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Table of Contents

Introduction ................................................................................................2

OBE Matrix ............................................................................................... 3

Assessment Matrix ................................................................................... 4

Lesson 5.1: Introduction to Statistics ........................................................ 5

Lesson 5.2: Data Collection Methods ......................................................... 6

Presentation of written work .................................................................... 15

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Introduction
To the Trainee,

Congratulations on joining this course!

This module is one part of JIB OER (Open Educational Resources) which
provides instructional resources to students and faculty.

This module is composed of the following:

▪ Lesson title: refers to the topics that contribute to the achievement of
student outcomes (SO).
▪ Unit Number: refers to the unique number identifying the particular
competency.
▪ Contact hours: refers to the number of hours in the school classroom or
online classroom needed to complete the competency.

Student Outcomes (SO) is defined by CHED as “what students will know, be

able to do or be able to demonstrate when they have completed the
particular subject. These are expressed as knowledge, skills, attitudes or
values” (CMO62, s.2017).

Remember!
Your facilitator is there to help you succeed on this course. Please feel free to
ask him or her for more explanation of what you have just read and of what is
expected from you.

Welcome aboard!

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OBE Matrix
This matrix shows the mapping of program outcomes (PO) against
StudentsOutcomes (SO) to Performance Indicators. CHED
defined the following as follows:

▪ Program Outcomes (PO) – refers to what learners

will know and be able to do when they graduate
from a program.
▪ Students Outcomes (SO) – refers to what learners
will know and be able to do or be able to
demonstrate when they have completed the
particular subject or course. This is also called
―Course Outcomes‖ or
―Learning Outcomes‖.
▪ Performance Indicators (PI) – refers to the
specific, measurable statements identifying the
performance(s) required to meet the outcome,
confirmable through evidence. This is also called
―Performance Criteria‖.

Below is the matrix for one Program Outcome related to this module:
Program Outcomes Student Outcomes Performance Indicator
(After Graduation) (After taking this course) (After taking the lesson)
Articulate and discuss the Discuss and argue about the • Identify different types of
latest developments in the nature of mathematics, what data.
specific field of practice. it is, how it is expressed, • Identify different types
represented and used. of data collections and
sampling.

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Assessment Matrix
This matrix shows mapping of Performance Indicators against
FlexibleLearning and Assessment activities.

Performance Indicators Assessment Teaching – Learning Activities

Activity In-school Online/Blended
face-to-face synchronous Asynchronous
1.1 Identify different types Identification Video ▪ Reading
of data. Conferencing ▪ Worktext

1.2 Identify different types Research Study Video ▪ Reading

of data collection and Conferencing ▪ Worktext
sampling.

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Lesson 5.1: Introduction to Statistics

Unit Code:
Nominal Hours:

Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, a student should be able to:
1. Define Statistics.
2. Identify the two concepts of statistics
3. Discuss the different types of data and variables.

Statistics and Probability

Decisions or predictions are often based on data—numbers in context.

These decisions or predictions would be easy if the data always sent a clear
message, but the message is often obscured by variability. Statistics provides
tools for describing variability in data and for making informed decisions that
take it into account.

Data are gathered, displayed, summarized, examined, and interpreted

to discover patterns and deviations from patterns. Quantitative data can be
described in terms of key characteristics: measures of shape, center, and
spread. The shape of a data distribution might be described as symmetric,
skewed, flat, or bell shaped, and it might be summarized by a statistic
measuring center (such as mean or median) and a statistic measuring spread
(such as standard deviation or interquartile range). Different distributions can
be compared numerically using these statistics or compared visually using
plots. Knowledge of center and spread are not enough to describe a distribution.
Which statistics to compare, which plots to use, and what the results of a
comparison might mean, depend on the question to be investigated and the
real-life actions to be taken.

Randomization has two important uses in drawing statistical

conclusions. First, collecting data from a random sample of a population makes
it possible to draw valid conclusions about the whole population, taking
variability into account. Second, randomly assigning individuals to different
treatments allows a fair comparison of the effectiveness of those treatments. A
statistically significant outcome is one that is unlikely to be due to chance
alone, and this can be evaluated only under the condition of randomness. The
conditions under which data are collected are important in drawing conclusions
from the data; in critically reviewing uses of statistics in public media and other
reports, it is important to consider the study design, how the data were

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gathered, and the analyses employed as well as the data summaries and the
conclusions drawn.

