ 0.3 nm. At r0, the two atoms will counteract any attempt to separate them by an
attractive force, or to push them together by a repulsive force.

11
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Figure 2.6 The dependence of repulsive, attractive, and net forces on interatomic separation for two isolated
atoms.

The different types of bonding depend on the electronic structure of the atoms concerned
and hence directly related to the periodic table. The type of bonding within a material plays a
major role in determining the electrical, chemical and physical properties of the material.

Categories of bonds in solids

There are basically two categories of common bonds in solids based on strength,
directionality of bonding forces, cohesive forces (chemical bonds) and the character of any solid
material: These categories are primary bonds and secondary bonds

Primary bonds
These are inter-atomic bonds in which electrostatic force holds the atoms together.
Relatively large atomic forces develop in these bonds, making them more stable and imparting
high strength. The following are the three types of primary bonds found in materials.
i) Covalent bond
ii) Ionic bond
iii) Metallic bond

Covalent bond
This type of bonding is formed by an equal sharing of electrons between two neighboring
atoms each having incomplete outermost shells in order to acquire a stable electronic

12
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

configuration. The atoms may be similar or dissimilar but each having a deficiency of an equal
number of electrons i.e. the elements of groups IV, V, and VI, subgroup B.
When two atoms, each having a deficiency of one electron, come so close that their
electronic shells start overlapping, the original atomic charge distributions of atoms are distorted
and each atom transfers its unpaired electron to the common space between the atoms. The
majority of solids incorporating covalent bonds are also bound by either ionic or Vander Waals
bonds.

Fig 2.7: Schematic representation of covalent bonding a molecule of methane CH4

Characteristics of covalent crystals

i) Directional- each atom can be in interchange with a definite number of
neighbouring atoms. For that reason, atoms in covalent crystals are not packed
closely and form crystal structure with low coordination number.
ii) A Very strong bond - This is apparent from the binding energy of carbon in
diamond which is 7.4 eV. In view of high bond energy, covalent crystals are
characterized by high melting points (3540°C for diamond) and high boiling points.
iii) Formation of completely occupied valence zones- covalent crystals are mostly
semiconductors or even dielectrics (e.g., diamond). The high electric conductivity
of graphite can be attributed to the replacement of one of the four covalent bonds by
a Vander Waals bond, resulting in the appearance of free carrier of electric current.
iv) A negative temperature coefficient of electric resistance i.e. the electric resistance
decreases on heating.
v) Examples, Diamond, graphite as silicon carbide, aluminium nitride, etc.

Characteristics of covalent Compounds

i) Covalent compounds are mostly gases and liquids.
ii) They are usually electric insulators.
iii) They are directional in nature.

13
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

iv) They are insoluble in polar solvents like water but are soluble in non-polar solvents,
e.g,, benzene,chloroform, alcohol, paraffins etc.
v) Covalent compounds are homopolar, i.e. the valence electrons are bound to
individual or pairs of atoms and electrons cannot move freely through the material
as in the case of metallic bonds.
vi) Covalent compounds are soft, rubbery elastomers, and form a variety of structural
materials usually termed as plastics. The melting and boiling points of these
compounds are low.

Ionic bond
Ionic bond formed by the actual transfer of electrons from one atom to the other so that each
atom acquires a stable configuration similar to the nearest inert gas atoms. The bond exists due to
the attractive force existing between a positive and negative ion when they are brought into close
proximity. It occurs between electropositive elements (metals, i.e., those elements on the left
side of the periodic table)and the electronegative elements (non-metals; i.e. on the right hand of
the periodic table). Any other metal may get ionized by losing its valence electrons.

