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UNIVERSITY
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ARIZONA
LEBRARY

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This Volume
Presented to the Library
by
Dr. H. B. Leonard
1956

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OTTTIIII IIIT iitiiitiiiii iii
 Digitized by the Internet Archive
in 2022 with funding from
Kahle/Austin Foundation

https ://archive.org/details/advancedcoursein0000webs
ADVANCED COURSE
IN

ALGEBRA

BY

WEBSTER WELLS, S.B.

PROFESSOR OF MATHEMATICS IN THE MASSACHUSETTS
INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

BOSTON, U.S.A.
D. C. HEATH & CO., PUBLISHERS
1904
 CoPpyricHT, 1904,
By WEBSTER WELLS.
 erga
WES

wo PREFACE

In preparing the present work, the author has endeavorea

to meet the needs of Colleges and Scientific Schools of the
highest rank.
The development of the subject follows in the main the
author’s College Algebra; but numerous improvements have
been introduced.
Attention is especially invited to the following:
1. The development of the fundamental laws of Algebra for
the positive and negative integer, the positive and negative
fraction, and zero, in Chaps. I and II.
In the above treatment, the author has followed to a certain
extent The Number System of Algebra, by Professor H. B. Fine,
who has very courteously permitted this use of his treatise.
2. The development of the principles of equivalence of
equations, and systems of equations, both linear and of higher
degrees; see §§ 116-123, 182, 233-6, 396, 442, 470, 477, and
478.
3. The prominence given to graphical representation.
In Chap. XIV, the student learns how to obtain the graphs
of linear equations with two unknown numbers, and of linear
expressions with one unknown number. He also learns how
to represent graphically the solution of a system of two linear
equations, involving two unknown numbets, and sees how inde-
terminate and inconsistent systems are represented graphically.
The graphical representation of quadratic expressions, with
one unknown number, is taken up in § 465; and, in § 467, the
graphical representation of equal and imaginary roots.
ili
iv PREFACE

The principles are further developed for simultaneous quad-

ratics, in §§ 482 and 483; and for expressions of any degree,
with one unknown number, in §§ 744 and 745.
At the end of Chap. XVIII, the student is taught the graphi-
cal representation of the fundamental laws of Algebra for pure
imaginary and complex numbers.
In Chap. XXXVIL, the graphical representation is given of
Derivatives ($ 751), of Multiple Roots (§ 755), of Sturm’s
Theorem (§ 762), and of a Discontinuous Function (§ 766).
4, In Chap. VII, there are given the Remainder and Factor
Theorems, and the principles of Symmetry.
5. In Chap VIII will be found every method of factoring
which can be done advantageously by inspection, including
factoring of symmetrical expressions. In this chapter is also
given Solution of Equations by Factoring (§ 182).
6. In the earlier portions of Chap. XI, the pupil is shown
that additional solutions are introduced by multiplying a
fractional equation by an expression which is not the L.C.M.
of the given denominators; and is shown how such additional
solutions are discovered.
7. In §§ 264 and 265, the student is taught how to find the
values of expressions taking the indeterminate forms °,=
0 xo, and 0 —o.
8. All work coming under the head of the Binomial Theo-
rem for positive integral exponents is taken up in the chapter
on Involution.
9. In developing the principles of Evolution, all roots are
restricted to their principal values.
10. In the examples of § 398, the pupil is taught to reject
all solutions which do not satisfy the given equation, when
the roots have their principal values.
11. The development of the theory of the Irrational Num-
ber, and its graphical representation (§§ 399-406).
12. The development of the fundamental laws of Algebra
for Pure Imaginary and Complex Numbers (Chap. XVIII).
 PREFACE V

13. The use of the general form aa’?+ba+c=0, in the

theory of quadratic equations (§§ 454-6).
14. The discussion of the maxima and minima values of
quadratic expressions (§ 461).
15. The chapter on Convergency and Divergency of Series
(Chap. XXVI).
16. In Chap. XXVIII is given Euler’s proof of the Binomial
Theorem, for any Rational Exponent.
17. The solution of logarithmic equations (§ 604).
18. The proof of the formula for the number of permuta-
tions of n different things, taken r at a time (§ 624).
19. The chapter on Theory of Numbers (Chap. XX XV).
20. In the chapter on Determinants, the double-suffix nota-
tion is used only in demonstrations which would not otherwise
be complete.
Each demonstration of a general principle is preceded by
an illustration showing the truth of the principle for a deter-
minant of the third order.
Multiplication of determinants is taken up only for deter-
minants of the second and third orders.
21. In Chap. XXXVII will be found Symmetrical Functions
of the Roots (§ 721); a shorter proof of Descartes’ Rule
(§ 735); improved methods for finding limits to the roots
(§§ 739, 740); the demonstration of two theorems used in the
proof of Sturm’s Theorem (§ 757); and a discussion of Con-
tinuous Functions (§ 765).
22. Chap. XXXVIII contains the solution of Cubic Equa-
tions by Trigonometry, in Cardan’s Irreducible Case (§ 788);
also, an improved discussion of Newton’s Method for deter-
mining incommensurable roots (§ 801).
The examples and problems have been selected with great
care, and include many varieties not found in the College
Algebra; no example is a duplicate of any in the College
Algebra.
The manuscript was read in the most careful manner by
Professor George D. Olds, of Amherst College, who offered
vi PREFACE

many suggestions; these have added materially to the value

of the work.
The author would be under great obligations to any one who
will bring to his attention any error which may be found in
the book.
WEBSTER WELLS.

Boston, 1904.
 “Ce

CONTENTS

OUAPTER PAGE

I. Derryitions. Norarion. Positive INTEGERS F F il

II. Ratronat NUMBERS . : 5 ; ; . ‘ Boal
Ill. Appirrion AND SUBTRACTION OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS.
PARENTHESES F : ; ; § 3 5 ee
IV. Motrrevication oF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS . : yey
V. Division oF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS = é : ao BY)
VI. InrecRraL Linear Equations ; : ; : : eds}
VII. Spscrasn Meruops 1n MULTIPLICATION AND Division . 59
VIII. Facrorine . ; ; : : : : ; 6 5 (hal
IX. Hicursr Common Factor. Lowrest Common Muutirte 99
X. %$FRACTIONS . : ‘ 4 2 ; : : : . 108
XI. Fractionat AND LITERAL EQUATIONS 4 A . » 122
XII. SimuLTaANeous LINEAR EQuaTions . ‘ : - a als
XII. Discussion or Linbar EQuaTIons . 5 A ‘ . 149
XIV. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION... . : : - 166
XV. InvoLuTION AND EvoLuTIon . rs , : - eis
XVI. INEQUALITIES . : ; 5 3 : ; ; . 206
XVII. Surps. THrory oF EXponents ; ; ; A 5 al?
XVIII. Pure Imaginary anp CompLex NuMBERS : ; . 246
XIX. QuaprRaTic Equations 2 ; : 3 i 3 6 PASI!
XX. EQUATIONS SOLVED LIKE QUADRATICS “ - : . 292
XXJI. SrmmMuLTANEOUS QUADRATIC EQuaATIONS . f : . 298
XXII. INDETERMINATE LINEAR EQuatTIons . : : c . 3823
AXIITI. Ratro anp PrRoporrion . : ‘ : 6 a . 3828
XXIV., VARIATION . ‘ ; : ? ; 4 A 2 . 338
XXV. PROGRESSIONS . : F : : : : ‘ . 343
XXXVI. ConvERGENCY AND DIVERGENCY OF SERIES . 4 . 3862
vii
 vlil CONTENTS

CHAPTER PAGE

LOCaly UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS 378

XX VIL Tue BinomiAL THEOREM 392
x LOGARITHMS . 399
Sey CompounD INTEREST AND ANNUITIES . 422
YOOGh PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 428
SOX XXL PROBABILITY 436
IL CONTINUED FRACTIONS . 449
XXXL SUMMATION OF SERIES. 459
XG.O.G15 THEORY OF NUMBERS . 471
OOG AD DETERMINANTS 478
XXXVI THEORY OF Equations 502
XXX VII Soturion oF Higher EQuations . 545

APPENDIX. Caucny’s PROOF THAT EVERY EQuaTion HAS A Root 576

ANSWERS
 eae

ALGEBRA

I. DEFINITIONS. NOTATION. POSITIVE

INTEGERS

1. In Algebra, the operations of Arithmetic are abridged and

_ generalized by means of Symbols.

SYMBOLS REPRESENTING NUMBERS

2. The symbols usually employed to represent numbers are

the Arabic Numerals, and the Letters of the Alphabet.
The numerals denote known or determinate numbers.
The letters denote numbers which may have any values
whatever, ‘or numbers whose values are to be determined.
_ Numbers occupying similar relations in the same investiga-
tion are often represented by the same letter, distinguished
by different accents; as a', al!, al’, read “a prime,” “a second,”
a therd,”” ete.
They may also be distinguished by different subscript num-
bers ; aS Gy, My, ds, read “a sub one,” “a sub two,” “a sub three,”
etc.
SYMBOLS REPRESENTING OPERATIONS

3. The Sign of Addition, +, is read “plus.”

The Sign of Subtraction, —, is read “ minus.”
The Sign of Multiplication, x, is read “times,” “into,” or
“multiplied by.”
A point is sometimes used instead of the sign x; thus,
2-8-4 signifies 2x 3 x 4,
The Sign of Division, =, is read “ divided by.”
il
2 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA
oe
SYMBOLS OF RELATION
4. The Sign of Equality, =, is read “equals,” or “is equal to.”
The sign = is sometimes used for the words ‘‘is not equal to.”’

The Signs of Inequality, > and <, stand for “is greater
than” and “is less than,” respectively.
The signs > and ¢ are sometimes used for the words ‘‘ is not greater
than’’ and ‘‘is not less than,’’ respectively.

SYMBOLS OF ABBREVIATION

5. The Signs of Aggregation, the parentheses ( ), the brackets

[ ], the braces § {, and the vinculum , indicate that what
is enclosed by them is to be taken as a whole.
The Sign of Deduction, .-., is read “therefore” or “ hence.”
The Sign of Continuation, )
---, ?
is read “ and so on.”

THE POSITIVE INTEGER

6. By the number of things in a group, we mean that attri-

bute of the group which remains unchanged however the group
may be changed, provided no thing is divided into two or
more things, and that two or more things are not merged into
a single thing.
That is, the number of things in a group is independent of
their character, of the order in which they may be arranged,
and of the way in which they may be associated in smaller
groups.
7. The numbers of things in two groups are said to be equal
when for every thing in either group there is a thing in the
other.
8. The number of things in one group is said to be greater
than the number in another, or the number in the second group
less than the number in the first, when for every thing in the
second group there is a thing in the first, but not one in the
second for every thing in the first.
 POSITIVE INTEGERS 3

9. The Positive Integer. ;

We define a positive integer as the number of things in a
group.
A positive integer is also called a whole number.
To ensure generality in the results, we represent numbers by
letters.
In the remainder of the present chapter, the letters a, b, ¢,
etc., will be understood as representing positive integers.
10. If a and } stand for the numbers in any two groups
(that is, for any two. positive integers), we use the statement
= 0

to signify that the numbers are equal (§ 7).

The statement a = 0 is called an Equation.
Again, we use the statements
Ch S(O, BiNoh Ch te,
to signify that the number in the first group is greater or less,
respectively, than the number in the second (§ 8).
These statements are called Inequalities.

ADDITION OF POSITIVE INTEGERS

' 11. Let two or more groups contain a, b, c, --- things, respec-
tively.
If the second group be joined to the first, we represent the
number in the resulting group by a + b.
If to the latter group the third group be joined, we repre-
sent the number in the resulting group by a+6-+c; and
so on.
After all the groups have been united in a single group, the
number in the latter group is expressed
atbobte+:..
This result is called the Sum of the positive integers a, ), c¢,
etc.
The operation of finding the sum is called Addition.
4 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

12. The Commutative and Associative Laws for Addition.

Addition of positive integers is subject to the following laws:
I. The Commutative Law.
To add } to a is the same as to add a to b.
Expressed in symbols,
at+b=b+a.

II. The Associative Law.

To add the sum of 6 and ¢ to a is the same as to add 0 to a,
and then add ¢ to the result.
Expressed in symbols,
a+(b+c)=a+bd+e.
To indicate the addition of 6 +c, it must be enclosed in parentheses
(§ 5).
The Commutative and Associative Laws follow from § 6;
for the number of things in the sum-group is independent of
the order in which they may be arranged, and of the way in
which they may be associated in smaller groups.
The Commutative and Associative Laws evidently hold for the sum of
any number of positive integers.

MULTIPLICATION OF POSITIVE INTEGERS

13. Finding the sum of } positive integers, each equal to a,

is called multiplying a by b.
The result is expressed a x b, or simply ab; thus,
ab=a+a-+--- to d terms.

The sign of multiplication is usually omitted in Algebra, except between

Arabic numerals.

We call a the Multiplicand, and 6 the Multiplier.

If ab be multiplied by another positive integer, c, the result
is expressed abc; and so on.
If any number of positive integers be multiplied together,
the result is called their Product.
The operation of finding the product is called Multiplication.
 POSITIVE INTEGERS 5

14. The Commutative, Associative, and Distributive Laws for

Multiplication.
Multiplication of positive integers is subject to the following
laws:
I. The Commutative Law.
To multiply a by 6 is the same as to multiply b by a.
Expressed in symbols, ab = ba.
Il. The Associative Law.
To multiply a by the product of 6 by c,is the same as to
multiply a by 6, and then multiply the result by ec.
Expressed in symbols, a(bc) = abe.
~ IIL. The Distributive Law.
To multiply a by the sum of } and ¢ is the same as to multi-
ply a by 0, and then a by ¢, and add the results.
_ Expressed in symbols, a(b + c) = ab + ae.
‘15. Proof of the Commutative Law.
Let there be, in the figure, a units in each row, and 0 rows.
We may find the entire number of units by
multiplying the number in each row, a, by the “ ™ %*°™
number of rows, b. a Lg ae
Thus, the entire number of units is ab. NESTA Ec
- We may also find the entire number by multi- Lili:
plying the number in each vertical column, 0, by ~ 7 ee ;a
the number of columns, a. row
Thus, the entire number of units is ba.
Therefore, ab=ba.
16. Proof of the Associative Law.
By the definition of § 13,
abe = ab + ab + -:- to c terms
=(a+a+--- to b terms) +(a+a-+-+ to b terms)
+... to ¢ terms
=a+ta-+--- to bc terms,
by the Associative Law for Addition (§ 12)
= a(be), by the definition of § 13.
6 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

17. Proof of the Distributive Law.

By the definition of § 13,
a(b+c)=a+a+--- to (b+¢) terms
=(a+a+4+--- to b terms) +(a+a+--- toc terms),
by the Associative Law for Addition (§ 12),
=ab-+ac, by the definition of § 13.