Random processes can be described mathematically by using a

probability model: a list or description of the possible outcomes (the sample
space), each of which is assigned a probability. In situations such as flipping a
coin, rolling a number cube, or drawing a card, it might be reasonable to
assume various outcomes are equally likely. In a probability model, sample
points represent outcomes and combine to make up events; probabilities of
events can be computed by applying the Addition and Multiplication Rules.
Interpreting these probabilities relies on an understanding of independence
and conditional probability, which can be approached through the analysis of
two-way tables.

Technology plays an important role in statistics and probability by

making it possible to generate plots, regression functions, and correlation
coefficients, and to simulate many possible outcomes in a short amount of time.

Connections to Functions and Modeling

Functions may be used to describe data; if the data suggest a linear

relationship, the relationship can be modeled with a regression line, and its
strength and direction can be expressed through a correlation coefficient.

Types of Data
Quantitative Data

Data that is expressed in numbers and summarized using statistics to give

meaningful information is referred to as quantitative data. Examples of
quantitative data we could collect are heights, weights, or ages of students. If we
obtain the mean of each set of measurements, we have meaningful information
about the average value for each of those student characteristics.
Qualitative Data

When we use data for description without measurement, we call

it qualitative data. Examples of qualitative data are student attitudes towards
school, attitudes towards exam cheating and friendliness of students to teachers.
Such data cannot be easily summarized using statistics.
Primary Data

When we obtain data directly from individuals, objects or processes, we

refer to it as primary data. Quantitative or qualitative data can be collected using

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this approach. Such data is usually collected solely for the research problem to you
will study. Primary data has several advantages. First, we tailor it to our specific
research question, so there are no customizations needed to make the data usable.
Second, primary data is reliable because you control how the data is collected and
can monitor its quality. Third, by collecting primary data, you spend your
resources in collecting only required data. Finally, primary data is proprietary, so
you enjoy advantages over those who cannot access the data.
Despite its advantages, primary data also has disadvantages of which you
need to be aware. The first problem with primary data is that it is costlier to
acquire as compared to secondary data. Obtaining primary data also requires more
time as compared to gathering secondary data.

Secondary Data

When you collect data after another researcher or agency that initially
gathered it makes it available, you are gathering secondary data. Examples of
secondary data are census data published by the US Census Bureau, stock prices
data published by CNN and salaries data published by the Bureau of Labor
Statistics.
One advantage to using secondary data is that it will save you time and
money, although some data sets require you to pay for access. A second advantage
is the relative ease with which you can obtain it. You can easily access secondary
data from publications, government agencies, data aggregation websites and
blogs. A third advantage is that it eliminates effort duplication since you can
identify existing data that matches your needs instead of gather new data.

Despite the benefits it offers, secondary data has its shortcomings. One
limitation is that secondary data may not be complete. For it to meet your research
needs, you may need to enrich it with data from other sources. A second
shortcoming is that you cannot verify the accuracy of secondary data, or the data
may be outdated. A third challenge you face when using secondary data is that
documentation may be incomplete or missing. Therefore, you may not be aware of
any problems that happened in data collection which would otherwise influence
its interpretation. Another challenge you may face when you decide to use
secondary data is that there may be copyright restrictions.

Now that we’ve explained the various types of data you can collect when
conducting research, we will proceed to look at methods used to collect primary
and secondary data.

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Lesson 5.2 DATA COLLECTION METHODS

6.3.1 Registration

A register is a depository of information on fishing vessels, companies, gear,

licenses or individual fishers. It can be used to obtain complete enumeration
through a legal requirement. Registers are implemented when there is a need for
accurate knowledge of the size and type of the fishing fleet and for closer
monitoring of fishing activities to ensure compliance with fishery regulations.
They may also incorporate information related to fiscal purposes (e.g. issuance or
renewal of fishing licenses). Although registers are usually implemented for
purposes other than to collect data, they can be very useful in the design and
implementation of a statistical system, provided that the data they contain are
reliable, timely and complete

6.3.1.1 Registration data types

In most countries, vessels, especially commercial fishing vessels, and

chartered or contract fishing vessels are registered with the fisheries authorities.
Data on vessel type, size, gear type, country of origin, fish holding capacity,
number of fishers and engine horsepower should be made available for the
registry.