Fig.2.8: Ionic bonding in NaCl

Characteristics of Ionic solids

i) Ionic solids are generally rigid and crystalline in nature.
ii) The bond energy of ionic crystals is close in magnitude to that of covalent crystals
and exceeds the bond energy of metallic and more so, of molecular crystals. For that
reason, these have high melting and boiling points, high modulus of elasticity, and
low coefficient of compressibility and linear expansion.
iii) In ionic crystal each positive ion attracts all neighbouring negative ions and vice
versa, the bond itself is non-directional.
iv) Ionic solids are generally non-conductors of electricity.
v) Ionic solids are highly soluble in water but insoluble in organic solvents.
vi) In many ionic crystals, a fraction of covalent bond can also be present.
vii) These bonds are formed mainly in inorganic compounds, e.g. sodium chloride
(common salt NaCl), MgO, CuO, CrO2, and MoF2. In MgO the ions are doubly
ionized leading to a stronger interatomic bond and hence a higher melting point
(~2800°C), compared to 800°C for NaCl.

14
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Metallic bond
Metallic bond is formed by the partial sharing of valence electrons by the neighbouring
atoms. When interacting with one another, the valence energy zones of atoms overlap and form a
common zone with unoccupied sublevels. The valence electrons thus acquire the possibility to
move freely with the zone. Obviously, valence electrons are shared in the volume of a whole
crystal. Thus the valence electrons in a metal cannot be considered lost or acquired by atoms.
They are shared by atoms in the volume of a crystal, unlike covalent crystals where sharing of
electrons is limited to a single pair of atoms.

Fig. 2.8: Schematic illustration of metallic

bonding.

Characteristics of metallic bonds

i) They are formed by the elements of all subgroups A and I-III, subgroups B. Unlike
the case of covalent bond, the sharing in metallic bond is not localized. Hence
metallic bond may also be considered as delocalized or unsaturated covalent bond.
ii) Metallic bonds are electropositive.
iii) By virtue of non-directivity of metallic bonds and close-packed structures, metallic
crystals are more plastic and less hard than covalent crystals. Their high electric
conductivity is due to the presence of free sublevels in valence energy zone.
iv) The temperature coefficient of electric resistance of metallic crystals is positive, i.e.,
the electric resistance increases on heating.
v) The metallic bond is weaker than ionic or covalent bond. The binding energy ranges
from 1 to 5 eV per bond.

Characteristics of metallic crystals

i) Metallic compounds are crystalline in nature due to the symmetrical arrangements of
the positive ions in a space lattice.
ii) Metallic compounds are good conductors of heat and electricity. They have high
electrical conductivity and higher thermal conductivity.

15
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

iii) Metallic bonds being weak, metals have a melting point moderate to high, i.e., the
melting points of metallic crystals are lower than those of electrovalent crystals.
iv) Metals are opaque to light, because the free electrons in a metal absorb light energy.
v) Metallic crystals have good lusture and high reflectivity.

Secondary bonds
Secondary bonds are called molecular bonds and are secondary in the sense of being
relatively weak in comparison with the primary bonds. Secondary bonds result from:
i) Electrostatic attraction of dipoles, the dipoles forming as a result of unbalanced
distribution of electrons in asymmetrical molecules.
ii) Vander Waals forces of attraction which exist between atoms or molecules which
have their outermost shells completely filled and hence have no tendency to gain,
lose or share valence electrons with other atoms or molecules in the solid.

The examples of such solids are crystalline states of inert gases, such as He, Ne, A, etc. and other
gases like O2, Cl2, CO2, CH4, etc. The rare gases, e.g. argon and helium, condense to form
solids at sufficiently low temperatures, forming secondary bonds w

Characteristics of secondary bonds

i) Secondary bonds are weaker bonds compared to permanent bonds.
ii) They exist between all atoms or molecules.
iii) Evidence of secondary bonds are bonds between inert gases and molecules of
covalent bonds.
iv) It has very small bonding energy however, permanent dipoles have greater energies
than induced dipoles. dipoles have greater energies than induced dipoles.
v) Secondary bonding attraction depends on uneven distribution of positive and
negative charge – referred to as dipole
vi) There is neither from the transfer of electrons (metallic, ionic) nor from the sharing
of electrons (covalent).
vii) Very low melting and boiling points, low mechanical strength and easy
deformability.
viii) These solids are poor conductors of heat and electricity.
ix) Molecular compounds are generally transparent to light and good insulators, with
the exception of water (H2O).