18. We will now show that the Commutative and Associa-

tive Laws for Multiplication hold for the product of any
number of positive integers.
We will first prove the Commutative Law for the product of
three positive integers, a, b, and c.
By § 14, II, abec=a(bc) = (cb)a, by § 14, I,
= cba (§ 13).
In like manner, we may prove abe equal to the product of a,
6, and ¢ in any other order.
19. We will now prove the Associative Law for the product
of four positive integers, a, b, c, and d.
By § 14, I, a(bcd)= (bed)a= (dc) da= a(be)d (§ 18)
= [a(bc)]d = (abe)d (§ 14, Il) = abcd.
By continuing the foregoing, the Commutative and Associa-
tive Laws may be proved for the product of any number of
positive integers.
The Distributive Law for Multiplication holds for the sum of any
number of positive integers, as is evident from the nature of the demon-
stration in § 17.

SUBTRACTION OF POSITIVE INTEGERS

20. We define Subtraction as the process of finding one of

two positive integers (the Remainder), when their sum (the
Minuend) and the other positive integer (the Subtrahend) are
given.
Thus, subtraction is the inverse of addition.
s

21. The remainder, when 6 is subtracted from a, is expressed

a—b.
 POSITIVE INTEGERS 7

Since, by the definition of § 20, the sum of the remainder

and the subtrahend equals the minuend, we bave
(a—b)+b=a. (1)
2A IGE a+c=b-+c, then a=b.
For if the numbers of units in the sums a+ ec and b+ ¢ are
equal, the result of subtracting the units in ¢ from each suin
will be the same; that is, a= 0.

23. It follows, precisely as in § 22, that

Ihe ate>b+e, then a>b.
If a+c<b+c, then a<b.

24. Rules for Subtraction.

The following rules, together with the laws of §§ 12 and 14,
are sufficient, if suitably combined, to determine the result of
any operation with positive integers, involving only addition,
subtraction, and multiplication:
(1) a—(6+c)=a—b—e.
(2) a—b—ce =a—c—b.
(3) a—(b-c)=a—b+e.
(4) a+b—b =a.
(5) a+(b—c)=a+b—e.
(6) a+b—c =a—c+b.
(7) a(6—c) =ab—ae.

- 25. Proofs of the Rules for Subtraction.

Proof of (A).
If we add c¢, and then b, to a—b—e, or (§ 12, I), if we add
», and then e, or (§ 12, II), if we add b + ¢, the ponte is a.
That is, a—b—c+(b+c)=a.

Regarding a as the minuend, )+c as the subtrahend, and

1 — b—c as the remainder, we have
a—(b+c)=a—b—e.
8 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Proof of (2).
By (1), a—-c—b=a—(c+b)=a—(b+¢e) (§ 12, 1
=a—b—c, by (1).
Proof of (8).
By § 21, (1),a—b+c=a—[O—c)+e]+e
. =a—(b—c)—c+¢,
by (A),
=a—(b—c).
Proof of (A).
We have at+b—b+6=a-+05.
Then, by § 22, a+b—b=a.

Proof of (5).
By § 21, a+b—c=a+[(b—c)+c]—e
=a+(b—c)+c—e (§ 12, IT)

Proof of (6).
=a+ (6), by (A).
By §12,1, a+b—c=b+a—c=6+
(a—o), by (5),
=(a—c)+6 § 12, D=a—c+bd.
Proof of (7).
By § 21, ab —ac=a[(6—c)+c¢]—ac
= a(b—c)+ac—ac(§ 14, IIT) =a(b—o), by (4).
It is important to observe that the results of § 24 are simply
formal consequences of §§ 12, 14, 21, and 22; they must follow
from these whatever meaning is attached to the symbols, a, b,
c, +, —, and =.

26. Equations (2) and (6), § 24, show that a set of subtrac-
tions, or of additions and subtractions, can be performed in any
order.
Equation (4) shows that addition is the inverse of subtraction.
Equations (1), (8), and (5), with § 12, II, give complete
associative laws for addition and subtraction.
Equation (7), with § 14, III, give a complete distributive
law for multiplication.
 POSITIVE INTEGERS 9

DIVISION OF POSITIVE INTEGERS

27. We define Division of positive integers as the process of

finding one of two positive integers (the Quotient), which when
multiplied by another positive integer (the Divisor), gives a
third positive integer (the Dividend).
Thus, division is the inverse of multiplication.

28. The quotient when a is divided by 6 is expressed a +),

or &.
b
Since, by the definition of § 27, the product of the quotient
_ by the divisor gives the dividend, we have

()b=a. (1)
29. if ac= be, then a=b.
For, if a+a-+---to¢ terms =b+0+ --- to ¢ terms, we must
have a=b.

30. Rules for Division.

(0) ps cs
@) i) eh tate
Ga ¢ POT ae aeeegM, em ee
c
For: by 14, Tand I, ag
; - bo . ) é a)

= ae, by §,28,.(1).
Also, aa bd
= ac, by § 28, (1).
a ¢_ a
Then, by § 29, COAT

u
eas 6 ad.
(2) cae
d a
ee
For by § 28, (1), aetna. (A)
d
10 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Also, by (1), 4 pees

ds TOG Ble a
Oeim De
‘)by § 14, I,
(a) byy (1)(1).
a (de
=-—({—)},

But by § 28, at+ ed = de=1 x ed.

ca
dan 1, and ad.c_a@
Sues (B)
Whence, by § 29, ~

g
From (A) and (B), by § 29, a
d
3) 4,6 ad + be.
2) b a bd
For by § 14, I, I, and III,

Gra)=alie)tal)-G+(e")
H)
= ad + be, by § 28, (1). (C)
Also, “4 be . bd = ad + be,by § 28, (1).
C
(D)
Fromrom (C)
(C) andand (D),
(D),by
by §
§ 29, eae
242 = ae bd
tee.
(dyes
Ae Oe,
baad. bd
This is proved in the same manner as (8).
The results of § 30 are simply formal consequences of $§ 14,
24, 28, and 29; and must follow from these whatever meaning
is attached to the symbols a, b, c, +, —, =, ab, and ©.

31. If ad =be, then ( b)a= o(5 a),by § 28, (1).

Then, by § 14, I and II, 3(°) ={.0-d= 4(%)
d
Then, by § 29,
 RATIONAL NUMBERS rt

II. RATIONAL NUMBERS

32. The proofs in § 25 hold only when the result of every

indicated subtraction is a positive integer ; for the laws of §$ 12
and 14 have only been proved for the case in which all the
letters involved represent positive integers.
A result like (1) has, at present, no meaning unless b +c
is <a; and in the remainder of the work we should be com-
pelled to hmit every subtraction to cases where it was arith-
metically possible.
Unless, then, subtraction is to be very much restricted, we
must consider the cases where the subtrahend equals, or is
greater than, the minuend; this leads to the introduction into
Algebra of Zero and the Negative Number.

SYMBOLIC EQUATIONS

33. The equation (1), § 21, is not an equation as defined in

§ 10, unless a and b are positive integers, and a > b.
But if we agree to define an equation as simply a statement
_ that two symbols, or combinations of symbols, are of such a char-
acter that one may be substituted for the other in any operation,
then (1), § 21, may be an equation whatever the values of
a and b.
In this symbolic definition of an equation, it is unnecessary
that there should be any real things to which the symbols
correspond. .
We shall attach this meaning to every equation throughout
the remainder of the work which does not express the equality
of two positive integers.
34. Symbolic Subtraction.
If we regard equation (1), § 21, as defining a — b, whatever
the values of a and b, we have in this way a symbolic definition
of subtraction which holds universally.
12 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

This defines subtraction in terms of symbolic addition ; for

the sign + cannot indicate numerical addition, unless the
symbols which it connects are positive integers.
It is perfectly logical to define an operation by means of
an equation.
ZERO AND THE NEGATIVE INTEGER

35. In determining the definitions and rules of operation of

zero and the negative integer, we make the assumption that the
results of §§ 12, 14, 22, and 23 hold for these symbols.
If all the letters do not represent positive integers, the
results of §§ 12, 14, 22, and 23 are regarded as symbolic
statements.
36. Since the results of § 24 are simply formal consequences
of §§ 12,14, and 22, and the definition of subtraction, it follows
from § 35 that they hold for the above symbols.
If the results of § 24 do not have a positive integral inter-
pretation, they are regarded as symbolic statements.
In this way they become definitions of symbolic addition,
subtraction, and multiplication, and their relations. :
37. Zero.
Every letter in §§ 87 to 42, inclusive, will be understood as representing
a positive integer.
Putting ) =a, in (1), § 28, we have
(a—a)+a=a. (1)
The symbol a —a, if a is any positive integer, is represented
by the symbol 0, called zero.
Then (1) becomes O+a=a. (2)
Since the Commutative Law for Addition (§ 12) is assumed
to hold if either letter equals 0 (§ 35), we may write equa-
tion (2), a+0=a, (3)
Again, by definition, a — 0 means a symbol such that ‘when
0 is added to it, the sum is a.
That is, (a—0)+0=a.
 RATIONAL NUMBERS 13

Then, by (3), a—O=a. (4)

Again, by the definition of 0,
a x 0=a(b—
bd) = ab — ab, by § 24, (7),
= 0), by definition. (5)
We can use § 24, (7), in the above proof ; for we know from § 36 that
it holds, even if the result does not have a positive integral interpretation.

From (5), by the Commutative Law for Multiplication,

Usd 90: (6)
38. The Negative Integer.
Let 5 be greater than a; and suppose b =a +d, where d is
a positive integer.
Then, by the definition of subtraction, b -—a=d.
Then, a—b=a—(a+d)=a—a—d, by § 24, (1),
= 0 —d, by the definition of 0.
We can use § 24, (1), in the above, for we know that it holds, even if
the result does not have a positive integral interpretation.

We then define a — b, if b is > a, as being equal to 0 — d.

It is usual to write — d instead of 0 — d.
Thus, 0-—-d=—d. (Ay)
The symbol —d is called a Negative Integer; in contradis-
- tinction, the positive integer d may be written + d.

39. The signs + and —, when used in the above manner,

are no longer signs of operation; they are called signs of
Affection, Quality, or Opposition.
If no sign is written, the sign + is understood.

40. Rules for Addition, Subtraction, and Multiplication, involv-

ing Negative Integers.
(1) a+(—b)=a—-6.
For, by the definition of § 38,
a+(—b)=a+(0—b)=a+0—B6, by § 24, (5),
=a— b, by § 37, (8).
14 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

(2) —a+(—0)=—(@+49).
For, —a+(—b)=—a+ (0—b)=—a+0—56
=0—a—b, by § 12, I,
=0—(a+b), by § 24, (1),
=— (a+b), by § 38.
(3) a—(—b)=a+0.
For, a—(—bys=a—(0—b)=a—0+46, by § 24, (3),
=a+b, by § 37, (4).
(4) —a—(—b)=—a+b=b—a.
For, — a—(— 6) =—a—(0—b)=—a—0+4b=—a+b—0
=—a-+b, by § 37, (4),
=b—a, by § 12, I.
Putting } for a in (1) and (4), we have
(5) b4+(—b)=0.
(6) —b+b=0.
(7) —b—(—b)=0.
(8) a(— 6b) =— ab.
By § 37, (5), O=a x 0O=a[b+ (—))], by (5),
=ab+a(— ), by § 14, IIT.
Then, ab —ab=ab+a(—b).
Whence, by § 22, —ab=a(— Dd).
(9) (—b)a=— ab =— ba.
This follows from (8) by § 14, I.
(10) (—a) x 0=0.
For, by the definition of 0,
(—a) x 0=(—a)(6—6) = (—a)b— (—a)B, by § 24, (1),
= (—ab) — (—ab), by (9),
On by (1)
(11) 0x (—a)=0.
This follows from (10) by § 14, I.
 RATIONAL NUMBERS 15

(12) (—a)(— bd) =ab.

By (10), 0=(—a)
x0=(—a)[0+(—2)], by (5),
=(—a)b+(—a)(—d), by § 14, IL,
=— ab + (— a) (— B), by (9).
Then by (6), —ab+ab=—ab+(—a)(—)).
Then by § 22, ab=(—a)(—b).
41. Ifbis>a, 04+b>0-+4, by § 87, (2).
Then, —a+ta+b>—b+b-+a, by § 40, (6).
Then by § 23, =) Ss 0s (1)
In like manner, if 6 is <a, —a is <—b.
These may be regarded as defining greater and less inequality
in negative integers.
42, If a and d are positive integers,
a<a+6; or, 0+a<a+2, by § 37, (2).
Then, by § 23, 0<b.
Then, —b+b<b+0, by §§ 37, (8), and 40, (6).
Whence, by § 23, —b<0.

SYMBOLIC DIVISION

43. It is important to observe that the result of § 29 does

- not hold when ¢=0; for by § 37, (5),a x 0=b x 0, when a and
b are not equal.
It follows from this that the proofs in §§ 30 and 31 do not
bold it b=0 ord=0.
44. Symbolic Division. The Fraction.
The proofs in §§ 30 and 31 hold only when the result of
every indicated division is a positive integer.
A result like that of § 30, (1), has, at present, no meaning
Qe
mpless —, — , and e are positive integers.
oD ol 6
But if we regard equation (1), § 28, as defining - what-
ever the values of a and b, provided 6 is not 0 (§ 43), we have
a symbolic definition of division, which holds universally.
16 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

The symbol ©, with the above meaning of a and 8, is called

a Fraction.
The symbols ; and ;are considered in Chap. XIII.

yi . Gs = Gn
If a and 6 are positive integers, and — is not a positive
integer, 5 is called a Positive Fraction, and =e a Negative
Fraction.