Companies dealing with fisheries agencies are registered for various

purposes. These companies may not only include fishing companies, but also other
type of companies involved in processing and marketing fishery products. Data,
such as the number of vessels, gear type and vessel size of registered fishing
companies, should be recorded during such registration. Processing companies
should provide basic data on the type of processing, type of raw material, capacity
of processing, and even the source of material.

Fishing vessels and fishing gears may often be required to hold a

valid fishing licence. Unlike vessel registers, licences tend to be issued for access
to specific fisheries over a set period of time. Because licences may have to be
periodically renewed, they can be a useful way to update information on vessel
and gear characteristics.

6.3.1.2 Registry design

A registry must not only capture new records, but be able to indicate that a
particular record is inactive (e.g. a company has ceased operations) or record
changes in operations (e.g. a company's processing capacity has increased). If
licences must be renewed each year, data collected from licensing is particularly
useful, as records are updated on an annual basis.

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Registry data also contain criteria for the classification of fishing units into
strata. These classifications are usually based on assumptions and a
priori knowledge regarding differences on catch rates, species composition and
species selectively.

In general, vessel registers are complex systems requiring well-established

administrative procedures supported by effective data communications, data
storage and processing components. As such, they predominantly deal with only
certain types and size of fishing units, most often belonging to industrial and semi-
industrial fleets. Small-scale and subsistence fisheries involving large numbers of
fishing units are often not part of a register system or, if registered, are not easily
traced so as to allow validation or updating.

6.3.2 Questionnaires

In contrast with interviews, where an enumerator poses questions directly,

questionnaires refer to forms filled in by respondents alone. Questionnaires can
be handed out or sent by mail and later collected or returned by stamped addressed
envelope. This method can be adopted for the entire population or sampled sectors.

Questionnaires may be used to collect regular or infrequent routine data,

and data for specialised studies. While the information in this section applies to
questionnaires for all these uses, examples will concern only routine data, whether
regular or infrequent. Some of the data often obtained through questionnaires
include demographic characteristics, fishing practices, opinions of stakeholders on
fisheries issues or management, general information on fishers and household food
budgets.

A questionnaire requires respondents to fill out the form themselves, and

so requires a high level of literacy. Where multiple languages are common,
questionnaires should be prepared using the major languages of the target group.
Special care needs to be taken in these cases to ensure accurate translations.

In order to maximise return rates, questionnaires should be designed to be

as simple and clear as possible, with targeted sections and questions. Most
importantly, questionnaires should also be as short as possible. If the
questionnaire is being given to a sample population, then it may be preferable to
prepare several smaller, more targeted questionnaires, each provided to a sub-
sample. If the questionnaire is used for a complete enumeration, then special care
needs to be taken to avoid overburdening the respondent. If, for instance, several
agencies require the same data, attempts should be made to co-ordinate its
collection to avoid duplication.

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The information that can be obtained through questionnaires consists of

almost any data variable. For example, catch or landing information can be
collected through questionnaire from fishers, market middle-persons, market
sellers and buyers, processors etc. Likewise, socio-economic data can also be
obtained through questionnaires from a variety of sources. However, in all cases
variables obtained are an opinion and not a direct measurement, and so may be
subject to serious errors. Using direct observations (6.3.4) or reporting systems
(6.3.5) for these sorts of data is more reliable.

Questionnaires, like interviews, can contain either structured questions

with blanks to be filled in, multiple choice questions, or they can contain open-
ended questions where the respondent is encouraged to reply at length and choose
their own focus to some extent.

To facilitate filling out forms and data entry in a structured format, the form
should ideally be machine-readable, or at least laid out with data fields clearly
identifiable and responses pre-coded. In general, writing should be reduced to a
minimum (e.g. tick boxes, multiple choices), preferably being limited to numerals.
In an open-ended format, keywords and other structuring procedures should be
imposed later to facilitate database entry and analysis, if necessary.

6.3.3 Interviews

In interviews information is obtained through inquiry and recorded by

enumerators. Structured interviews are performed by using survey forms,
whereas open interviews are notes taken while talking with respondents. The
notes are subsequently structured (interpreted) for further analysis. Open-ended
interviews, which need to be interpreted and analysed even during the interview,
have to be carried out by well-trained observers and/or enumerators.