16
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Types of Secondary bonds

Dispersion bonds,
A dipole may be created or induced in an atom or molecule that is normally electrically
symmetric. All atoms experience constant vibrational motion that can cause a short-lived
distortion of this electrical symmetry for some atoms or molecules. Hence a small electric dipole
is created. The induced dipole above will turn a neighbouring atom or a molecule into a dipole,
causing them to attract one another and bond. These attractive forces exist between large
amounts of atoms and molecules and these forces are temporary and fluctuate with time. These
bonds are weak hence materials where these bonds are predominant have low melting and
boiling points. Examples inert gases, such as He, Ne, A e.t.c

Figure 2.9 Schematic representations of (a) an electrically symmetric

atom and (b) an induced atomic dipole.

Dipole bonds
When the outermost electrons of an atom are shared by two or more atoms, a covalent bond
is formed. Sometimes there is an unequal sharing of electrons between two atoms. The unequal
sharing of electrons takes place only in those substances in which one of the atoms, in a molecule,
has a high affinity to attract electrons than the other. The overall effect of this unequal sharing of
electrons is to create opposite charges on the parent atoms. As a result, permanent dipoles are
produced. Such dipoles attract each other and a bond is formed which is known as dipole bond.

Fig. 2.10 Schematic representation of a polar hydrogen chloride (HCl) molecule.

Hydrogen bonds
Hydrogen bond is a special case of permanent dipole bonds. It occurs between molecules in
which hydrogen in covalently bonded to fluorine (HF), oxygen (H2O), and nitrogen (NH3) –The
magnitude of a hydrogen bond is greater than other secondary bonds.

17
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Figure 2.11 Schematic representation of hydrogen

bonding in hydrogen fluoride (HF).

18
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Chapter 3 Crystal Structure

Introduction
Solid materials can be crystalline or amorphous. A crystal or crystalline solid is a
solid material whose constituent atoms, molecules, or ions are arranged in an ordered pattern
extending in all three spatial dimensions. Crystalline bodies retain their shape, upto a definite
temperature (melting point) at which they change from the solid to liquid. Most of the materials
exist in polycrystalline form, but there are some materials, which exist in the form of single
crystals, e.g. sugar, sodium chloride (common salt), diamond, etc.
Amorphous substances have no periodic arrangement of atoms, ions or molecules in solid
state. They soften in a wide range of temperature become viscous and only then change to the
liquid state (i.e. no heat of fusion). Examples: ordinary glass, sulphur, selenium, glycerine and
most of the high polymers can exist in the amorphous state.

(a) (b) (c)

Fig 3.1 Microscopic illustrations: (a) Single crystal, (b) Polycrystal (c) amorphous

Crystals develop from networks of different bonds i.e. covalent, ionic, metallic and
secondary bonds. A classic example of covalent networks is the carbon. In its pure form, carbon
exists as diamond, graphite and amorphous carbon. Diamond is produced from carbon under
extremely high pressure (140-190 kms below earth‘s surface) and temperature for millions of
years. It can be brought to the surface through magma eruptions. Graphite is a stable form of
carbon at room temperature. Amorphous carbon is free reactive carbon that does not have any
network. Other forms of carbon are fullerenes which have been discovered recently. Covalent
structures are not densely packed because of directionality of the bonds.

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 3.2 Some networks of carbon: a) diamond; b) graphite; c) amorphous carbon d) Carbon nanotube

19
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

An example of ionic network is the Sodium Chloride crystal (Table salt). If Na and cl
elements are dissolved in water, H2O atoms exist between the two elements. If the water is
evaporated, they will come closer and start forming crystals.

Fig 3.3: NaCl crystal structure

Most metallic networks form close packed structures at low teperatutes. They form tiny
crystals called grains with random orientations after solidification (crystallization). The grains
fuse to form boundaries known as grain boundaries and constitute microstructure.

