CHAPTER TWO

Modeling And Representation Of Control System

2.1Transfer Function
• The transfer function of a LTI, DE system is defined as the ratio of the Laplace transform of the
output (response function) to the Laplace transform of the input (driving function) under the
assumption that all initial conditions are zero..
• Consider a LTI system defined by the differential equation below

• Where,� ≥ �, � is output of the system and � is input of the system

• Therefore, the TF of the system is obtained by taking LT of both the sides.
 Cont…

������
Transfer function= � � = ������� ��������� ��
�����
Finally, the TF =
 Cont..
ØFrom the above result, the following types of TF are available based on the
degree of numerator m and denominator n:
• Proper transfer function: (n > m)
• Bi-proper transfer function: (n = m)
• Improper transfer function: (n < m)
The basic properties of transfer function are:
• It is defined only for LTI system.
• All initial conditions are set to zero.
• It is independent of the input of the system.
• It relates the output and input variable.
 Cont…
ØSteps to find TF of a given system:

ü Write the DE that describe the system

ü Take the LT of the DE with zero initial condition.

ü Take the ration of the output to the input.

 Cont..
• Input is represented by R(s) and
• Output is represented by C(s)

� �
• �� = � � =
� �

� �
• �� = � � =
1∓� � � �
Poles and Zeros of a transfer Function

• The expression for transfer function can be represented, after

factorization,

�0
• Where K= called the gain factor of the transfer function.
�0
• �1 + �2 + …. . + �� are zero of transfer function
• �1 + �2 + …. . + �� are poles of transfer function
 Advantages and Disadvantages of TF

Advantages of TF Disadvantages of TF

• Reduces differential equation to • Can only solve � � ��� � >

an algebra problem 0

• Usually the easiest approach • Requires zero initial

• Easy to find the output for condition

different input signals • Can only be used for SISO

systems
 2.2 Modeling of Physical System
• A model is a simplified representation or abstraction of reality, and reality is
generally too complex to copy exactly.

• A model used for simulation, prediction/forecasting, performance evaluation

and control system design.

• Used for analysis and design possibly before physical system exists
 Cont..
The most popular mathematical models are:

• Differential equations

• Transfer functions

• State equations
Modeling and its use

• Give insight to a system

• Raise suggestion to designers

• Control design

• Controller performance analysis

 Types of models
• White box model
• Mathematical showing all internal operation of a system
• Gray box model
• Is a kind of hybrid model
• Shows partly the internal operation
• Black box model
• Only based on inputs and outputs measured
• Do not show internal operation of a system
 Model derivation
• The dynamics of many systems, such as mechanical, electrical, thermal,

biological, can be described in terms of differential equations.

• These differential equations may be obtained by using physical laws

governing a particular system, for example,

üNewton's laws for mechanical systems and

ü Kirchhoff's laws for electrical systems.

üConservation of mass and energy

Modeling of electrical system

Passive linear components

• Capacitor (C) – store energy

• Resistor (R) – dissipate energy

• Inductor (L) – store energy

 Modeling of Electrical System

• Table 2.1 relation ship voltage current and current voltage in RLC circuit
 Example 2.1

Find the transfer function of the circuits

A B
exercise 1

1. Find the transfer function of the

circuit
Cont..
2. Figure below shows an electrical circuit involving an operational
amplifier. Obtain the output eo , and the transfer function.
Modeling of Mechanical System

Modeling of Mechanical System -Translational

1. Mass (M) - energy storage element

2. Spring (k) - energy storage element

3. damper (D) - energy-dissipative element

 �ℎ���: − � �� ������������
�� �2 �
, �� �������� , 2 �� ����������
�� � �

� = �� = � �1 − �2 �� � �� ������� �� ��� �
= � �2 − �1 �� � �� ������� �� ��� �
 Cont..

��
•�=� = � �1 − �2
��

• The three elements of Rotational motion are

1. Inertia (J)

2. Damper (B)

3. Spring (K)
Cont..
 3. For the following mass-spring-
damper system, find the Mathematica
Example 3 model in DE and TF. [Input: Force r (t),
Output: displacement y(t)].
Example 4. Write the differential equation governing the mechanical

4
system and determine the TF.
Example 5

5. Consider the rotational

system shown in Fig. that
consists of
a disk mounted on a shaft
that is fixed at one end. Find
the mathematical
model in DE.
Solution

By applying Newtons second law of motion rotational motion for

the free body diagram:

Using the relation in the above table and rearranging:

 Example 7
7. For armature-controlled DC motor, find the DE that relates the
input armature voltage va(t) and the output angular displacement (t).
 Solution:
The torque developed on the motor shaft is directly proportional to the field
flux and armature current.

The back emf is proportional to shaft velocity

The differential equation for armature circuit is:

Cont..

• The torque equation for rotational motion is:

 Analogous quantities in translational & Rotational system

• In physics and engineering, mechanical and electrical systems can be

related through analogies based on how they operate, as they both have
similar behaviors under certain principles.
• The electrical analog of the mechanical system can be obtained by,
(i) Force Voltage analogy: (F.V)
(ii) Force Current analogy: (F.I)
 1. Force-Voltage Analogy (F.V)
This analogy relates the effort in a mechanical system (force or torque) to voltage
in an electrical system. Here are the analogous components:
 2. Force-Current Analogy (F.I)
Alternatively, we can relate force to current instead. This analogy, also
known as the flow analogy, focuses on the flow of energy in systems:
 2.3 Block Diagram
• It is a representation of the control system giving the inter-relation between the
transfer function of various components.

• The block diagram is obtained after obtaining the differential equation &
Transfer function of all components of a control system.