As in preparing a questionnaire, it is important to pilot test forms designed

for the interviews. The best attempt to clarify and focus by the designer cannot
anticipate all possible respondent interpretations. A small-scale test prior to
actual use for data collection will assure better data and avoid wasting time and
money.

Although structured interviews can be used to obtain almost any

information, as with questionnaires, information is based on personal opinion.
Data on variables such as catch or effort are potentially subject to large errors,
due to poor estimates or intentional errors of sensitive information.

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6.3.3.1 Open-ended interviews

Open-ended interviews cover a variety of data-gathering activities,

including a number of social science research methods.

Focus groups are small (5-15 individuals) and composed of representative

members of a group whose beliefs, practises or opinions are sought. By asking
initial questions and structuring the subsequent discussion, the
facilitator/interviewer can obtain, for example, information on common gear use
practices, responses to management regulations or opinions about fishing.

Panel surveys involve the random selection of a small number of

representative individuals from a group, who agree to be available over an
extended period - often one to three years. During that period, they serve as a
stratified random sample of people from whom data can be elicited on a variety of
topics.

6.3.3.2 Structured interview

Generally, structured interviews are conducted with a well-designed form

already established. Forms are filled in by researchers, instead of respondents,
and in that it differs from questionnaires. While this approach is more expensive,
more complicated questions can be asked and data can be validated as it is
collected, improving data quality. Interviews can be undertaken with variety of
data sources (fishers to consumers), and through alternative media, such as by
telephone or in person.

Structured interviews form the basis for much of the data collection in
small-scale fisheries.

In an interview approach for sample catch, effort and prices, the

enumerators work according to a schedule of landing site visits to record data.
Enumerators can be mobile (that is sites are visited on a rotational basis) or
resident at a specific sampling site. Their job is to sample vessels, obtaining data
on landings, effort and prices from all boat/gear types that are expected to operate
during the sampling day. The sample should be as representative as possible of
fleet activities. Some additional data related to fishing operations may be required
for certain types of fishing units, such as beach seines or boats making multiple
fishing trips in one day. For these, the interview may cover planned activities as
well as activities already completed.

In an interview approach for boat/gear activities, the enumerators work

according to a schedule of homeport visits to record data on boat/gear activities.
Enumerators can be mobile (that is homeports are visited on a rotational basis) or

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resident at a specific sampling site. In either case, their job is to determine the
total number of fishing units (and if feasible, fishing gears) for all boat/gear types
based at that homeport and number of those that have been fishing during the
sampling day.

There are several ways of recording boat/gear activities. In many cases, they
combine the interview method with direct observations. Direct observations can
be used to identify inactive fishing units by observing those that are moored or
beached, and the total number of vessels based at the homeport are already
known, perhaps from a frame survey or register. Often enumerators will still have
to verify that vessels are fishing as opposed to other activities by using interviews
during the visit.

The pure interview approach can be used in those cases where a pre-
determined sub-set of the fishing units has been selected. The enumerator's job is
to trace all fishers on the list and, by means of interviewing, find out those that
had been active during the sampling day. For sites involving a workable number
of fishing units (e.g. not larger than 20), the interview may involve all fishing
units.

Sometimes it is possible to ask questions on fishing activity which refer to

the previous day or even to two days back. This extra information increases the
sample size significantly with little extra cost, ultimately resulting in better
estimates of total fishing effort. Experience has shown that most of the variability
in boat/gear activity is in time rather than space.

6.3.4 Direct observations

6.3.4.1 Observers

Observers can make direct measurements on the fishing vessels, at landing

sites, processing plants, or in markets. The variables that enumerators can collect
include catch (landing and discards), effort, vessel/gears, operations,
environmental variables (e.g. sea state, temperature), biological variables (e.g.
length, weight, age), the values and quantities of landings and sales.

In practice, observers do not only make direct measurements (observations),

but also conduct interviews and surveys using questionnaires. They might also be
involved in data processing and analysis. The tasks of an observer are difficult and
adequate training and supervision are therefore essential.

Clear decisions need to be made on the nature and extent of data collected
during any one trip. Often, the amount of data and frequency of collection can be
established analytically with preliminary data.