Fig. 3.4 Schematic diagrams of the various stages in the solidification of apolycrystalline material; the square
grids depict unit cells. (a) Small crystallite nuclei. (b) Growth of the crystallites; the obstruction of some grains that
are adjacent to one another is also shown. (c) Upon completion of solidification, grains having irregular shapes have
formed. (d) The grain structure as it would appear under the microscope; dark lines are the grain boundaries

Secondary bonds in particular the hydrogen bond forms networks i.e. formation of ice
crystals. When the freezing point for water is reached hydrogen bonding dominates the
intermolecular forces, which results in a packing of molecules less compact in the solid.

Polymorphism and Allotropy

Some metals, as well as nonmetals, may have more than one crystal structure, a
phenomenon known as polymorphism. The prevailing crystal structure depends on both the
temperature and the external pressure. One familiar example is found in carbon: graphite is the
stable polymorph at ambient conditions, whereas diamond is formed at extremely high pressures.
Also, pure iron has a BCC crystal structure at room temperature, which changes to FCC iron at
912°C. Ice also exists in different phases depending on temperature and pressure.
Pure materials like carbon, polymorphism is referred to as allotropy e.g. diamond is an
allotrope of carbon.

20
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Anisotropy and Isotropy

A crystalline material may be either in the form of single crystal or an aggregate of many
crystals usually known as polycrystalline separated by well-defined boundaries called as grain
boundaries. Polycrystalline material is stronger than ordinary one because crystals in
polycrystalline material have different orientations with respect to each other and grain
boundaries obstruct the movement of dislocations. Such crystals are called isotropic because they
exhibit same properties in every plane and direction, whereas single crystal is called anisotropic
with properties dependent direction.

Crystal structure
Crystal structure is the atomic arrangement in crystal. When describing crystalline
structures, atoms (or ions) are modeled as being solid spheres having well-defined diameters. In
this model hard spheres representing nearest-neighbor atoms touch one another.

Lattice and Basis

It is very convenient to imagine points in space about which these atoms, ions or molecules
are located. Such points in space are called lattice points. Lattice in this context means a three-
dimensional array of points coinciding with spheres‘ centers. The totality of lattice points make
a Crystal lattice or space lattice. If all the atoms, molecules or ions at the lattice points are
identical, the lattice is called a Bravias lattice
Space lattice can be defined as an array of imaginary points which are so arranged in space
that each point has identical surroundings. In order to obtain a crystal structure, an atom or a
group of atoms must be placed on each lattice point in a regular fashion. Such an atom or a group
of atoms is called the basis and acts as a building unit or a structural unit for the complete crystal
structure. A lattice is an abstract concept, whereas the crystal structure is a physical concept.

Fig. 3.5: Space lattice + Basis = Crystal Structure

Unit Cell
The unit cell is the basic structural unit or building block of the crystal structure by virtue of
its geometry and atomic positions within. It is the smallest component of the space lattice. Space
lattices of various substances differ in the size and shape of their unit cells.

21
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

The following lattice parameters are used to fully describe a unit cell
 Lattice vectors a, b, and c
 Interfacial angles α, β and γ

Fig 3.6. Unit cell

If the values of these intercepts and interfacial angles are known, one can easily determine
the form and actual size of the unit cell as illustrated in Fig 3.6

Crystal systems
Crystal structures are divided into groups according to unit cell configurations and/or
atomic arrangements. On this basis the six lattice parameters of a unit cell, there are seven
different possible combinations and each of which represents a distinct crystal system. The seven
unique crystal systems, listed in order of decreasing symmetry in Table 3.1

Table 3.1
Crystal system Lattice Parameters Unit cell geometry Bravais lattices
relationship
Cubic

Hexagonal

Tetragonal

Rhombohedral
(Trigonal)

22
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Crystal system Lattice Parameters Unit cell geometry Bravais lattices

relationship
Orthorhombic

Monoclinic

Triclinic

The Seven crystal systems are each described by the shape of the unit cell which can be
translated to fill space. Bravais lattices are fourteen simple and complex lattices within the seven
crystal systems.