45. We make the assumption that the results of §§ 12, 14,

and 22 hold for the symbol ; as defined: in § 44; whence, it
follows that the results of § 24 hold for the symbol =
We also assume that the result of § 29 holds for all the sym-
bols considered in the present chapter, provided 6 is not 0.

46. Since the results of §§ 30 and 31 are simply formal con-

sequences of §§ 14, 24, and 29, and the definition of division,
it follows from § 45 that they hold, provided 0 and d are not 0,
even if the results do not have a positive integral interpretation.
In this way, the results of § 30 become definitions of addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division, for the symbol =

47. Since the results of §§ 12, 14, 22, and 24 hold for any
of the symbols considered in the present chapter (§§ 35, 36, 45),
the results of §§ 37 and 40 hold for any of these symbols; for
they are simply formal consequences of §§ 12, 14, 22, and 24,
and the definition of subtraction.

48. Since the symbolic definition of division (§ 44) holds

for any values of the letters involved, we have

ea PySc (A)
Again, (12), § 40, holds when we replace a by ; (§ 47). «

Then, eae d)=t baa. (B)

 RATIONAL NUMBERS Thy

From (A) and (B), by § 29, which is supposed to hold for —

Sah “
the symbol — b (§ 45),

Again, ‘ed ae al (C)

And by (9), § 40, j=Fea b= —a (D)

From (C) and (D), 7 ma (2)

Also, (=2\- nee (E)

And by (8), §40, 4(—2) = (¢ »)deulr9 (E)
From (£) and (F), a = : (8)
The results (1), (2), and (8) hold for any values of the letters,
provided 0 is not 0.

49. Consider the equation ab =0;

where a and 0 may be positive integers, or any of the symbols
considered in the present chapter.
By § 387, (2), whatever the value of c,
0 + ac =a.
Putting ab for 0, we have
ab + ac = ac, or a(b +c) = ac, by § 14, III.
Then by § 29, if a is not 0 (compare § 43),
b+c=c, orb=0 (§ 22).

Therefore, either a=0, or else b}=0.

50. It is advantageous, at this point, to consider the nature

of the argument which has been developed.
18 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

In Chap. I, we defined the positive integer, and the opera-

tions of Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division
with positive integers; and we showed how the fundamental
laws of §§ 12, 14, 22, and 29 followed from the definitions of
Addition and Multiplication, and the results of §§ 24 and 30
from the above general laws, and the definitions of Subtraction
and Division.
In Chap. HI, we assumed the fundamental laws of §§ 12, 14,
22, and 29, and the symbolic definitions of Subtraction and
Division, to hold universally ; and from these assumptions, we
derived the definitions of zero, the negative integer, and the
positive and negative fraction, and the rules for their opera-
tion, the assumptions being just sufficient to determine these
meanings without ambiguity.

51. Rational Numbers.

In the present chapter, we have considered four symbols—
zero, the negative integer, and the positive and negative frac-
tion — which are subject to the same rules as positive integers.
The result of every operation involving only addition, sub-
traction, multipheation, and division— whether performed on
positive integers, or on the symbols themselves — can be ex-
pressed either as a positive integer, or as one of the symbols.
For this reason, we shall regard these symbols as numbers ;
and we shall term the entire system of positive and negative
integers, and positive and negative fractions, Rational Numbers.
Zero, the negative integer, and the positive and negative
fraction, are essentially artificial numbers, in contrast to the
natural numbers (positive integers) considered in Chap. I.
It must be clearly understood that they are simply symbols
for the results of operations on actual groups of things, which
cannot be expressed in positive integers. (Compare § 6.)
We shall use the term positive number, in Chaps. IL to XVII, inclusive,
to denote a positive integer or a positive fraction; and the term negative
number to denote a negative integer or a negative fraction. The term
number, without a qualifying adjective, will be understood as signifying
a positive or negative integer, or a positive or negative fraction.
 RATIONAL NUMBERS 19

Every letter will be understood as representing a positive or negative

integer, or a positive or negative fraction, unless the contrary is stated.

52. It is important to observe that the results of §§ 24 and

30, and all the results of Chap. II, follow from the funda-
mental laws of §§ 12, 14, 22, 23, and 29, and the symbolic
definitions of subtraction and division, entirely irrespective of
whether or no the symbols have any numerical meaning.
Thus, all the results of the text hold for any symbols which
satisfy the fundamental laws, no matter what their meaning.
53. The absolute value of a number is the number taken
independently of the sign affecting it.
Thus, the absolute value of — 3 is 3.
54. The results of § 42 hold when 0 is any positive number.
Hence, zero is less than any positive number, and any negative
number is less than zero.
55. Again, by § 47, the result (1), § 41, also holds when a
and 0 are positive fractions.
Hence, of two negative numbers, that is the greater which has
the smaller absolute value.
56. Any two magnitudes which are opposite to each other may
be represented by positive and negative numbers, in Algebra.
Thus, in financial transactions, we may represent assets by
the sign +, and liabilities by the sign —; thus, the statement
that a man’s assets are — $100, means that he has liabilities
to the amount of $100.
Again, we may represent motion along a straight line in a
certain direction by the sign +, and in the opposite direction
by the sign —; and so on.
57. Graphical Representation of Positive and Negative Numbers.
8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 +1 +2 +8 +4 45 +6 +7 +8
ce SVcts ieDe etn Tae Ta mT 8 PE RI a | Dee | Cae
ae GL et CEB? AO A Ep DALE SOD HESS Bhd NOS TEE

The entire series of positive and negative numbers may be

represented by the above scale, in which the divisions are one
unit in length.
20 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Distances measured to the right of 0 represent positive

numbers, and to the left of 0, negative.
Every positive or negative fraction will be represented by
the distance from 0 to a point between two consecutive scale-
marks.
Thus, the number — 32 will be represented by the distance
from 0 to a point two-thirds the way from C’' to D’.
58. If any number, positive or negative, be denoted by the
symbol a, —a will represent a number of the same absolute
value, but opposite sign.
It follows from this that + (— a) and — (— a) signify num-
bers of the same absolute value as — a, and of the same sign,
and opposite sign, respectively.
That is, +(—a)=—a, and —(—a)=+a. (1)
Similarly, — (+a) =—a, and +(+a)=+4a. (2)
From (1) and (2),
+(—a) =— (+a), and —(—a)=+4+ (+4).

DEFINITIONS

59. Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division of

any algebraic numbers are expressed in the same manner as in
§§ 11, 13, 20, and 28.
For example, 2 ab signifies 2 x a x b.

60. If a number be multiplied by itself any number of

times, the product is called a Power of the number.
* An Exponent is a number written at the right of, and above
another number, to indicate what power of the latter is to be
taken; thus,
a’, read “a square,” or “a second power,’ denotes a Xx a;
a’, read “a cube,” or “a third power,” denotes a X a Xa;
a‘, read “a fourth,” or “a fourth power,’ denotes axa xaXa;
and so on.
If no exponent is expressed, the first power is understood.
——

RATIONAL NUMBERS 21

Thus, a is the same as a.

61. Algebraic Expressions.

An Algebraic Expression, or simply an Expression, is a number
expressed in algebraic symbols; as,
2, a, or 227—38ab+5.
A Monomial, or Term, is an expression whose parts are not
separated by the signs + or —; as 22’, — 3ab, 5, or ~
A monomial is sometimes called a simple expression.

20°, —3ab, and +5 are called the terms of the expression

. Ooo 3 OO +},
A Positive Term is one preceded by a plus sign; as + 5a.
For this reason the sign + is often called the positive sign.
If no sign is expressed, the term is understood to be positive ;
thus, 2 # is the same as + 2 a”
A Negative Term is one preceded by a minus sign; as —3 ab.
For this reason the sign — is often called the negative sign ;
it can never be omitted before a negative term.
A Polynomial is an expression consisting of more than one
term; ' asa-+b, or ; 2a —3 ay; — 57’.
52
A polynomial is also called a multinomial, or a compound expression.

A Binomial is a polynomial of two terms; as a+ 0b.

A Trinomial is a polynomial of three terms; as a+b—ce.

62. The Numerical Value of an expression is the result

obtained by substituting particular numerical values for the
letters involved in it, and performing the operations indicated.
Thus, if @a=4, b=3, c=5, and @d=2, the numerical value of
Geaome—28 =16 + 10-8
4a+°o-@a4x4t XS =18.

63. A monomial is said to be rational and integral when it

_is either a number expressed in Arabic numerals, or a single
letter with unity for its exponent, or the product of two or
more such numbers or letters.
22 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

It is also said to be rational and integral when it can be

reduced to either of the above forms.
Thus, 3 ab’, being equivalent to3-a-a-b-b- 6, is rational
and integral.
A polynomial is said to be rational and integral when each
term is rational and integral; as 22° -: ab + ¢.

64. If a term has a literal portion which consists of a single

letter with unity for its exponent, the term is said to be of the
Jirst degree.
The degree of any rational and integral monomial (§ 63) is
the number of terms of the first degree which are multiplied
together to form its literal portion.
Thus, 2a is of the first degree; 5ab, of the second degree;
3 ab, being equivalent to 3 aabbd, is of the jifth degree; ete.
The degree of a rational and integral monomial equals the
sum of the exponents of the letters involved in it.
Thus, ab‘c? is of the eighth degree.
The degree of a rational and integral polynomial is the
degree of its term of highest degree.
Thus, 2a7> —3¢+d is of the third degree.
65. Homogeneous Terms are terms of the same degree.
Thus, a‘, 3 °c, and — 5 xy? are homogeneous.
A polynomial is said to be homogeneous when its terms are
homogeneous; as a® + 3 b’c — 4 wyz.
66. An Axiom is a self-evident truth.
The following are assumed as axioms:
1. Any number equals itself.
2. Any number equals the sum of all its parts.
3. Any number is greater than any of its parts.
4, Two numbers which are equal to the same number, or to
equal numbers, are equal.
5. If for any number in an expression an equal number be
substituted, the value of the expression is not changed.
 ADDITION 23

III. ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF

ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS. PARENTHESES

67. Addition of Positive and Negative Numbers.

If a and 6} represent any positive numbers,
at+(—b)=a-); (1)
for by § 47, the result (1), § 40, also holds when either a or b
is a positive fraction.
If 6bis >a, a—b=—(b—a);
for the result of § 38 also holds when either a or b is a positive
fraction (§ 47).
Then, a+(—b)=—(6—a). (2)
From (1) and (2), we have the following rule:
To add a positive and a negative number, subtract the smaller
absolute value (§ 53) from the greater, and place before the result
the sign of the number having the greater absolute value.
Thus, 54+ (— 34) =13; 2+ (-—5)=-—3.
68. Addition of Negative Numbers.
If a and 6 represent positive numbers, we have by § 40, (2),
(— a) +(— b) =— (a+b).
We then have the following rule:
To add two negative numbers, add their absolute values, and
put a negative sign before the result.
Thus, (— 12) + (— 24) =— 3}.
69. Addition of Monomials.
The sum of aand bisa+b; and by § 40, (1), the sum of a
and —bisa—b; hence,
The addition of monomials is effected by uniting them with
their respective signs.
24 ADVANCED COURSE
IN ALGEBRA

Thus, the sum of a, — b, c, —d, and —e is

a—b+c—d—e.
Since the Commutative Law for Addition holds for any
rational numbers (§§ 47, 51), the terms may be united in any
order, provided each has its proper sign.

70. Definitions. If two or more numbers are multiplied

together, each of them, or the product of any number of them,
is called a Factor of the product.
Thus, a, b, c, ab, ac, and be are factors of the product abe.

71. If a number be expressed as the product of two factors,

each is called the Coefficient of the other.
Thus in 2 ab, 2 is the coefficient of ab; 2 a of b; a of 25; ete.

72. If one factor of a product is expressed in Arabic

numerals, and the other in letters, the former is called the
numerical coefficient of the latter.
Thus in 2 ab, 2 is the numerical coefficient of ab.
If no numerical coefficient is expressed, the coefficient unity
is understood.
Thus, a is the same as 1 a.
By § 47, the result (9), § 40, also holds when } is a positive
fraction.
That is, —3 ais the product of —3 and a, and — :ab is the
9
product of ars and ab.
Then, —3 is the numerical coefficient of a in —3a, and
Oe. ; F : 2
ar is the numerical coefficient of ab in —=ab.
t oO
Thus, in a negative term (§ 61), the numerical coefficient
includes the sign.

73. Similar or Like Terms are those which either do not

differ at all, or differ only in their numerical coefficients; as
2 a*y and —T ay.
Dissimilar or Unlike Terms are those which are not similar;
as 3a’y and 3 ay”.
 ADDITION 25

74. Addition of Similar Terms.

1. Find the sum of 5a and 3a.
Since the Distributive Law for Multiplication (§ 14, IIT)
holds for any rational numbers (§ 47), we have
5a+3a=(54+3)a=8a.
2. Find the sum of 5a and — 38a.
By §72, 5a+(—3a)=5a+(—3)a
=[5+(—3)]a (§ 14, IIT)
=2a. (§ 67)
3. Find the sum of —5aand 3a.
(—5)a+38a=[(—5)+3]a=—2a., (§ 67)
4. Find the sum of —5a and —3a.
(—5)a+(—3)a=[(—5)+(—3)]a=—8a. (§ 68)
Therefore, to add two similar terms, find the sum of their
numerical coefficients (§§ 67, 68, 72), and affix to the result the
common letters.
5. Find the sum of 2a, —a, 3a, —12a, and 6a.
Since the additions may be performed in any order, we may
add the positive terms first, and then the negative terms, and
finally combine these two results.
The sum of 2a, 3a, and 6a is Ila.
The sum of —a and —12a is —1da.
Hence, the required sum is 1la+(—18a), or —2a.
6. Add 3(a—b), —2(a—b), 6(a—5b), and —4(a—6).
The sum of 5(4—b) and 6(a—)) is 9(a—b).
The sum of —2(a—b) and —4(a—bd) is —6(a—d).
Then, the result is [9 + (— 6)](a—), or 3(a—b).
75. If the terms are not all similar, we may combine the
similar terms, and unite the others with their respective
signs (§ 69).
Ez. Required the sum of 12a, —5a, —3y’, —5a, 82a,
and — 3a.
26 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

The sum of 12a and — 5ais7a.