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Preferably, observers should only collect data, not carry out other activities,
such as enforcement, licensing or tax collection. This should help to minimise bias
by reducing the incentives to lie. Problems in terms of conflicts between data
collection and law enforcement, for example, can be reduced by clear demarcation,
separating activities by location or time. This becomes a necessity for at-sea
observers. Their positions on fishing vessels and the tasks that they perform
depend significantly on a good working relationship with the captain and crew,
which can be lost if they are perceived as enforcement personnel.

The major data obtained through at-sea observers are catch and effort data,
which are often used for cross checking fishing logs. At the same time, the at-sea
observers can collect extra biological (fish size, maturity, and sex), by-catch and
environmental data, as well as other information on the gears, fishing operations
etc. Frequently, discards data can only be collected by at-sea observers.

The main data obtained from observers at landing sites, processing plants
and markets include landing (amount, quality, value and price), biological (size,
maturity), and effort (how many hauls, hours fishing) data. For the large-scale
fishery where a logbook system is used, data collected at landing sites could be
used to crosscheck data recorded in logbooks. Data collected from processing
plants include quantities by species and, especially in modern factory practices,
the batch number of raw materials, which can sometimes be traced back to fishing
vessels. These data if collected can be used to validate landing data.

Collecting data to estimate raising factors for converting landed processed

fish weight to the whole weight equivalent may be necessary. By sampling fish
before and after processing, conversion factors may be improved. Potential
seasonal, life history stage and other variations in body/gut weight ratios suggest
date, species, sex and size should be recorded in samples.

Economic and demographic data at each level (e.g. input and output of
various products to and from market and processors) are usually obtained by
interview and questionnaire. However, the data directly collected by enumerators
can also be the major source as well as supporting data for those collected through
other methods.

While product data in processing plants can be collected through

questionnaire (6.3.2) or interview (6.3.3), enumerators can directly collect many
physical variables (weight, number, size etc.) more accurately. Automatic scales,
through which a continuous stream of fish passes, can record the weight of fish
mechanically or through computerised sensors. Similarly, mechanical or
automatic weighing bins for whole frozen or defrosted fish, prior to entry to a
processing line or cold store, can be used to record weights for each batch.

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Otherwise, boxes need to be counted and sub-sampled to ensure their fish contents
are correctly identified and weighed.

Fish is often landed in bulk together with non-fish materials (e.g. ice, brine
slurry, packing material and pallets). It can be very difficult to estimate the total
fish weight, let alone weight by species, product and size grade. Methods need to
be established to record whether non-fish material is included in any weighing
process (e.g. are scales set to automatically subtract pallet weight?). In the case of
processed fish in sealed boxes, it may be that sampling to determine an average
weight and then box or pallet counting is sufficient. Alternatively, each box or
pallet is weighed and a note taken whether box and pallet weight should be
subtracted at a later data when processing the data.

Complete landings of all catch in relation to a vessel's trip (i.e. emptying of

holds) is preferred since records can then be matched against logsheets. However,
in some circumstances off-loading in harbours, at the dock or at sea may only be
partial, some being retained on board until the next off-loading. In this case,
records should be maintained of both catch landed and retained on board.

6.3.4.2 Inspectors

Inspectors are a kind of enumerator involved in law enforcement and

surveillance (for fishing regulations, sanitary inspections, labour control, etc.).
They may work at sea on surveillance vessels, at landing sites on shore, at
processing factories and at markets. In general, scientific data are better collected
by enumerators who are not directly involved in law enforcement. Nevertheless,
many variables collected by the inspectors are very useful, and include landings,
operational information, effort, landing price, processing procedure and values of
product to the market and processors. Inspectors are also useful in collecting
employment data.

Inspectors may play an important role in verification. In many cases,

reports can be physically checked with observations. For example, random
samples of boxes can be taken to check box contents (species, product type and size
grade) against box identification marks. Inspectors need to be skilled in such
sampling strategies.

As with enumerators/observers, inspector data should be treated with

caution because of the high chance of sampling bias. This potential bias of data
collected by law-enforcement officers should be considered in analyses.

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6.3.4.3 Scientific research

Ecological research methods can be undertaken independent of commercial

fishing operations to measure variables related to fish populations or the
environment. Such research can be carried out by institutional research vessels or
by industry or institutions using commercial fishing vessels. The objective is to
obtain observations on biological (e.g. stock abundance or spatial distribution and
fish size, maturity and spawning activities) and environmental (e.g. salinity and
temperature) variables. It is important that this type of research is carried out
periodically in order to obtain time sequential data.