Characteristics of Bravais crystal structure

 Unit cell
 Average number of atoms per unit cell
 Coordination number: This is the number of points that are closest or touching a
given lattice site in a crystal structure/ the number of nearest neighbors to any atom
 Lattice parameter: In Bravais system the lattice parameters are frequently expressed
in terms of the atomic radius (r)
 Atomic packing factor (APF):This is the ratio of the volume occupied by atoms in a
unit cell to the total volume of the unit cell

Example
Simple cubic crystal structure

(a) (b) (c) (d)

23
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Figure 3.5 For the Simple cubic crystal structure, (a) a hard sphere unit cell
representation, (b) a reduced-sphere unit cell, and (c) an aggregate of many atoms.(d) cordination number

Coordination number = 6

Assuming one atom per lattice point, the atomic packing factor of the simple cubic system is
only 0.52. Due to its low density, this is a high energy structure and is rare in nature, but is found
in Polonium

Metallic Crystal Structures

The atomic bonding in this group of materials is metallic and thus non-directional in nature.
Consequently, there are minimal restrictions as to the number and position of nearest-neighbor
atoms; this leads to relatively large numbers of nearest neighbors and dense atomic packings for
most metallic crystal structures. Three relatively simple crystal structures are found for most of
the common metals: body-centered cubic, face centered cubic, and hexagonal close-packed.

Body-Centered Cubic (BCC)

BCC crystal structure has a cubic unit cell with atoms located at all eight corners and a
single atom at the cube center. Center and corner atoms touch one another along cube diagonals.

Figure 3.6 For the Body Centered cubic crystal structure, (a) a hard sphere unit cell
representation, (b) a reduced-sphere unit cell, and (c) an aggregate of many atoms.

24
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Coordination Number = 8

NO=QP=PQ=a
For Triangle NOP (NP)2 = a2 + a2 =2a2
And then for triangle NPQ, (NQ)2 =(QP)2 +(NP)2
But NQ = 4r, r being the atomic radius;
and corner atoms are in contact see Fig 3.6 (a)
Therefore,
(4r)2 = a2 + 2a2, or a =
√

Some of the metals possessing BCC structure are: α-Fe (below 910°C), Mo, V, Mn, Nb, W,
α- Cr, etc.

Face centered cubic

The crystal structure found for many metals has a unit cell of cubic geometry, with atoms
located at each of the corners and the centers of all the cube faces. It is aptly

Figure 3.7 For the Face centered cubic crystal structure, (a) a hard sphere unit cell
representation, (b) a reduced-sphere unit cell, and (c) an aggregate of many atoms.

Coordination Number = 12

25
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

(4r)2 = a2 + a2, or a =
√

√
Some of the familiar metals having FCC crystal structure are
copper, aluminum, silver, and gold.

Hexagonal Closed Packed (HCP) Structures:

In HCP structures, the unit cell contains one atom at each corner of the hexagonal prism,
one atom each at the centre of the hexagonal faces and three more atoms within the body of the
cell (interstitial location).

Fig. 3.8 For the Face centered cubic crystal structure, (a) a reduced-sphere unit cell
(b) an aggregate of many atoms
Average number of atoms
Each corner atom is shared by six other unit lattices or each corner has 6 atoms.
Number of atoms in upper hexagonal plane =

Number of atoms in lower hexagonal plane

We note that each central atom is shared by two unit cells which means upper and lower planes contain

Total number of there are three intersititial atoms = 3

Average number of atoms in HCP crystal = 1 + 1 + 1 + 3 = 6

Lattice parameters

Ideal value for the ratio c/a=1.633 , some HCP metals this ratio deviates from the for ideal value.

Atomic Packing factor

√

26
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Table 3.2: Summary

Crystal structure Atoms per a to r factor Coordinati APF
unit cell on number. (%)
Simple Cubic 1 a=2r 6 52.4
BCC 2 8 68.0
√
Face‐centered 4 12 74.0
Cubic √
Hexagnal closed 6 a=2r, c/a=1.633 12 74.0
Packed

Crystallographic planes and directions

A complete description of the crystal structure can be obtained from the study of atomic
positions in a unit cell. Apart from atomic arrangement in crystals it is necessary way to identify
directions and planes of atoms. A crystallographic direction is defined as a line between two
points, or a vector. A vector points in a specific direction (hence an origin) and has magnitude.
Crystallographic planes are regarded as aggregate set of parallel equidistant geometric planes,
passing through lattice points.