The sum of — 5a, 8a, and —3z is 0; for the result, (5),
§ 40, holds for any value of b (§ 47).
Hence, the required sum is 7 a — 37’.

76. A polynomial is said to be arranged according to the

descending powers of any letter, when the term containing the
highest power of that letter is placed first, that having the next
lower immediately after, and so on.
Thus, w+ day —22°y +3 ay — 474
is arranged according to the descending powers of a.
The term —4 y*, which does not involve « at all, is regarded as contain-
ing the lowest power of a in the above expression.

A polynomial is said to be arranged according to the ascend-

ing powers of any letter, when the term containing the lowest
power of that letter is placed first, that having the next higher
immediately after, and so on.
Thus, x + 3 aby — 2°? + 3 a —4y*
is arranged according to the ascending powers of y.

77. Addition of Polynomials.

It follows from § 12, II, and § 24, (5), that the addition of
polynomials is effected by uniting their terms with their
respective signs.
1. Required the sum of
6a—T2, 3a?—2a+3y', and 2a7—a— mn.
We set the expressions down one underneath the other,
similar terms being in the same vertical column.
We then find the sum of the terms in each column, and
write the results with their respective signs; thus,
6a—T2
—2a+387+3y7
— a+2e — mn
3a—22+4+3y—
mn.
 ADDITION. SUBTRACTION 27

2 Add 4%—32?—1145a', 120°—7—825—15a, and

14+ 62°+102— 927
It is convenient to arrange each expression in descending
powers of a (§ 76); thus,
Sip Bilin
ae “ape ial
Sie ae ae as ily 9
62°— 92? --10e 4-14
on — w«w— 4,
8. Add 9(a+6)—8(b+c), —3(b+c)—T(c+a), and
4(c + a) — 5(a + DB).
9a+b)— 8(b+¢)
— 3(6+c¢) —T(e+a)
— 5(a +b) + 4(c+ a)
4(a + b) —11(6 +c) —38(e+ a).

4. Add Op eb and 1a oh he.

4 5 3 6 3 7

Fat 2) ke

sa sb+ 7°

pt-pt

SUBTRACTION

78. Subtraction of Monomials.

By § 47, the result (3), § 40, holds for any values of a and 6.
Hence, to subtract a monomial, we change its sign and add the
result to the minuend.
1. Subtract 5.a from 2a.
Changing the sign of the subtrahend, and adding the result
to the minuend, we have
2a—5a=2a+(—5a)=—
38a (§ 7A).
28 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

2. Subtract — 2a from 5a.

5a—(—2a)=5a+2a=Ta.
8. Subtract 5a from — 2a.
—2a—5a=—Ta.
4. Subtract —5a from — 2a.
—2a—(—5d5a)=—20a+54a=38a.
5. From — 23a take the sum of 19a and — 5a.
It is convenient to change the sign of each expression which is
to be subtracted, and then add the results.
We then have —23a—19a+5a, or —37a.

79. Subtraction of Polynomials.

By § 36, (4) and (8), § 24, hold for any values of the letters.
Hence, to subtract a polynomial, we change the sign of each of
its terms, and add the result to the minuend.
Ie Subtract 7 ao? —9ia7b + o\b® frome — 20,0) ao
It is convenient to place the subtrahend under the minuend,
so that similar terms shall be in the same vertical column.
We then change the sign of each term of the subtrahend,
and add the result to the minuend; thus,
D0 = DiC OLeaaios
—9ab+7 ab?+ 8b
5+ 7 wb —d3ab?—8B*.
The student should perform mentally the operation of changing the
sign of each term of the subtrahend.

2. Subtract the sum of 9a2?—8e+a' and 5—2?+¢2 from

62 — 7 a— A.
We change the sign of each expression which is to be sub-
tracted, and add the results.
6a —Txe—4 <
—e2—92?48a
+ 2#— «—5
52? — 8 a =O)
 SUBTRACTION. PARENTHESES 29

80. By § 78, subtracting +a is the same thing as adding

—a, and subtracting — a the same thing as adding + a.
That is, — (+a) =+ (—a), and —(—a)=+ (+a).
In these results, the signs within the parentheses are signs of affection
(§ 39), and those without signs of operation.
Comparing the results with those of § 58, where all the signs are signs of
affection, we see that the signs + and —, when used as signs of affection,
are subject to the same laws as when used as signs of operation.
Thus the meaning attached to the signs + and —, in § 389, is consistent
with their meaning as symbols of operation.

PARENTHESES

81. Removal of Parentheses.

It follows from § 12, II, and § 24, (5), that:
Parentheses preceded by a + sign may be removed without
changing the signs of the terms enclosed.
Again, it follows from § 24, (1) and (38), that:
Parentheses preceded by a — sign may be removed if the sign
of each term enclosed be changed, from + to —, or from — to +.
The above rules apply equally to the removal of the brackets, braces,
or vinculum (§ 5).
It should be noticed, in the case of the latter, that the sign apparently
prefixed to the first term underneath is in reality prefixed to the vinculum.
Thus, + a — b and — a — b are equivalent to + (a — b) and —(a—b),
respectively.

Parentheses often enclose others; in this case they may be

removed in succession by the rules of § 81.
Beginners should remove one at a time, commencing with the inner-
most pair ; but after a little practice they should be able to remove several
signs of aggregation at one operation, in which case they should commence
with the outermost pair.

Ex. Simplify 4a—{3e+(—2a—x#—a)}.

We remove the vinculum first, then the parentheses, and
finally the braces.
30 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Thus, 4u—{3x2+(—2a%—2—a)}
=4x4—j3a+(—24%—a2+a)}
=4e2—{[38xe—2e—a2+a}
=4¢—324+2¢4+e2—a=424—a.

82. Insertion of Parentheses.

To enclose terms in parentheses, we take the converse of the
rules of § 81.
Any number of terms may be enclosed in parentheses preceded
by a + sign, without changing their signs.
Any number of terms may be enclosed in parentheses preceded
by a — sign, if the sign of each term be changed, from + to —,
or from — to +.

Ex. Enclose the last three terms of a—b+c—d-+e in

parentheses preceded by a — sign.
Result, a—b—(—c+d—e).

EXERCISE |

1. Add 5(a+ 0), —4(@—y), —6(a@+ b), 8(@@—y), —7(~—y), and

8(a + bd).
2. Add 7 m2 — 2p — 8 n3, 5 n3 — m?, and 3 ay — 4 m? 4+ 2 n3.
8. Add a —9 — 8a?+ 16 a3, 54 15 a3 — 12a —2 a3, and 6 a2 — 10 a8
+ lla— 13.
4. Add 14(@ + y)—17(y+ 2), 4y¥+ 2)—19(@+4 2), and —7(¢+ 2)
—3(@+y).
5. Add Sef y— 22, —fetytie, and —fe-Sytie

6. Subtract the sum of 8(m +n) and —15(m-+ n) from —19(m +-n).
7%. Subtract 3b —6d—10c+
7a from 4d+12a@—18¢—9bd.
8. Subtract 41 #3 — 2224 13 from 1528+ 2 — 18.

9. Subtract rp _ :m = n from S m — :Dp -; nN.

10. Subtract the sum of 42?—9y?+ 6 2? and 2424 8y?— 11 2 from

7 0? — 3 y? — 6 22.
11. From the sum of 2a4+ 8b—4c and 3b4 4c — 5d subtract the
sumof 5c —6d—T7a and —7d4+8a+9b.
 PARENTHESES 31

Simplify the following :

12. 9m—(8n+
{4m —[n—6m]}}—[m+7n]).
13. 2a+[—6b—{8c+(—46—6c+4a)}].
14. (i= -6e-—1—6e— [4% =32— 2))).
15. 5n—[8n— (82+ 6)—{—6n+7n — 8).
16. do—[o-i—-7e~(8¢-6a poye( be oe eh,
Ly. a —{—12y—[22+(—4y —{-72—5y}—6e—9y)—82+y]}.
18. Enclose the last three terms of a+ b—c+d-—e in parentheses
preceded by a — sign, and in the result enclose the last two terms in
parentheses in brackets preceded by a — sign.
32 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

IV. MULTIPLICATION OF ALGEBRAIC

EXPRESSIONS

83. The Rule of Signs.

The results (8), (9), and (12), § 40, hold when a and 6 are
any positive numbers.
From these results we may state what is called the Rule of
Signs in multiplication, as follows:
The product of two terms of like sign is positive; the product
of two terms of unlike sign is negative.

84. We have by § 40, (12),

(=a) x (—B) x (— 0)= (ab) x (=0)
=— abe; (1)
(—a) x (— b) x (— ¢) x (— d) = (— abe) x (— O), by (A),
= abed; ete.
That is, the product of three negative terms is negative; the
product of four negative terms is positive; and so on.
In general, the product of any number of terms is positive or
negative according as the number of negative terms is even or odd.
85. The Index Law.
Let it be required to multiply a® by a?
By § 60, = 6 Xl,
and a=a xX a.
Whence, axeve=axaxaxaxa=a’.
We will now consider the general case.
Let it be required to multiply a” by a”, where m and n are
any positive integers.
We have a"=aX aX -+ to m factors, .
and, a*°=axax--- ton factors.
Then, a™xa"=axXax-- tom-+n factors = q™*.
 MULTIPLICATION 33

Hence, the exponent of a letter in the product is equal to its

exponent in the multiplicand plus its exponent in the multiplier.
This is called the Index Law for Multiplication.
A similar result holds for the product of three or more
powers of the same letter.
Thus, XOX ao — gl |
86. Multiplication of Monomials.
1. Let it be required to multiply 7 a by — 26.
By § 72, —2b=(—2) xb.
Then, Tax (—2b) =Tax (— 2) xB.
Then by the Commutative Law for Multiplication (§ 14),
Tax (—2b)=7 x (—2) Xax b= — 14 ab (§ 83).
2. Required the product of — 2 a7b*, 6 ab’, and — 7 ate.
(— 2 a*b*) x 6 ab’ x (—T ate)
= (— 2) a’b® x 6 ab’ x (— T) ate
= (==2) KOK (1) a XO XK OF KO KC
= 84 a*b*c, by §§ 84 and 85.

We then have the following rule for the product of any

_ number of monomials:
To the product of the numerical coefficients (§§ 72, 84, 85)
annex the letters; giving to each an exponent equal to the sum
of its exponents in the factors.
3. Multiply — 5a*d by — 8 ab’.
(— 5a’) x (— 8.ab§)=40 aH? = 40 abt.
4. Find the product of 4n’, — 3n’, and 2 n‘.
An? x (—3n*) x 2nt = — 24074 = — 24 n".
5. Multiply — x” by 7 «*, m being a positive integer.
(— a") x Tae = — Tam,
6. Multiply 6 (m+ n)* by 7 (m +n)’.
6 (m+n)! x 7 (m+ nj = 42 (m + ny’.
34 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

87. Multiplication of Polynomials by Monomials.

By §§ 14, III, and 24, (7), we have the following rule for the
product of a polynomial by a monomial :
Multiply each term of the multiplicand by the multiplier, and
add the partial products.
Ex. Multiply 2a7—5a+7 by — 82%.
(20? —5a+7) x (—82")
= (2a) x (— 82°) + (— 5a) x (— 82°) + (7) x (—8 2’)
= — 162° 4+ 40 a — 56 a.
The student should endeavor to put down the final result in one
operation. :

88. Multiplication of Polynomials by Polynomials.

By the Distributive Law for Multiplication (§ 14),
(a+b) x (e+d)=(a+b)xec+(a+b)xd
=ac+be+ad+bd;
and a similar result holds whatever the number of terms in
the multiplicand or multiplier.

We then have the following rule:

Multiply each term of the multiplicand by each term of the
multiplier, and add the partial products.

1. Multiply 3a—406 by 2a—5b.

In accordance with the rule, we multiply 3a—4b by 2a,
and then by — 5 b, and add the partial products.
A convenient arrangement of the work is shown below,
similar terms being in the same vertical column.
Sy ahh
TR at551G)
Gar ere E
— 15.ab+ 20 6?
OMe Aga yoda) AE AN) (a.
 MULTIPLICATION 35

The work may be verified by performing the example with the multi-
plicand and multiplier interchanged.

2. Multiply 4 ax + a? —8 2 —2a’e by 2a+a.

It is convenient to arrange the multiplicand and multiplier
in the same order of powers of some common letter (§ 76), and
write the partial products in the same order.
Arranging the expressions according to the descending powers
of a, we have
OF Rap ae Alaa? — fay
Op 26 ay
G2 O71 Oe”
2a'¢ —4 07x = 8 ax’ — 162
at = ae,

If the multiplicand and multiplier are arranged in order of

powers of a certain letter, with Jiteral coefficients, the operation
may sometimes be abridged by the use of parentheses.

3. Multiply « — ax — be—ab by x—a.

By § 87, — aw — ba can be written — (a + b)a.
e’— (a+b)x—ab
© —a
e— (a+b)x? — aba
— ax? + (a? + ab)a + ab
a — (2a + b)a? + ax + a’d.

4. Multiply «—m by «+n.

x —mM
z+tn

oe? — max
ah, ne — mn
w+ (—m+n)x — mn.
It is convenient to write the coefficient of # in parentheses,
when adding the terms — mx and na.
36 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

89. Homogeneity.
If the multiplicand and multiplier are homogeneous (§ 65),
the product will also be homogeneous, and its degree equal to
the sum of the degrees of the multiplicand and multiplier.
For if each term of the multiplicand is of the mth degree
(§ 64), and each term of the multiplier of the nth degree, each
term of the product will be of the (m + )th degree (§ 85).
The examples in § 88 are instances of the above law; thus in Ex. 2,
the multiplicand, multiplier, and product are homogeneous, and of the
third, first, and fourth degrees, respectively.