Similarly, socio-cultural research methods can be used to obtain specific

information useful to management. Although these methods may not often be
considered routine, they provide important data and should be considered for
infrequent data collection where possible.

Key informants are individuals with specialised knowledge on a particular

topic. They may include academic specialists, community leaders, or especially
skilled fishers. Interviews are usually begun with a set of baseline questions, but
the interviewer expects to elicit new and perhaps unexpected information by
requesting that the key informant expand on his or her answers to these initial
questions. This method is ideal for obtaining in-depth descriptive data on beliefs
and practices, including historical practices.

Participant-observation is a technique whereby the researcher spends an

extended period of time (from weeks to years, depending on the objective and the
context) living with a target community, both observing their behaviour and
participating in their practices. During this time, the researcher will be conducting
formal and informal open-ended interviewing on a variety of topics. This is a good
method for learning about the actual processes of decision-making, as opposed to
the formal procedures. Cultural and institutional rules are rarely followed to the
letter, and there are usually informal standards for an acceptable leeway.
However, information on these standards can often only be obtained through
participant-observation.

6.3.4.4 Data logging

Automatic Location Communicators (ALC) automatically log data through

positioning and communications technology. They allow remote observation
through recording of fishing activities at sea, and could replace logbooks and
observers/inspectors on the bridges of fishing vessels. However, ALCs will be
deficient in one simple respect: entry of data on the catch remains the
responsibility of the captain.

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Many data on fishing operations can be automatically recorded from bridge

instrumentation. Position, speed, heading, deployment of gear through links to
electronic instruments are likely to become more common in future. Once
gathered, such data may be automatically transmitted to databases through
satellite or ground communications.

The technology that combines vessel position and a catch assessment for
management authorities through remote means is generally known as a Vessel
Monitoring System (VMS). Confidentiality is the key to the widespread acceptance
of VMS, as information on current fishing grounds, and therefore security of
position information, is a major concern.

However, vessel positions, activities and catch reporting through these

systems, directly to databases and thence to reports that either aggregate data or
remove vessel identifiers are becoming possible. Since it will be relatively simple
to check remotely sensed position against recorded position, logsheet records
should become more representative of real vessel activities at sea.

6.3.5 Reporting

In most complete enumeration approaches, fisheries staff do not directly

undertake data collection, but use external data sources. Most commonly, these
sources are data forms completed by the fishing companies themselves, middle
persons, market operators, processors and even trading companies and custom
offices. Such methods are almost exclusively used for semi-industrial and
industrial fisheries and institutions.

Fishing companies are often a good source of information regarding basic

data on catches and fishing effort. Regular submission of basic data is a part of the
fishing licensing process. Data submitted by companies are often in the form of
logbooks or landings declarations. Logbooks should contain detailed information
on individual fishing operations, including fishing grounds, type and duration of
operation, catch by species and other types of data relating to weather and sea
conditions. Landings declarations usually deal with grouped data presented as
summaries of fishing trips and catch by species.

The advantage of using reports is that data are compiled by agents other
than fisheries staff and sometimes can be made available in pre-processed
computerised format directly from the company's records, thereby reducing
administration costs. Confidentiality of information (such as fishing grounds and
catch rates) should be part of the agreement for data submission, and statistical
outputs of the survey should not contain information related to individual fishing
vessels or companies. However, there are also risks of under-reporting or of

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deliberate distortion of data, especially fishing ground, catch and revenue related
information.

6.3.5.1 Harvest

The collection of data from all vessels within a fishery sector is sometimes
needed usually from large-scale fisheries. Normally each vessel will be required to
record their catch and effort data for every trip on a specially designed logbook.
Because it is a painstaking task, usually only essential data are required. For
various reasons, the data collected by this method could be inaccurate and thus
validation from time to time by inspectors is important.

6.3.5.2 Post harvest

Data from post harvest operations are often used for obtaining information
on landings, biology, markets, costs and earnings. Where logsheets, landings
records and market reports are not available, reliable information can often only
be obtained from processing factories. Reports by the processors generally include
quantities and value of fish received and the resulting products. Additional
information may include the origin of catch (fishing and transport vessels) and
size categories of fish.