Fig. 3.9 Illustration of (a) Crystal direction and (b) Crystal plane

Some of the reasons for understanding crystal directions and planes

Deformation under loading (slip) occurs on certain crystalline planes and in certain
crystallographic directions. Before prediction of materials failure, it is important to know what
modes of failure are more likely to occur. Optical properties: Refractive index is directly related
to density (or periodic density fluctuations). Cleavage typically occurs preferentially parallel to
higher density planes. Other properties of materials (electrical conductivity, thermal conductivity,
elastic modulus) can vary in a crystal with orientation.

27
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Point coordinates
Point coordinates are used to specify point
position in terms of its coordinates as fractional
multiples of the unit cell edge lengths. Miller indices:
h,k,l are used to express point coordinates.
Fig.3.10 point coordinates

Miller Indices for crystallographic directions

Method
i) Draw vector, and find the coordinates of
the head, and the tail

ii) Subtract coordinates of tail from

coordinates of head
iii) Remove fractions by multiplying by
smallest possible factor
Fig.3.11 Crystal directions
iv) Enclose in square brackets

Example
Find the crystallographic directions for vectors A-F a cubic unit cell shown in Fig.3.10 point
coordinates

Fig.3.12 Example on crystal directions

Families of Directions
In the cubic system, directions having the same indices regardless of order or sign are
equivalent. We must note that there are other directions, not parallel to the one under
consideration which are equivalent to the given direction by virtue of rotation symmetry. Thus,
the equivalent directions of [100] are [010], [001], [ ̅ 00], [0 ̅ 0] and [00 ̅ ], where the bars denote
the negative values. By all possible positive and negative combinations of indices, we obtain a
family of directions. In the present example, all these six equivalent directions are grouped
together in the symbol <100>, where the bracket < > represents the whole family

28
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Fig.3.13 Equivalence of crystal directions

In non-cubic systems, directions that have the same indices are not necessarily equivalent as
shown in Fig. 3.13

Miller Indices for crystallographic planes

Method
i) Determine the intersection of the plane with the
axes in terms of a, b, and c
ii) If plane is parallel to an axis does not intersect it,
the intercept is taken as infinity (∞).
iii) Take the reciprocals of the intercepts (1/∞ = 0)
iv) Convert to smallest integers
v) Enclose by parentheses e.g (111)
vi) If the plane passes through the origin, select an
equivalent plane or move the origin and repeat
the above method

Examples

Fig.3.13 Examples of crystal planes

29
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Important features of Miller indices of crystal planes

(a) All the parallel equidistant planes have the same Miller indices.
(b) If the Miller indices of the two planes have the same ratio (i.e., say (844) and
(422) or (211)), then the planes are said to be parallel to each other. In other
words, all equally spaced parallel planes with a particular orientation have the
same direction [hkl].
(c) Miller indices may also be negative and negative indices are represented by
putting a bar over thedigit, e.g. (0 ̅ 0).
(d) Miller indices of planes are denoted by ( ), i.e., the plane cuts the axes into
, and equal segments. The directions in space are represented by square
bracket [xyz].
(e) The common inside brackets are used separately and not combined e.g. (111)
is read as one one-one and not ‗one hundred eleven‘.
(f) Miller indices may also be negative and negative indices are represented by
putting a bar over the digit, e.g. (010).
(g) Planes and their negatives are equivalent see Fig 3.14 (a)

(a) (b)
Fig.3.14 Examples of crystal planes

(h) In cubic systems, planes having the same indices are equivalent regardless of
order or sign and, a plane and a direction with the same indices are orthogonal

Linear and Planar density

Linear Density (LD) is the number of atoms per length whose centers lie on the direction
vector for a specific crystallographic direction.

Planar Density (PD) is the number of atoms per unit area that are centered on a particular
crystallographic plane.