The student should always, when possible, apply the prin-

ciples of homogeneity to test the accuracy of algebraic work.
Thus, if two homogeneous expressions be multiplied together,
and the product obtained is not homogeneous, it is evident that
the work is not correct.
/

90. Multiplication by Detached Coefficients.

In finding the product of two expressions which are arranged
according to the same order of powers of some common letter,
the operation may be abridged by writing only the numerical
coefficients of the terms.
1. Multiply
82° +5a—4 by 2e?—7T2x+1.
3+ 5— 4
2—7+1
6-10 = 8
— 21 — 35 + 28
3+ 56—4
6 — 11 —40 + 383 —4.
We know that the exponent of « in the first term is 4.
Then, the product is 6 at — 11 a3 — 40 a? 4+ 33 a —4.
If the term involving any power be wanting, it may be
supplied with the coefficient 0.
2. Multiply 4a°+ 6 ax —7 a by 2a?—3 a2.
In this case the term involving aw in the multiplicand and
the term involving aw in the multiplier are wanting.
 MULTIPLICATION 37

4+0+ 6— 7
2+0— 3
8+0+4+12—14
—12+ 0—18+421
8+0+ 0—14—18+4
21. -
We know that the product is homogeneous (§ 89), and that
the exponent of a in the first term is 5.
Then, the product is 8 a’ — 14 a’a? — 18 aw* + 21 a’,
3. Find the value of (24—3)(8«%+5)(6e—1).
2 — 3
3 + 5
6 =. .9
+10—15
6 + 1-15
6 — 1
36 + 6—90
— 6— 1 +415
Result, 36 2 —91e-+ 15.
91. By § 83,
(4)
x(+0) =+ab, (+4) x (—b) =—ab,
(—a) x (—b)=+
ab, (—a) x (+0)
=— ab.
Hence, in the indicated product of two monomial expressions,
the signs of both expressions may be changed without altering the
product ; but if the sign of either one be changed, the sign of the
product will be changed.
The above is true for the product of a monomial and a poly-
nomial, or of two polynomials.
If either expression is a polynomial, care must be taken, on
changing its sign, to change the sign of each of its terms.
For by § 81, —(a—b+c¢)=—a+b-—ce.
Thus, (a — b) (ec — d) may be written in the forms
(6—a)(d—c), —(b—a)(c—d), or — (a—b)(d—¢).
38 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

In like manner it may be shown that, in the indicated product

of more than two expressions, the signs of any even number of
them may be changed without altering the product ; but if the signs
of any odd number of them be changed, the sign of the product will
be changed (§ 84).
Thus, (a — 6) (ec—d) (e —f) may be written in the forms ©

(a—b)(d—c)(f—e),
(6—a)(¢—d)(f—e),
— (b—a) (d—c) (f—e), ete.

EXERCISE 2
Multiply the following:
1. 23 — 622-120 —8 and 24-49 4.

n—5n?+2-+n3 and 5n +n? — 10.

8(a + 6)? —(a+ 6) +2 and 4(a + b)?-(a+ b)—5.
4 gpimt2yn—5 4. 5 qm+dy3n—T and 3 g2m—ly8 — 7 g2y2ntl,

“? —(m —n) x — mn and x — p.

x? + ax — bx — ab and «+b.
@8+3+5a—6a—2a? and 64 2a?—-
a.
. mex+ my — nx — ny and mx — my + nx — ny.
wD
Pp
Setar
2e—8y, 84+2y, 2%4+3y, and 3a—2y,.
_= «+a, x+6, and «— ec.

—_; 2m? — Sm — 1 and ym? + bm — =

12. «2-(a+b)¢%+ab and «2?—(c

— d) a — ed.
13. a+b+c¢, a—b+c, anda+b—e.

Simplify the following:

14. [(3a—(5y+22)]
[Ba —(y—22)].
15. [(m+2n)—(2m—n)][Qm+n)—(m—2n)]. «
16. (2a?+(8a% —1)(4a@ 4 5)] [5 a? —(4a 4 8) (@ — 2).
17. (a — b)(@
+ b8) [a (a + b) + D?).
 DIVISION 39

V. DIVISION OF ALGEBRAIC EXPRESSIONS

In the present chapter, we shall consider those cases only in which the
Dividend, Divisor, and Quotient are rational and integral (§ 63).
In such cases, the division is said to be exact, and the dividend is said
to be divisible by the divisor.

92. The Reciprocal of a number is 1 divided by that number.

Thus, the reciprocal of a is i
a
93. We have axl=a.
Regarding a as the quotient, 1 as the divisor, and a as the
dividend, we have

94. By § 30, (1), P=

Hence, to divide by a number is the same eel as to multiply
by its reciprocal (§ 92).

95. The Commutative Law for Division.

By § 94, every operation in Division can be expressed as an
operation in Multiplication.
Thus, if a is to be divided by 8, ¢, ---, in succession, the
result is re us |
OOS 2 IK = IK OG
iy
It follows from this, by § 14, I, that if a number is to be
divided by any number of numbers in succession, the divisions
can be performed in any order.
This is the Commutative Law for Division.
It may be expressed as follows:
(a+b) +e-+=(a+c)+b-~, ete.

96. By §14,I, II, 0b(ac)=a(be).

40 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

by §
Then aT 31, Se
ert 1
(1)

That is, a factor common to the dividend and divisor can be

removed, or cancelled.
Putting 6 =1, in (1), we have
aca
or) 93),
—=-=

That is, if a number be both multiplied and divided by another,

the value of the former will not be changed. .

97. The Rule of Signs.

From the results (1), (2), and (3), § 48, we may state the
Rule of Signs in Division, as follows:
The quotient of two terms of like sign is positive; the quotient
of two terms of unlike sign is negative.

98. The Index Law for Division.

Let it be required to divide a’ by a’.
Ce) aC SO) SSG
Bs) oe axa :
Cancelling the common factor a x a (§ 96), we have
5
a
—=—=AaAxaxKxKa=a.
3
a?

We will now consider the general case:

Let it be required to divide a” by a”, where m and n are any
positive integers such that m is > n.
a™_axaxax ::- to m factors
We have,
a axaxax + ton factors
Cancelling the common factor a x a x a Xx +++ to n factors,
a™

—=aXaXaX++-tom—N factors
a
= Oa

5 7

Then, the exponent of a letter in the quotient is equal to its

exponent in the dividend, minus its exponent in the divisor.
This is called the Index Law for Division.
 DIVISION 41

99. Division of Monomials.

1. Let it be required to divide —14a*b by 7 a’.
By § 86 —14a°b_ = (—2)x7xa@xb :
ae ce (xa
Cancelling the common factors 7 and a?, we have
—14a°b =(—2)xb=—20.
Ta
We then have the following rule for the quotient of two
monomials :
To the quotient of the numerical coefficients annex the letters,
giving to each an exponent equal to its exponent in the dividend
minus its exponent in the divisor, and omitting any letter having
the same exponent in the dividend and divisor.
2. Divide 54 a*b*c? by — 9 atb?.
58 n2
oda ve =— 60 c =— bac:
—9a'tb?
3. Divide — 2 a’™y"2" by — xyz"; m, n, and 7 being positive
integers, and 7 > 5.
= Y gp2m—mryr—5 = » amg,

4. Divide 35 (a — b)’ by 7 (a — b)*.

35 (a — b)! _ 5 (a —_ b)*.
7 (a — b)*
100. Division of Polynomials by Monomials.
By
§ 94,
se
ON es gy
a a

Bergen
Le ge hy 's$ 1d ttand 247).
a a a

Beeee Le Ol:
a a a

Hence, to divide a polynomial by a monomial, we divide each

term of the dividend by the divisor, and add the results.
This is called the Distributive Law for Division.
42 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

1. Divide 9 ab? —6 atc +12 abe by — 3. a’.

9 ab? — 6 ate +12 ate? 2 OO we Ode, 120 be
—3@ —$@ =—=3@ —3a?
5 Sil tS re = Ahaha
The student should endeavor to put down the result in one operation.

2. Divide 35(@ + y)’ — 20 (@ + y)* by 5(a@ 4 y)*.

35 (@ + y)’ — 20 (@ + y)*
=Ta@ty)’—4@+y).
5(@ + y)
101. Division of Polynomials by Polynomials.
Ex. Let it be required to divide 12 +10 a3 —11a%— 212° by
20°—4—32.
Arranging the expressions according to the descending powers
of x (§ 76), we are to find an expression which, when multiplied
by 2a? — 3a — 4, will produce 10 a — 212°— 112x412.
It is evident that the term containing the highest power of
# in the product is the product of the terms containing the
highest powers of # in the multipheand and multipher.
Therefore, 10 a is the product of 2 2 and the term containing
the highest power of w in the quotient.
Whence, the term containing the highest power of x in the
quotient is 10a? divided by 2 2°, or 5a.
Multiplying the divisor by 5a, we have the product 10a? —
15 a? — 20x; which, when subtracted from the dividend, leaves
the remainder —6a?+ 9a + 12.
This remainder must be the product of the divisor by the
rest of the quotient; therefore, to obtain the next term of the
quotient, we regard — 6a? + 9a-+12 as a new dividend.
Dividing the term containing the highest power of a, — 6 2,
by the term containing the highest power of w in the divisor,
2 «°, we obtain — 3 as the second term of the quotient.
Multiplying the divisor by — 3, we have the product.— 6 a?
+ 9-412; which, when subtracted from the second dividend,
leaves no remainder,
Hence, 5a — 3 is the required quotient.
 DIVISION : 43
It is customary to arrange the work as follows:
10 a? — 21 a? —11%412 | 22?— 32 --4, Divisor.
10 a — 152? — 202 ox — 3, Quotient.
— 6e%+ 9x+12
= Geras Our se ly
The example might have been solved by arranging the dividend and
divisor according to ascending powers of w.

102. From § 101, we derive the following rule:

Arrange the dividend and divisor in the same order of powers
of some common letter.
Divide the first term of the dividend by the first term of the
divisor, and write the result as the first term of the quotient.
Multiply the whole divisor by the first term of the quotient, and
subtract the product from the dividend.
If there be a remainder, regard it as a new dividend, and
proceed as before; arranging the remainder in the same order of
powers as the dividend and divisor.
1. Divide 9 ab?+ a—90?—
5a’ by 30° + a?—2
ab.
Arranging according to the descending powers of a,
OP = toro ts Sielp =i” | Cr Poly Se Bier
OP =F, CHa SiChee Gh Bb
= HGH 6 aier
— 3a*b + 6 ab? — 9b?
In the above example, the last term of the second dividend is omitted,
as it is merely a repetition of the term directly above.
The work may be verified by multiplying the quotient by the divisor,
which should of course give the dividend.
2. Divide 4+9a*— 282? by —30°+2+42.
Arranging according to the ascending powers of a,
A— 287? + Q9at|2+4e—32'
Ac 8a = 69-242 — 32
== fp = ee Ni
== By = IG a ae
= bap Wear 2 ae
= baie sb Dae
44 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

3. Divide «+ (a+ b—c)a’ + (ab — be — ca) x — abe by +a.

x + (a+b —c)x’+ (ab —be—ca)x—abe| x +a
ye ax? x” + (b —c)ax— be
(6 —c)a
(> — c)a* + (ab — ca)&
— bcx
— bex —abe

103. It is evident from § 89 that, if the dividend and divisor

are homogeneous, the quotient will also be homogeneous, and its
degree equal to the degree of the dividend minus the degree of
the divisor.

104. Division by Detached Coefficients.

In finding the quotient of two expressions which are arranged
according to the same order of powers of some common letter,
the operation may be abridged by writing only the numerical
coefficients of the terms.
If the term involving any power is wanting, it may be sup-
plied with the coefficient 0.
Ex. Divide 6 2° + 2a°—9at+52?+18
x — 30 by 3 a°+2°—6..

6+2—9+ 0+5+418—30|34+1+0-—6
6+2+0—12 2+0—3+45
—9+12
—9— 34+0+18
15+5
15+5+ 0—30
Then the quotient is 2a3—3a+5.

‘105. By § 37, (6), if a is any number,

0xa=0,
Regarding 0 as the quotient, a as the divisor, and 0 as the
dividend, we have 0
-=0.
a
 DIVISION 45

EXERCISE 3
Divide the following:
xv + 3722-702450 by a2—22+4
10.

6(@ — y)? -—7T@—y)—20 by 8(@—y) +4.

. aP+1h2 + ab%+2 by aPt1b? + abit? ; p and q being positive integers.
a — b® —5 atb + 5 abt + 10 a3? — 10 a2b3 by a® — D3 — 8 a2b +3 ad?.
6 n§ + 25 nt — 7 n3 — 81 n? —3n +4 28 by 2n3+5n2?—8n—7.

23 2? —5a*—1241205+4+
82 —1423 by x—-24 322,

16(a
+ b)* — 81 by 2(a+ b)— 3.
8a°—4a°
—24'4+ 1543+ 342 5x —15 by 408-2 -3.
SS@+63—c8+3abe
UTS
ace
oS
Col
te by a+b-—c.

-°
Ae,
zs
a — 9
mm 2m a m2
1 2 3 1
16 b ie uleoe ae =e4

. 5243 + 64 + 18 xt — 200 22 + 2° by 622-8

+ 43 — 124.

a’ — 6 atn?+ 9 a2n* —4n® by a3 — 2 a?n — an? 4+ 2 73,

. #8 —(a—b+c)u?
—(ab — ac + be)x + abe by x2 —(a — b)a — ab.
ee
ee
DO. @8+(a—b+¢)x2?+(—
Po ab + ac — be)x —abe by «+,
15. w+4a+2b4+38c)z24+(8ab
+ 12ac +6 bc)x + 24 abe by
v+(4a+8c)x+
12 ac.
16. #—(a+36+42c)x?+(8ab+2ac+6bc)x—6abe by x—38b.
17. (2 m2+ 10 mn) x? + (8 m? — 9 mn — 15 n*)x —(12 mn — 9 n*) by
2mx—3n.
18. v+—(4a+ 38)a2 + (12a —5b + 2)? -(8a—156)%—100 by
v—3a + 2.
46 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

VI. INTEGRAL LINEAR EQUATIONS

106. The First Member of an equation is the expression ta

the left of the sign of equality, and the Second Member the
expression to the right of that sign.
Thus, in 2a—3=32+5, the first member is 2%—3 and
the second member 3a-+ 5.
Any term of either member of an equation is called a term
of the equation.
The sides of an equation are its two members.
107. An Identical Equation, or Identity, is an equation whose
members are the same, or become the same after all the indi-
cated operations have been performed; as,
5=5, or (a+b) (a—b) =e —B*
The sign =, read ‘‘is identically equal to,’’ is frequently used in place
of the sign of equality in an identity.