Monitoring off-loading catch in processed or whole round form requires

considerable attention to detail and much depends on the relationship between
the fishery authority and vessel captains or companies. It may be that sufficient
trust has been developed to allow vessel or company off-loading records to be used
directly, perhaps with random spot checks.

In some circumstances, off-loading may proceed directly to a processing

factory or cold store (particularly by conveyor of bulk fish such as small pelagics,
tuna etc.). Detailed landings can still be recorded as long as each batch is marked
with its source (vessel name and trip identifier).

Most factories will maintain records of fish (by species, product type and
size grade) that enter processing directly or cold store. They will also maintain
information on their output and sales, including destination and price, although
such data may be much more difficult or impossible to obtain unless legally
required. Data forms will need to be customised to the type of processing and the
factory management system.

6.3.5.3 Sale

Market transaction records may form a feasible way of collecting landings

with complete enumeration, particularly in large fleets of small-scale vessels that

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land in central locations. All invoices, sales slips or sales tallies should be designed
with care as to content, style and availability to ensure completeness of coverage.
Given the potential volume of paper work, simplicity and brevity will often be the
most important criteria.

The primary identifier on records should be the name of the vessel

(including all carrier vessels unloading from more distant fleets) that sold the
catch, and the date or trip number, since vessels may make more than one sale
from one landing. Total weight by species or commercial group, and price should
be collected. Ideally, further data should be obtained on fishing ground and level
of fishing effort, although often this is not possible.

In similar fashion to logsheets and landings sheets, sales records should be

prepared in appropriately identified forms in multiple copies as required. Copies
are likely to be required for the market administration (if necessary), the seller,
the buyer and the fishery authority.

General sales records, such as volume of sales and prices by product type,
provide useful information for bio-economic analyses and a source of data on catch
and landings when all other avenues for data collection are unavailable. Three
information sources on general sales are usually available: market, processing
factory and export data. However, these data must always be treated with care.
The further away the data sources are from the primary source, the more errors
will be introduced, and the more details (e.g. fishing ground, fishing effort) will be
lost.

In addition to these, direct surveys of fishing companies may provide vital

details upon which overall fisheries management and administration can be
based. Annual fisheries statistical surveys can be voluntary or compulsory. If
voluntary, responses will depend on the level of co-operation between the private
sector and the authorities. If compulsory, legislation is required and can be drafted
in various forms, such as Companies or Statistics Acts.

6.3.5.4 Trade

Trade data refers to information from customs or similar sources on trade.

These data are used in socio-economic indicators and, in some exceptional cases,
support landings data.

Information on exports and imports is published in most countries. It is

particularly important where export or import taxes are payable, or export
incentives given. Of course, export and import data is of limited use in estimating
the total production of fish unless there are also means to establish the proportion
of catch that is used in domestic consumption. However, in some particular cases,

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the trade data are the main source for estimating landings (e.g. shark, tunas). If
trade data are used for validating or estimating landings, the quantities will
usually need converting to whole weight.

The lack of detail in export data can be a problem simply because of the
form in which they are collected. Export categories recorded by the authorities (not
usually in co-operation with fishery authorities) can mask much of the information
required. Canned fish, frozen fish, fresh fish, dried fish and fishmeal may be the
only relevant categories for export authorities. Together with accurate raising
factors, these data can be used for total fish production. This method of estimation
is fairly accurate when there is a small local market. However, unless they are
broken down by species and linked back directly to sources of data closer to the
harvest sector, they provide little value for fishery management purposes.

Reference:

https://www.igi-global.com/dictionary/mathematical-language/58744

https://www.siue.edu/~jloreau/courses/math-223/notes/sec-propositions-and-
connectives.html

http://dimacs.rutgers.edu/archive/nj_math_coalition/framework/ch01-04/ch01-
04_s4.html#:~:text=Mathematical%20reasoning%20is%20the%20critical,of%20all%
20other%20mathematical%20skills.&text=Mathematical%20reasoners%20are%20
able%20to,as%20a%20part%20of%20mathematics.

https://byjus.com/maths/statements-in-mathematical-reasoning/

https://www.tutorialspoint.com/discrete_mathematics/rules_of_inference.htm

Statistics and Probability

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Statistics and Probability

Acain, Edwin A. August 2020

Author Revision: 0