30
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Example
1. Calculate the planar atomic densities of planes (100), (110) and (111) in FCC unit cell and apply your
result for lead (FCC form with atomic radius of 1.75 ̇ )

Fig.3.15 (a) shows the planes (111) and (110). ( b), (c) and (d) shows the planes (100), (110) and (111) with atoms
contained in them respectively.

31
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

2. Determine the linear atomic density in the [110] and [111] directions of copper
crystal lattice. Lattice constant of copper (FCC) is 3.61 10–10m.

Defects in Crystals:
By ―crystalline defect‖ or ―crystal imperfection‖ is meant a lattice irregularity having one or
more of its dimensions on the order of an atomic diameter. Ideal crystals and obtained by
combining a basis with an infinite space lattice Real crystals always have certain defects or
imperfections, and therefore, the arrangement of atoms in the volume of a crystal is far from
being perfectly regular.

Significance of some defects in crystal lattices

i) The colour of gemstones is due to the presence natural defects in their crystal
structure and can make these crystals valuable as gems, as in ruby (chromium
replacing a small fraction of the aluminium in aluminium oxide).
ii) Adding alloying elements to a metal is one way of introducing a crystal defect and
can improve material properties.
iii) A defect free, i.e. ideal silicon crystal would be of little use in modern electronics;
iv) Plastic deformation in a materials occurs due to the movement of dislocations (linear
defects)

32
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Crystalline defects can be classified on the basis of their geometry as follows base on
atomic dimensions:
i) Point imperfections
ii) Line imperfections
iii) Surface and grain boundary imperfections
iv) Volume imperfections

Point defects
Point defects are where an atom is missing or is in an irregular place in the lattice structure.
The dimensions of a point defect are close to those of an interatomic space Point defects include
vacancies, self interstitial atoms, interstitial impurity atoms, substitutional atoms
Vacancies are empty spaces where an atom should be, but is missing. They are common,
especially at high temperatures when atoms are frequently and randomly change their positions
leaving behind empty lattice sites.
Self interstitial atoms are extra atom that has crowded their way into interstitial voids in the
crystal structure. Self interstitial atoms occur only in low concentrations in metals because they
distort and highly stress the tightly packed lattice structure.
A substitutional impurity atom is a foreign atom which has replaced the parent atom of the
lattice and thus occupies the position of parent atom. Substitutional impurity atoms are usually
close in size (within approximately 15%) to the bulk atom. An example of substitutional
impurity atoms is the zinc atoms in brass. In brass, zinc atoms with a radius of 0.133 nm have
replaced some of the copper atoms, which have a radius of 0.128 nm.
Interstitial impurity atoms are much smaller than the atoms in the bulk matrix. Interstitial
impurity atoms fit into the open space between the bulk atoms of the lattice structure. An
example of interstitial impurity atoms is the carbon atoms that are added to iron to make steel.
Carbon atoms, with a radius of 0.071 nm, fit nicely in the open spaces between the larger (0.124
nm) iron atoms.

Fig.3.16 Self interstitial, vacancy, interstitial impurity atom and substitutional impurity atom

33
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Frenkel Defect: occurs whenever a missing atom, which is responsible for vacancy
occupies an interstitial site(responsible for interstitial defect) as shown in Fig. 3.17 (a),
Obviously, Frenkel defect is a combination of vacancy and interstitial defects.
Schottky Defects: These imperfections are similar to vacancies. This defect is caused,
whenever a pair of positive and negative ions is missing from a crystal [(Fig. 3.17(b)]. This type
of imperfection maintains charge neutrality.

(a) (b)
Fig.3.17 Frenkel defect and Schottky defect

Line defects (or dislocations),

A dislocation is a linear or one-dimensional defect around which some of the atoms are
misaligned. Dislocations are generated and move when a stress is applied. The motion of
dislocations allows slip – plastic deformation to occur. There are two types namely; edge
dislocation and screw dislocation.

Edge Dislocation: This type of dislocation is formed by adding an extra partial plane of
atoms to the crystal An edge dislocation in its cross-section is essentially the edge of an ‗extra‘
half-plane in the crystal lattice. The lattice around dislocation is elastically distorted.