It is evident that, in an identity involving letters, the mem-

bers are equal whatever values are given to the letters, provided
the same value is given to the same letter wherever it occurs.
All equations considered up to the present time have been
identical equations.

108. An equation is said to be satisfied by a set of values of

certain letters involved in it when, on substituting the value of
each letter in place of the letter wherever it occurs, the equa-
tion becomes identical.
Thus, the equation «— y=5 is satisfied by the set of values
«= 8, y=3; for, on substituting 8 for x, and 3 for y, the equa-
tion becomes
8—3=5, or 5=5; which is identical.
109. An Equation of Condition is an equation involving one
or more letters, called Unknown Numbers, which is satisfied
only by particular values, or sets of values, of these letters.
 INTEGRAL LINEAR EQUATIONS 47

Thus, the equation «+ 2=5 is satisfied by the value a= 3;

but not by the value «= 5,
Again, the equation «+ ¥=7 is satisfied by the set of values
*%=4, y=3; but not by the set of values e=6, y=9.
An equation of condition is usually called an equation.
Any letter in an equation of condition may represent an
unknown number; but it is usual to represent unknown num-
bers by the last letters of the alphabet.
110. Any letter, or set of letters, which satisfies an equation
is called a Solution of the equation.
If the equation contains but one unknown number, its solu-
tions are called Roots.
A solution is verified when, on substituting the values of the
unknown numbers, and performing the operations indicated,
the equation becomes identical.
To solve an equation, or a system of equations, is to find its
solutions.
111. A Numerical Equation is one in which all the known
numbers are represented by Arabic numerals; as,
2 Os

A Literal Equation is one in which some or all of the known

. numbers are represented by letters; as,
3aeta=da—20.
An Integral Equation is one each of whose members is a
rational and integral expression (§ 63); as,

eR
Set ny aeve
el okPur

112. If a rational and integral monomial (§ 63) involves a

certain letter, its degree with respect to it is denoted by its
exponent.
If it involves two letters, its degree with respect to them is
denoted by the sum of their exponents; ete.
Thus, 2 ab‘x*y? is of the second degree with respect to x, and
of the fifth with respect to « and y.
48 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

113. If an integral equation (§ 111) contains one or more

unknown numbers, the degree of the equation is the degree of
its term of highest degree.
Thus, if « and y represent unknown numbers,
ac — by =c, is an equation of the first degree;
a+ 4a— — 2, an equation of the second degree;
2a” — 3 ay = 5, an equation of the third degree; etc.
A Linear Equation is an equation of the first degree.
114. Two equations, each involving one or more unknown
numbers, are said to be Equivalent when every solution of the
first is a solution of the second, and every solution of the
second a solution of the first.
115. The following are of use in solving equations:
1. If the same number (or equal numbers) be added to equal
numbers, the suns will be equal.
2. If the same number (or equal numbers) be subtracted from
equal numbers, the remainders will be equal.
These follow from § 22.
3. If equal numbers be multiplied by the same number (or
equal numbers), the products will be equal (§ 29).
4, If equal numbers be divided by the same number (or equal
numbers), the quotients will be equal, provided the divisor is not 0.
This follows from § 29; compare § 48.

PRINCIPLES USED IN SOLVING INTEGRAL EQUATIONS

116. Addition.
If the same expression be added to both members of an equation,
the resulting equation will be equivalent to the first.
Consider, for example, the equation
AaB. (oD
To prove that the equation .
A+C=B+0, (2)
where Cis any expression, is equivalent to (1).
 INTEGRAL LINEAR EQUATIONS 49

Any solution of (1), when substituted for the unknown num-

bers, makes A identically equal to B (§ 108).
Jt then makes A + C identically equal to B+ C (§ 115, 1).
Then it is a solution of (2).
Again, any solution of (2), when substituted for the unknown
numbers, makes A + C identically equal to B+ C.
It then makes 4 identically equal to B (§ 115, 2).
Then it is a solution of (1).
Therefore, (1) and (2) are equivalent.
The above demonstration proves that if the same expression be sub-
tracted from both members of an equation, the resulting equation will be
equivalent to the first.

117. Transposing Terms.

Consider the equation «+a—b=c.
Adding —a and +b to both members (§ 116), we have the
equivalent equation
eta—b—a+t+b=c—a-+b.
Or, x=c—at+b.
In this case, the terms a and —® are said to be transposed
from the first member to the second.
Hence, if any term be transposed from one member of an equa-
tion to the other by changing its sign, the resulting equation will be
equivalent to the first.
If the same term appears in both members of an equation affected with
the same sign, it may be cancelled.

118. Consider the equation

a—x=b—ce. (1)
Transposing each term, we have the equivalent equation
—b+c=—a+a4, orw—a=c—b;
which is the same as (1) with the sign of every term changed.
Hence, if the signs of all the terms of an equation be changed,
the resulting equation will be equivalent to the first.
50 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

119. Multiplication.
If the members of an equation be multiplied by the same expres-
sion, which is not zero, and does not involve the unknown numbers,
the resulting equation will be equivalent to the first.
Consider the equation A=B. (1)
To prove that the equation
Ax CBG, (2)
where Cis not zero, and does not involve the unknown num-
bers, is equivalent to (1).
Any solution of (1), when substituted for the unknown num-
bers, makes A identically equal to B. ,
It then makes A x C identically equal to B x C (§ 115, 3).
Then it is a solution of (2).
Again, any solution of (2), when substituted for the unknown
numbers, makes A x C identically equal to B x C.
It then makes A identically equal to B (§ 115, 4).
Then it is a solution of (1).
Therefore, (1) and (2) are equivalent.
The reason why the above does not hold for the multiplier zero is, that
the principle of $115, 4, is restricted to cases where the divisor is not zero.

120. The necessity for limiting the principle of § 119 to

cases where the multiplier does not involve the unknown num-
bers is that, if C contains the unknown numbers, the equation
Ax C=Bx C is satisfied by certain values of the unknown
numbers which make O= 0.
But these values do not, in general, satisfy A= B.
Consider, for example, the equation
e+2=3 a%—A4, (1)
Now the equation

(w+2)(@w@—1) =Ge—4) (1), (2)

which is obtained from (1) by multiplying both members by
«—1,is satisfied by the value # = 1, which does not satisfy (1).
Then (1) and (2) are not equivalent.
 INTEGRAL LINEAR EQUATIONS 51

It follows from this that it is never allowable to multiply

both members of an integral equation by an expression which
involves the unknown numbers; for in this way additional
solutions are introduced.
121. Clearing of Fractions.
Consider the equation
I aa a as
ey al eee
Multiplying each term by 24, the lowest common multiple of
the denominators (§ 119), we have the equivalent equation
16 «—30=20 w— 27,
where the denominators have been removed.
Removing the fractions from an equation by multiplication is called
“clearing the equation of fractions.”’

122. Division.
If the members of an equation be divided by the same expres-
sion, which is not zero, and does not involve the unknown num-
bers, the resulting equation will be equivalent to the first.
Consider the equation A= 8B. (1)
To prove that the equation
A+C=B+C, (2)
where C is not zero, and does not involve the unknown num-
bers, is equivalent to (1).
Any solution of (1), when substituted for the unknown num-
bers, makes A identically equal to B.
It then makes A+ C identically equal to B+ C (§ 115, 4).
Then it is a solution of (2).
Again, any solution of (2), when substituted for the unknown
numbers, makes A-+ C identically equal to B+ C.
It then makes A identically equal to B.
Then it is a solution of (1).
Therefore, (1) and (2) are equivalent.
52 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

123. The necessity for limiting the principle of § 122 to

cases where the divisor does not involve the unknown num-
bers is that, if C contains the unknown numbers, the solution
of A= B contains certain numbers which do not, in general,
satisfy A+ C= B+C.
Consider, for example, the equation
(w@+2) (w—1)=(8e—A4) (w—1). (1)
Also the equation 2#+2=3a%—4, (2)
which is obtained from (1) by dividing both members by #—1.
Now equation (1) is satisfied by the value «=1, which does
not satisfy (2).
Then (1) and (2) are not equivalent.
It follows from this that it is never allowable to divide both
members of an integral equation by an expression which in-
volves the unknown numbers; for in this way solutions are
lost.
SOLUTION OF INTEGRAL LINEAR EQUATIONS

124. To solve an equation containing one unknown number,

we put it into a succession of forms, which lead finally to a
knowledge of the root or roots.
This process 1s called transforming the equation.
If every transformation is effected by means of the principles
of §§ 116 to 122, the successive equations will have the same
roots as the given equation, and no solutions will be introduced
nor lost.
EXAMPLES

125. 1. Solve the equation

b4—Ta=se-d.

Transposing 3 a to the first member, and —7 to the second

(§ 117), we have a vee ih

Uniting similar terms, 2a=8.

 INTEGRAL LINEAR EQUATIONS 58

Dividing both members by 2 (§ 122),

To verify the result, put x = 4 in the given equation.

Thus, 20 —7=12+1; which is identical.

2. Solve the equation

7
=f SSS
Qo
= eS
1
6 a © 4
Clearing of fractions by multiplying each term by 60, the
L. C. M. of 6, 3, 5, and4, we have
70 x — 100 = 36 2 — 15.
Transposing 362 to the first member, and —100 to the
second, and uniting similar terms,
34% = 85.
Dividing by 34, ip =
3. Solve the equation
(6—82#)8+42)=62-—(7-—32)1—42).
Expanding, 154+11¢—12 2? = 62 —(7 —3lwv+12 «’)
=62—7+3la—122°.
Cancelling the — 12 2’ terms (§ 117), and transposing,
lie—38le=62—7-—15.
Uniting terms, — 20 x = 40.
Dividing by — 20, e=— 2.
To expand an algebraic expression is to perform the operations indicated.

4. Solve the equation

ee + OU = 03 e==.113 » — 0161.
Transposing,
22—.032— 113 2=— .0161 —.001.
Uniting terms, 057 === OLF1.
Dividing by .057, t= — 3.
From the above examples, we have the following rule for
solving an integral linear equation with one unknown number:
54 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Clear the equation of fractions, if any, by multiplying each term

by the L. C. M. of the denominators of the fractional coefficients.
Remove the parentheses, if any.
Transpose the unknown terms to the first member, and the
known to the second; cancelling any term which has the same
coefficient in both members.
Unite similar terms, and divide both members by the coefficient
of the unknown number.
The student should endeavor to apply more than one principle at one
operation.
He will also find it excellent practice to verify his solutions.

EXERCISE 4
Solve the following:
1. Dares Bee ee
5 3 9 15
2. .05% —1.82 —.7¢= .008a — .504.
8. 4(a +14)—
4(3. 2— 82)=6
(a + 12)—7 (x — 12).
Beate atee
6 8 9 18 48
5. (6—32)8+4e)—-(74+82e)(1—42%)
=—-1.
6. .07(8«¢ — 5.7) =.8(5a + .86) + 1.321.
7 (1+80)2— (5 —2)?— 401 — 2x) (8-22) =0.
8. 6(¢ —42=5 —(8 —22)2—5(24+2)(7 —22).
9. (8% —2)8—9x(a
— 1)(8e — 8) = 45 x? — 88.
10. (@ + 4)8— (x — 4)8=2 (8a —2)(424 D.
11. s¢ta)-La —52)=5(14+2a)-2. (2-82).
10
| Sti) al —
Brees
aire. 4
1ae
il? eee )| Ak ao ME

PROBLEMS INVOLVING INTEGRAL LINEAR EQUATIONS

WITH ONE UNKNOWN NUMBER

126. For the solution of a problem by algebraic methods no

general rule can be given.
The following suggestions will be found of service:
 INTEGRAL LINEAR EQUATIONS 55

1. Represent the unknown number, or one of the unknown

numbers if there are several, by w.
2. Every problem contains, explicitly or implicitly, just as
many distinct statements as there are unknown numbers involved.
Use all but one of these to express the other unknown num-
bers in terms of z.
3. Use the remaining statement to form an equation.

ILLUSTRATIVE PROBLEMS

127. 1. Divide 45 into two parts such that the less part
shall be one-fourth the greater.
Here there are two unknown numbers ; the gréater part and the less.
In accordance with the first suggestion of § 126, we represent the
greater part by «x.
The first statement of the problem is, implicitly:
The sum of the greater part and the less is 45,
The second statement is:
The less part’ is one-fourth the greater.
In accordance with the second suggestion of § 126, we use the second
statement to express the less part in terms of x.
Thus, the less part is represented by ria
We now, in accordance with the third suggestion, use the first state-
ment to form an equation.
Thus, x+ im = 45,

Clearing of fractions, 4x%+% = 180.

Uniting terms, 5a” = 180.
Dividing by 5, x = 36, the greater part.
Then, ie = 9, the less part.

2. A is 3 times as old as B, and 8 years ago he was 7 times

as old. Required their ages at present.
Let 2 = number of years in B’s age.
Then, 3a = number of years in A’s age.
Also, # — 8 = number of years in B’s age 8 years ago,
and 8a — 8 = number of years in A’s age 8 years ago:
56 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

But A’s age 8 years ago was 7 times B’s age 8 years ago.
Whence, 38%—8=7(«—8).
Expanding, 38z2—8=T724— 56.
Transposing, —4xu= — 48.
Dividing by — 4, 4” = 12, the number of years in B’s age.
Then, . 32 = 36, the number of years in A’s age.
It must be carefully borne in mind that x can only represent an
abstract number.
Thus, in Ex. 2, we do not say ‘‘let « represent B’s age,’’ but ‘‘let x
represent the number of years in B’s age.”