• The arrowhead pointing towards the block indicates the i/p & pointing away
from the block indicates the o/p.
Cont..

• The simplest form of the block diagram is the single block, with
one input and one output.
• The arrows represent the direction of information or signal flow.

d
x y
dt
 Cont…
• The operations of addition and subtraction have a special representation.

• The block becomes a small circle, called a summing point, with the appropriate
plus or minus sign associated with the arrows entering the circle.

• Any number of inputs may enter a summing point.

• The output is the algebraic sum of the inputs.

 Components of a BD for a LTI System
• System components are alternatively called elements of the system.

• Block diagram has four components:

• Signals
• System/ block
• Summing junction
• Pick-off/ Take-off point
Cont…
 Cont…
• In order to have the same signal or variable be an input to more than one
block or summing point, a takeoff point is used.
• It distributes the input signal, undiminished, to several output points.

Consider the following equations in which x1, x2,. . . , xn, are variables, and
a1, a2,. . . , an , are general coefficients or mathematical operators.

x n  a 1 x1  a 2 x 2  a n  1 x n  1
 Cont…
� �
• If G(s) is TF
� �

• After obtaining the block diagram for each & every component, all blocks are
combined to obtain a complete representation.

• It is then reduced to a simple form with the help of block diagram algebra.
The following block diagram reduction algebra is used,
Cont..
 Cont…..
6. Moving a summing point after a block
A G
G A

B
G B

7. Moving a summing point before/ahead of a block

A
G A G
1

B
G B
8. Swap with two neighboring summing points

A B B A
Cont..
Example-7:

7. Reduce the block diagram

and determine the TF
Cont…..
 BD representation of a Servomechanism

Servomechanism
• Also called a position control system,
• Is a feedback control system and
• Output of the system: mechanical position, velocity or acceleration.
• Applications: d.c. motor drives and gear mechanism are used
Example 8
8. BD representation of a Servomechanism-Armature-controlled
DC motor
Exercise
BD representation of a Servomechanism-Armature-controlled DC motor
Cont..
 2.4 Signal Flow Graphs
• For complicated systems, Block diagram reduction method becomes tedious &
time consuming.

• An alternate method is that signal flow graphs developed by S.J. Mason.

• In these graphs, each node represents a system variable & each branch
connected between two nodes acts as Signal Multiplier.

• The direction of signal flow is indicated by an arrow.

 Definitions:
1. Node: A node is a point representing a variable.

2. Transmittance: A transmittance is a gain between two nodes.

3. Branch: A branch is a line joining two nodes. The signal travels along a branch.

4. Input node [Source]: It is a node which has only out going signals.

5. Output node [Sink]: It is a node which is having only incoming signals.

6. Mixed node: It is a node which has both incoming & outgoing branches
(signals).
 Cont..
7.Path: It is the traversal of connected branches in the direction of branch arrows.
Such that no node
is traversed more than once.
8. Loop: It is a closed path.
9. Loop Gain: It is the product of the branch transmittances of a loop.
10. Non-Touching Loops: Loops are Non-Touching, if they do not possess any
common node.
11. Forward Path: It is a path from i/p node to the o/p node which doesn’t cross
any node m ore than once.
12. Forward Path Gain: It is the product of branch transmittances of a forward
path.
SFg terms representation
 Cont..
• xo is input and x4 is output

f
x1  ax0  bx1  cx2 c
x0 x1 x3 x4
x2  dx1  ex3 a d x2 g h

x3  fx0  gx2
b e
x4  hx3
 Example 9
A:Consider the signal flow graph below and identify the following

a) Input node.
b) Output node.
c) Forward paths.
d) Feedback paths (loops).
e) Determine the loop gains of the feedback loops.
f) Determine the path gains of the forward paths.
g) Non-touching loops
 M ASO N ’S GAIN FO RM U LA:
• The relation between the i/p variable & the o/p variable of a signal flow graphs
is given by the net gain between the i/p & the o/p nodes and is known as Overall
gain of the system.

• Mason’s gain formula for the determination of overall system gain is given by,
 Cont…
• �ℎ��� �� − ������� ���ℎ ���� �� ��ℎ ������� ���ℎ
∆ − ����������� �� �ℎ� ����ℎ

∆� → ���� ���� �ℎ��ℎ ��� ��� ����ℎ��� �ℎ� ��ℎ ������ ���ℎ
������� ��th
� → ���� ��� ���� �� �ℎ� ������
 Systematic approach

1. Calculate forward path gain Pk for each forward path k.

2. Calculate all loop transfer functions

3. Consider non-touching loops 2 at a time

4. Consider non-touching loops 3 at a time etc

5. Calculate Δ from steps 2,3,4 and 5

6. Calculate Δk as portion of Δ not touching forward path k

 Example 10
� �
10. Obtain the closed loop TF, �� ����� �����′ ���� �������
� �
•
Cont…
Example 11

11. Obtain the TF using Mason’s gain formula.

Exercise
Using Mason’s gain rule, obtain the overall TF of a control system
represented by the signal flow graph shown below.
 Exercise
Using Mason’s gain rule, obtain the overall TF of a control system
represented by the signal flow graph shown below.
Rules for drawing of SFG from
block diagram
Example 13

13. Draw the signal flow graph for the Block Diagram shown in fig
below. obtain , Using Mason’s gain formula.
 Example 14
2. Draw the signal flow graph for the Block Diagram shown in fig below.
obtain , Using Mason’s gain formula.
H1

R(s) E(s) X － X3 C(s)

G1 1 G2 G3 G4
－
－ X
2
H2

H3
 Exercise
1. Determine the transfer function C/R for the block diagram below by
signal flow graph techniques

2. Find the control ratio C/R for the system given below