Fig.3.18 Edge Dislocation

Screw dislocation The formation of screw dislocation is shown in Fig. 3.18 In this, the
atoms are displaced in two separate planes perpendicular to each other. An isomeric view of a
perfect crystal is shown in Fig. 3.18(a). The displacement of atoms in the region ABC is shown
in Fig. 3.18(b). The arrangement of atoms in screw dislocations appear like that of a screw or a
helical surface.

34
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Fig.3.18 Screw Dislocation

Surface grain boundary imperfections and bulk defects

One of the most obvious boundaries is the external surface, along which the crystal
structure terminates. Surface atoms are not bonded to the maximum number of nearest neighbors,
and are therefore in a higher energy state than the atoms at interior positions. To reduce this
energy, materials tend to minimize, if at all possible, the total surface area. For example, liquids
assume a shape having a minimum area—the droplets become spherical. Of course, this is not
possible with solids, which are mechanically rigid
A grain boundary, separating two small grains or crystals having different crystallographic
orientations in polycrystalline materials, Fig.3.19.Within the boundary region, which is probably
just several atom distances wide, there is some atomic mismatch in a transition from the
crystalline orientation of one grain to that of an adjacent one.
Bulk or volume defects (pores and cracks) may have substantial dimensions in all
measurements, i.e. at least a few tens of Å.

Fig 3.19 schematic representation of grain boundary from an atomic perspective

35
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

Chapter 4 Mechanical Behavior of Materials

Stress and strain. Tensile test; stress-strain-curves, yield stress, proof stress, ultimate tensile
strength, elongation, ductility, toughness, brittleness, true stress and true strain. Other mechanical
tests; compression-, hardness-,
Impact-, creep-, fatigue-, bending-, torsion-, shearing-tests. Ductile-brittle transition. Alloy

Chapter 5 Theory and Equilibrium Diagrams

Chapter 4 Physical Properties:

Electrical conduction,

Thermal behavior,

Optical properties,

Magnetism.
Types of Magnetic Materials
Magnetic materials derive their magnetic behavior from the magnetic properties of their
electrons.
Because all electrons produce a magnetic field, you might ask the question, ―Why aren‘t all
materials
magnetic?‖ The answer lies in the fact that the magnetic fields generated by electrons with
opposite
spin (in a single atom, molecule, or ion) directly counteract and cancel each other.
Therefore, any
atom or molecule with half spin up electrons and half spin down electrons will have a net
magnetic
field of zero. Two electrons with opposite spin are said to be spin paired and produce no net
magnetic
field. An uneven number of electrons leaves unpaired electrons. Materials with unpaired
electrons are

36
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

magnetic.
The magnetism of most materials can be categorized as being diamagnetic, paramagnetic,
or
ferromagnetic. In a diamagnetic material (Interactive Figure 7.1.3(a)), all electrons are spin
paired
and the material does not have a net magnetic field. These materials are slightly repelled by
the
magnetic field of a strong magnet.

Interactive Figure 7.1.3: Use spin states to predict magnetic properties.

Electron spin representations of a material with (a) diamagnetic, (b) paramagnetic, and (c)
ferromagnetic properties.

Paramagnetic materials (Interactive Figure 7.1.3(b)) contain atoms, molecules, or ions with
unpaired electrons. In the absence of an external, strong magnetic field, the magnetic fields
generated
by the individual particles are arranged in random directions and the magnetism produced
by each
atom or molecule can be cancelled by the magnetic fields around it. This results in a
magnetic
material, but one with a weak net magnetic field. However, the presence of strong, external
magnet
causes the individual spins to align so that the material is attracted to the magnet.
Ferromagnetic materials (Interactive Figure 7.1.3(c)), like paramagnetic materials, contain
particles with unpaired electrons. In these materials, however, the individual magnetic fields
align
naturally and produce a strong, permanent magnetic field. The common magnets you are
familiar
with are ferromagnets.

37
 EMG 2104 Introduction to Material Science

References

38