3. A sum of money, amounting to $4.32, consists of 108

coins, all dimes and cents; how many are there of each kind?
Let x = the number of dimes.
Then, 108 — x = the number of cents.
Also, the # dimes are worth 10 x cents.
But the entire sum amounts to 482 cents.

Whence, 102 + 108 — x = 482.

Transposing, 9x = 324.
Whence, x = 36, the number of dimes;
and 108 — x = 72, the number of cents.

4. At what time between 3 and 4 o’clock are the hands of

a watch opposite to each other?
Let « = the number of minute-spaces passed over by the minute-hand
from 3 o’clock to the required time.
Then since the hour-hand is 15 minute-spaces in advance of the minute-
hand at 3 o’clock, # — 15 — 80, or # — 45 will represent the number of
minute-spaces passed over by the hour-hand.
But the minute-hand moves 12 times as fast as the hour-hand.
Then, % = 12(% — 45)
= 12% — 540. ‘-
Transposing, —1llw=-— 540.
Whence, x = 497.
Then, the required time is 497, minutes after 3 o’clock.
 INTEGRAL LINEAR EQUATIONS 57

5. Two persons, A and B, 63 miles apart, start at the same

time, and travel towards each other. <A travels at the rate of
4 miles an hour, and B at the rate of 3 miles an hour. How
far will each have travelled when they meet ?
Let 4% = number of miles that A travels.
Then, 3 = number of miles that B travels.
By the conditions, 4% + 32 = 68.
te 63;
t= 9
Then, 4% = 36, number of miles that A travels,
and 3% = 27, number of miles that B travels.
It is often advantageous, as in Ex. 5, to represent the unknown num-
ber by some multiple of x, instead of by « itself.

EXERCISE 5

1. Divide 66 into two parts such that g the greater shall exceed 2
the less by 21. :
2. In 9 years, B will be 5 asoldas A ; and 12 years ago he was 3 as
old. What are their ages ? :
(Let x represent number of years in A’s age 12 years ago.)
8. Divide 197 into two parts such that the smaller shall be contained
‘in the greater 5 times, with a remainder 23.
4. After A has travelled 7 hours at the rate of 10 miles in 3 hours,
B sets out to overtake him, travelling at the rate of 9 miles in 2 hours,
How far will they have travelled when B overtakes A ?
5. At what time between 8 and 9 o’clock are the hands of a watch
together ?
6. Find four consecutive odd numbers such that the product of the
first and third shall be less than the product of the second and fourth
by 64.
7. Asum of money, amounting to $19.30, consists of $2 bills, 25-cent
pieces, and 5-cent pieces. There are 13 more 5-cent pieces than $2 bills,
and :as many 5-cent pieces as 25-cent pieces. How many are there of

each ?
8. At'what times between 4 and 5 o’clock are the hands of a watch at
right angles to each other ?
58 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

9. A woman sells half an egg more than half her eggs. She then sells
half an egg more than half her remaining eggs. A third time she does the
same, and now has 3 eggs left. How many had she at first ?
10. A train leaves A for B, 210 miles distant, travelling at the rate of
28 milesan hour. After it has been gone 1 hour and 15 minutes, another
train starts from B for A, travelling at the rate of 22 miles an hour. How
many miles from B will they meet ?
11. A man puts a certain sum in a savings bank paying 4% interest.
At the end of a year he deposits the interest, receiving interest on the
entire amount. At the end of a second year and a third year he does the
same, and now has $2812.16 in the bank. What was his original deposit ?
12. A fox is pursued by a hound, and has a start of 77 of her own
leaps. The fox makes 5 leaps while the hound makes 4; but the hound
in 5 leaps goes as far as the fox in 9. How many leaps does each make
before the hound catches the fox ?
13. A clock has an hour-hand, a minute-hand, and a second-hand, all
turning on the same centre. At 12 o’clock all the hands point at 12. How
many seconds will it be before the hour-hand is between the other two
hands and equally distant from them ?
14. A freight train travels from A to Bat the rate of 12 miles an hour.
After it has been gone 3} hours, an express train leaves A for B, travel-
ling at the rate of 45 miles an hour, and reaches B 1 hour and 5 minutes
ahead of the freight. Find the distance from A to B and the time taken
by the express train.
15. A merchant increases his capital each year by one-third, and at
the end of each year sets aside $1350 for expenses. At the end of three
years, after setting aside his expenses, he finds that he has a of his
original capital. What was his original capital ?
 SPECIAL METHODS 59

VII. SPECIAL METHODS IN MULTIPLICATION

AND DIVISION

128. Any Power of a Power.

Required the value of (a”)", where m and n are any positive
integers.
We have, (a")"=a™ x a™ X --- to n factors (§ 60)
=«q” +m-+-++tonterms __ am,

129. Any Power of a Product.

Required the value of (abc:--)", where n is any positive
integer.
We have, (abc ---)”
= (abe +--+) X (abe +++) X +++ to m factors
=(axax --- to n factors) (6 x b x ++. to m factors) ---
= abe” ree

130. Any Power of a Monomial.

1. Required the value of (5 a’b)*.
We have, (5 ab)? = 5 a’b x 5 a’ x 5 ab = 125 ad’.
2. Required the value of (— m)*.
We have, (— m)*=(—m) x (— m) X (— m) X (— m) =m.
3. Required the value of (— 3 n°)’.
We have, (— 3 n°)? = (— 3 n’) x (— 3 n’) xX (— 3 0’) = — 27 n’.
From §§ 128 and 129, and the above examples, we have the
following rule for raising a rational and integral monomial
(§ 63) to any power whose exponent is a positive integer:
’ Raise the absolute value of the numerical coefficient to the
required power, and multiply the exponent of each letter by the
exponent of the required power.
Give to every power ofa positive term, and to every even power
of a negative term, the positive sign ; and to every odd power of
a negative term the negitive sign.
60 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

131. Square of a Binomial.

We find by actual multiplication,
(a+b)? =(a+b) x a+b)=a?+2ab+ 0’, (1)
(a —b)? = (a—b) x (a—b) =a? —2ab+ B. (2)
That is,
The square of the sum of two numbers equals the square of
the first, plus twice the product of the first by the second, plus the
square of the second.
The square of the difference of two numbers equals the square
of the first, minus twice the product of the first by the second,
plus the square of the second.
In the remainder of the book, we shall, for the sake of brevity, use the
expression ‘‘ the difference of a and b’’ to denote the remainder obtained
by subtracting b from a.

1. Square 3 a?— 20.

By (2), (8 a?— 2b) = (8 a’)? — 2 (8 a’) (20) + (2 by?
=9at—12 ab + 40° (§ 180).
If the first term of the binomial is negative, it should be enclosed,
negative sign and all, in parentheses, before applying the rule.

2. Square —4 27+ 9,

(—4a? +.9)*=[(—4a%) +9]

= (—4 a+ 2 (—4 2%) (9) + 9", by (1)
=O — (2 eos

132. Product of the Sum and Difference of Two Numbers.

We find by actual multiplication,
(a + b)(a—b)
=a’— 0b’.
That is, the product of the sum and difference of two numbers
equals the difference of their squares.

1. Multiply 64450" by Ba= 5p.

By the rule,
(6a+ 56°) (6a —5 BD) = (6a)?— (5 O°)? = 36 a? — 25 B*.
 SPECIAL METHODS 61

2. Multiply —a’?+4 by —a’?—4.

($4) (a8 4) = [(— 2) $41 (— 2) 4]
= (— a)? — #= ot — 16.
3. Expand (a+b—c)(a—b+¢e).
To expand an algebraic expression is to perform the operations indi-
cated.
By
§ 82, @+6—c)\@—b+c)=[a+(b—0c)][a—(b—¢)]
=a’
— (6—c)’, by the rule,
=a’ — (8 — 2 be 4+ c’)
=¢ —b’ +2 bc —<¢,
4. Expand (#+4+2)(@#—y+2).
@+yt+2)@—yt+2)=[@+%) +¥][@+2)—y]
mrss toreeh
= v4 2a2+2?—x’.

133. Product of Two Binomials having the Same First Term.

We find by actual multiplication
(w+ a)(#@+b)=a7+(a+b)x+ab.
That is,
The product of two binomials having the same first term equals
the square of the first term, plus the algebraic sum of the second
terms multiplied by the first term, plus the product of the second
terms.
1. Multiply «—5 by «+3.
By the above rule, the coefficient of # is the sum of —5 and
+3, or — 2, and the last term is the product of —5and +3,
or — 15.
Whence, (a — 5) (@ +3) =a —2e—15.
2. Multiply «—5 by x—3.
The coefficient of w is the sum of —5 and —3, or —8, and
the last term is the product of —5 and —8, or 16.
Whence, (a — 5) (a — 3) =a? —8 2+ 15.
62 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

3. Multiply ab—4 by ab+7.

By the rule, (ab —4)(ab+7) =a’? + 3 ab — 28.
4. Multiply m+n+6 by m+n+8.
(m+n+6)(m+n+8) =[(m+n) +6] [(m +n) +8]
=(m+n)’?+14(m+n) + 48.
134. Square of a Polynomial.
By § 181, (1), (a1 + a2)? = ay? + ay’ + 2 ade, (1)
We also have,
(a + Gy + a3)? = [(@, + Ae) + ag)
= (G +My) +2 (a+ dy) X dg + Chg”
= Oy? + 2 My Ay + Ay? + 2 yg + 2 MyQtz + Ag”
= 07 + ag? + ag? + 2 a0, + 2 a,05 +2 ads. (2)
The results (1) and (2) are in accordance with the following
law:
The square of a polynomial equals the sum of the squares
of its terms, plus twice the product of each term by each of the
following terms.
We will now prove that this law holds for the square of any
polynomial.
Assume that the law holds for the square of a polynomial of
m terms, where m is any positive integer; that is,
(Gy +E Mtg + Ag 8 + pa + Op)?
= Uy? + Oy? + e+ + Um” + 2 Ay (dg + ++ + 4,)
2 ay(dg + +++ + Ay) Fee + 2 Gym (3)
Then, (a + dy + dg + ++* + Gy + Amy)?
= [da + y+ vee + Oe) + nga|?
= (a + d2+-++4+a4,,)?
+ 2 (a, + Gy Hoe) +p) Amar + ms’, by (1)
= Oy" + dy? +e + 4,7 + Aner .
+ 2 ay (ly Foote + Oy + Amr)
+ 2 Ay (ig + 2+ + Oy + Umar) ote + 2 Un Gmnary by (8).
 SPECIAL METHODS 63

This result is in accordance with the above law.

Hence, if the law holds for the square of a polynomial of m
terms, where m is any positive integer, it also holds for the
square of a polynomial of m +1 terms.
But we know that the law holds for the square of a polyno-
mial of three terms, and therefore it holds for the square of a
polynomial of four terms; and since it holds for the square of
a polynomial of four terms, it also holds for the square of a
polynomial of five terms; and so on.
Hence, the law holds for the square of any polynomial.
The above method of proof is known as Mathematical Induction.

Ex. Expand (2 2 —3a— 5)’.

In accordance with the law, we have
(2 a? —3a@—5)?
= (2 2”)? + (— 32)? + (— 5)
+ 2(2a% (— 32) +2(2a%)(—8) +.2(—32)(—5)
= tha ae aes — i A aie IO a
=4 et —1203— 112? 4 3044 25.

135. Cube of a Binomial.

We find by actual multiplication,
(a+b =a 43 ab +3 ab? +B, (1)
(a—bf=a—38@b+3 ab’ — 0b’. 2)
That is,
The cube of the sum of two numbers equals the cube of the
Jjirst, plus three times the square of the first times the second, plus
three times the first times the square of the second, plus the cube
of the second.
The cube of the difference of two numbers equals the cube
of the first, minus three times the square of the first times the
second, plus three times the first times the square of the second,
minus the cube of the second.
 64 * ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA
1. Find the cube of a+ 2b.
By (1), (a+ 2b? =a' +3 a%(2b)+3a(2 b)? + (2 6)®
=@+6a?b+12
abd?+ 8B’
2. Find the cube of 2 a? —5 7,
By (2), (20-5 y’)
= (2 2)? — 3 (2 a°)*(5 y?) +3 (2 2°) (5 yy? — (5 7?
= 8 x — 60 ay? + 150 ay! — 125 7.

136. Cube of a Polynomial.

By § 135, (1), (4 +,)'=a'+ 4243 a%a,+3 0,057. (LD
We also have, (a + a+ a;)°
= [(m + ay) + a3]?
= (ay a y)* + 3(a,+ My)" +3 (ay at My) As” + ag
= 4 +3 ayaa +3 aay? + af +8 ara, +6 Ay Any
+3 a:’a3 +3 aa;? + 3 aa; + a
= a)’ + a + aP+ 3 a2d. +3 aa, +3 aza,+3 Ass
+3 A370, +3 As°tg + 6 ay AoA, (2)
The results (1) and (2) are in accordance with the following
law: :
The cube of a polynomial equals the sum of
the cubes of its
terms, plus three times the product of the square
of each term
by each of the other terms, plus six times the
product of every
three different terms.
We will now prove by Mathematical Induction (see § 134),
that this law holds for the cube of any polynomial.
Assume that the law holds for the cube of a polynomial of m
terms, where m is any positive integer; that is,
(ay oF Cy ar Cs + =o =f An—2 ap An—-1 Se On)®

= a+ a3 + ees ae Ee

+3 Oy?(Ag+ Ag+ +++ + Om) +8 Oy?(Oy + Og oer Am)

ap O9e ap 3 On (Ay Sle Ag “fsa =f An—1)
+ 6 ma.%,+- >» +6 Ongaay Oine (3)
 SPECIAL METHODS 65

Then, (4 + @,+ dg +++ +. Oq_y + Oy + Omir)®

=[(Ga + Oy + Ogtooe+ + ga + On) + Ona]?
= (@, + d+ As ate Pan + Am—1 + Op,)?

+3 (G + y+ y+ 28) + Om + Oy)?gs
+3 (dy + det+dg+ ++ + n—1+ On) Om+1 + Omir (§ 135).

Then, by (8) and § 134,

(@, + y+ Os + ++ + Opa + Om + mgr)?
=, +a,°+ --. +4,°
+3 ay?(d, + dg + + + Om)
+8 Ag?(d + y+ +++ + Om) + os
+3 Gy? (Ay + Ay + +++ + 4-1)
Zk 6 A AgAs =p OOO Eyre 6 An 20m 1m

+3 Oy (Gy? + Og? vee $f Ay? $2 Oye + ++ + 2 yO

H+ 2 Gyltg+ v0 + 2 Gylig+ oes +2 Op_1Om)
+3 Op y1? (Oy+ Ay + Mg + vee + Om) + Oma?

or, a,° cP a? ai Nee + a? + ere

—- 3 ay?(Ay ae ee ate Om =F mp1)

+3 ay? (Gy + Ag e+ + mia) + °*

= 3 Ont (Oy ar As aa he + Qn)

+6 Gydeds + +++ +6 Gy ybmUmite

This result is in accordance with the above law.
Hence, if the law holds for the cube of a polynomial of m
terms, where m is any positive integer, it also holds for the
cube of a polynomial of m+ 1 terms.
But we know that the law holds for the cube of a polynomial
of three terms, and therefore it holds for the cube of a poly-
nomial of four terms; and since it holds for the cube of a
polynomial of four terms, it also holds for the cube of a poly-
nomial of five terms; and so on.
Hence, the law holds for the cube of any polynomial.
Ex. Expand (2 2°—a?+2a— 3)’.
66 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

In accordance with the above law, we have

(203 2? + 24-3).
= (2 x)?+ (— a) + (2 #)? + (— 3)? + 3 (2 a*)*(—
2 + 2% — 3)
+38(—2)(2
oF + 2¢—3)+3(2 2)°(2 a — 2? — 3)
+ 3(— 3)°(2 a — 2 + 22)
+6 (2 2%)(— 2%)(2 2) + 6(2 2%)(— 2°) (—8)
+6 (2.2%)(22) (—8) +6(—2*) (2 2)(—3)
= 8 a? —a°+ 8 28 — 27 —12 a? + 24 a —36
0° +6 27 +6 oF —9o#
4+ 24 o° — 12 at — 36 a? + 54 a? — 27 a? + 54 oe — 24 28
+. 36 2? — 72 w+ 36 2°
=8 2? —12 224+ 30 2’ — 61 2° + 66 a — 93 a* + 98 2? — 63 x?
+ 54 2% — 27.
EXERCISE 6

Write by inspection the values of the following :

Rh, (GCE 2. (—4 abdct)t. 3. (— 38 a8yz?)5,
4, (84722). “%. (—6 ay —11az)2.
5. (2a3 — 5 b?c)?. 8. (8a? —9a%)?; p and g being
6. (— mtn® + 4 p®)?. positive integers.

Write by inspection the values of the following:

9. (5a? + 12 b8c)(5 a® — 12 bic).
10. (— 10 mtn + 18 x) (— 10 m#n — 18 4).
11. (a’m + x8) (a?” — a”) ; m and n being positive integers.

Expand the following :

12. (a—b+c)(a—b—c). 14. (a? + ay + y?) (a — ay + y?). *
13. (7+ y+38)(%—y
— 8). 15. (@+5a—4)(@—5a+4).
16. (40? +3%+7)(4224+ 34-7).
17. (mt + 5 mn? + 2 nt) (mt — 5 m2n? — 2 nt).

Write by inspection the values of the following :

18. (7+ 2)(#%+ 10). 22. (mn + 11)(mn + 2). .
19. (x —5)(@+7). 28. (a2b + 3 c8)(a2b — 8 c8).
20. (x? — 4) (x2 — 14). 24. (a—b—5)(a—b-9Y).
21, (@+7a)(#—1da). 25. («© +y—62?)(e@+y 4 12 22),
 SPECIAL METHODS 67

Expand the following :

26. (822+ 5a —4)%. 28. (223 — 3224 4 — 2)2.
27. (a—b—c+d)?. 29. (at +5a3—4a?—2a+41)2.

Write by inspection the values of the following :

80. (a+ 385b)3. 82. (8 a%b + 203)3,
81. (7 at — «)8, 33. (5 mx? — 4 ny3)8.

Expand the following:

34. (a? + a — 2)3, 36. (a—b+c—d)3.
35. (202-44
+ 3)3, 37. (823 —442?-—2441)%

Simplify the following:

38. (8 a*7+ 5b)?(38 a? — 5b)%. 41. (7+ 1)8(@ — 1)3,
89. (x+5)(*—2)(@—5)(#+2). 42. @ty—z)*(~-y+z)2
40. (2—2)2+4)(4+2?). 43. (a+b+c)(a+b—c)3,
44. (otytet(yt+e—2)
4+(e+e—y)24+(ety—2)%
45. (a+b4+c)(b+c—a)(c+a—b)(a+b—cC).
46. (m+n)? — (m — n)3 — 38(m + n)?(m — n) + 8(m + n)(m — n)?.

137. We find by actual division,

rel bs (1)
2 2 2 1)
eared Uae aint (2)
a+b a—b

That is,
If the difference of the squares of two numbers be divided by the
sum of the numbers, the quotient is the difference of the numbers.
If the difference of the squares of two numbers be divided by the
difference of the numbers, the quotient is the sum of the numbers.

Ex. Divide 25 y’z* — 9 by 5 yz’ + 3.

By § 130, 25 yz‘ is the square of 5 yz”.
25y’2t —9
Then, by (1), oar =5 ye? — 3.

138. We find by actual division,

as 8
aca, aad ab+b*?.a (1
(1) dial
een eg Keinpue
a+ab+b*. 2
(2)
68 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

That is,
If the sum of the cubes of two numbers be divided by the sum
of the numbers, the quotient is the square of the first number,
minus the product of the first by the second, plus the square of the
second number.
If the difference of the cubes of two numbers be divided by the
difference of the numbers, the quotient is the square of the first
number, plus the product of the first by the second, plus the square
of the second number.
Hx. Divide 27 a® — 6° by 3a — 6.
By § 130, 27 a’ is the cube of 3 a.

Then, by (2),
27er
a — BP =9a?+3ab46%

139. The Remainder Theorem.

Let it be required to divide 2 2° —7 a? +10%—3 by x— 2.
2¢— (2 --10%—3\e—2
20 — 4A = a
—32
—3a+ 62
4a
4%2—8
5
The division is not exact, and there is a final remainder 5.
Now if we substitute 2 for z in the dividend, we have
2x 23-7 x.2?+10 x 2 — 3, which equals 5.
This exemplifies the following law:
If any rational integral polynomial, involving x, be not divisible
by «—a, the remainder of the division equals the result obtained
by substituting a for x in the given polynomial.
The above is called The Remainder Theorem.
To prove the theorem, let D be any rational integral poly-
nomial, involving 2, not divisible by a — a.
 SPECIAL METHODS 4 69

Let the division be carried out until a remainder is obtained

which does not contain 2.
Let Q denote the quotient, and & the remainder.
Since the dividend equals the product of the divisor and
quotient, plus the remainder, we have
Qa@—a)+h=D.
Substitute in this equation a for a.
The term Q(a— a) becomes zero; and since R does not con-
tain a, it is not changed, whatever value is given to w.
Then, R must equal the result obtained by substituting a
for x in D.

140. The Factor Theorem.

If any rational integral polynomial, involving x, becomes zero
when x is put equal to a, the polynomial has « — a as a factor.
For by § 139, the remainder obtained by dividing the poly-
nomial by « — a is zero.

141. It follows from § 140 that,

Tf any rational integral polynomial, involving x, becomes zero
when x is put equal to — a, the polynomial has x +a as a factor.

142. We will now prove that, if n is any positive integer,

I. a* — b”" is always divisible by a — b.
Il. a*— b" is divisible by a+ b if n is even.
IIL. a’ + b" is divisible by a + b if n is odd.
IV. at +0" is divisible by neither a+b nor a—b if n is even.

Proof of I.
If D be substituted for a in a” — 0”, the result is 6” — 0”, or 0.
Then by § 140, a” — &” has a— basa factor.

Proof of U1.
If —b be substituted for a in a” — b”, the result is (— 6)”— b";
or, since n is even, 6" — b”, or 0.
Then by § 141, a*—b” hasa+basa factor.
70 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Proof of U1.
If —b be substituted for a in a” + b", the result is (— 6)"+ 6";
or, since n 1s odd, — b” + 6”, or 0.
Then, a"+ 0" has a+ 0 as a factor.

Proof of IV.
If — bd or + b be substituted fora in a" + 6", the results are
(— b)” + b” or b” + b”, respectively.
Since n is even, neither of these is zero.
Then, neither a+ 6 nor a—b is a factor of a* + b”.

143. We find by actual division

4 4
e = = a? — a*b + ab?
— 8,
a
Op = i 5
Fig eR
a—

Te = at— ald + ab?

— ab? + 64,
a
a’ — b°Aa 4 + a°b
ery 3 + ab?
272 + ab? 3 + 4 b*; ete.
a —

In these results, we observe the following laws:

I. The exponent of a in the first term of the quotient is less by
1 than its exponent in the dividend, and decreases by 1 in each
succeeding term.
Il. The exponent of b in the second term of the quotient is 1,
and increases by 1 in each succeeding term.
Ill. Jf the divisor is a—b, all the terms of the quotient are
positive; if the divisor is a+b, the terms of the quotient are
alternately positive and negative.

144. We will now prove, by Mathematical Induction, that the

laws of § 143 hold universally.
Assume the laws to hold for a”— b”
ra where n is any positive
integer.
 SPECIAL METHODS (ik

Then, “= “= qo} ab ab ai. a" 8h? oe 5 of b-1, (1)

Now, qrth a prt Ss qrtt = ab ae ab ait Ort

a—b a—b
__ a (a— bd) + da"= 0")
a—b

. =a" + b(ar* +a" + a"? + + +5"), by (1)

SSPE Pe 0 I oo GE

This result is in accordance with the laws of § 143.

Hence, if the laws hold for the quotient of the difference of
two like powers of a and b divided by a —2, they also hold for
the quotient of the difference of the next higher powers of a
and } divided by a—b.
But we know that they hold for mle? and therefore they
6 6
hold for © = ; and since they hold for res ~ they hold for
a— a—
Rlogr
a ;; and so on.

Hence, the laws hold for alae , where ” is any positive

Oi
integer.
Putting — bd for d in (1), we have
A
Pa)" eee + ney Aes + CNP (—B)ae
a"-*(— >) -h---

If n is even, (— 6)" = 0", and (— b)** =— bn“? (§ 130).

Whence, a” — OF ge _ ar + ar 8h? — +e — O, (2)

a+b

If n is odd, (— 6)" =— 8”, and (— b)"*=+ 0".

Whence, West b” = qr) ee a”’—2b 4 a” 8b? ay tiel6 + br-1, (3)

a+b

Equations (2) and (8) are in accordance with the laws of

§ 143.
es ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

a”— b”
Hence, the laws hold for , where m is any even posi-
a” + 0"
tive integer, and for , where » is any odd positive
+
integer.

145. 1. Divide a’ — 0’ by a—b.

By § 143, “= -= af + a8 + ab? + a6? + ab! + ab? + °.
a —

2. Divide 16a*—81 by 2e+3.

By § 180, 16at= (2 a)*.
Then, SF = Ca)! Ca)?-3 + Ca).3*— 3
= 8a? —122?4
18% — 27.
The absolute value of any term after the first, in equations (1), (2),
and (8), of § 144, may be obtained by dividing the absolute value of the
preceding term by a, and multiplying the result by b.
This would be the shortest method if the numbers involved were large.

EXERCISE 7
Write by inspection the values of the following:
L 36 a? — 49° 6. 216 min + 343 p> 11. nn? — 2°
6a+7 6 mn? + 7 p3 m— x
121 a6 — 64 yte? at — bt a® — 64 08
2 lla? — 8 yz ae eat
3. ns — i 8. m> — ne 13. 625 mt — 256.
n—1 m—n 5m—4

4. 3+err6m? 9 — 2
Be
4, eea =
ats
me 125a8 — 27 28 10. a + x 15. 243 a + 1024 y>
§6a2— 384 a+2 sae+4y

146. Symmetry.
An expression containing two or more letters is said to be
symmetrical with respect to any two of them, when they can
be interchanged without altering the value of the expression.
Thus, a + 6 +c is symmetrical with respect to @ and 0; for, on inter-
changing these letters, the expression becomes b+ @+¢
 SPECIAL METHODS 73

An expression containing three or more letters is said to be

symmetrical with respect to them when it is symmetrical with
respect to any two of them.
Thus, ab + be + ca is symmetrical with respect to the letters a, b, and
c; for if aand b be interchanged, the expression becomes ba + ac+ cb,
which is equal to ab + be + ca.
And, in like manner, ab + bc + ca is symmetrical with respect to b and
c, and with respect to c and a.

147. Cyclo-symmetry.
An expression containing vn letters, a, b, c, +++, m,n, is said
to be cyclo-symmetrical with respect to them when, if a is sub-
stituted for b, b for c, ---, m for n, and n for a, the value of the
expression is not changed.
The above is called a cyclical interchange of letters.
Thus, (a — b)(b — c)(¢ — a) is cyclo-symmetrical with respect to a, 6,
and c; for if @ is substituted for b, b for c, and ¢ for a, it becomes
(¢ — a)(a— b)(b — ec), which by the Commutative Law for Multiplication
is equal to (a — b)(b —c)(e— a).

148. Every expression which is symmetrical with respect to

a set of letters is also cyclo-symmetrical with respect to them.
For since any two letters can be interchanged without alter-
ing the value of the expression, the condition for cyclo-sym-
‘metry will be satisfied.
But it is not necessarily true that an expression which is
eyclo-symmetrical with respect to a set of letters is also sym-
metrical with respect to them ; for it does not follow that any
two letters can be interchanged without altering the value of
the expression.
149. It follows from §§ 146 and 147 that, if two expressions
are symmetrical or cyclo-symmetrical, the results obtained by
adding, subtracting, multiplying, or dividing them are, respec-
tively, symmetrical or cyclo-symmetrical.

150. Applications.
The principle of symmetry is often useful in abridging alge-
braic operations.
74 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

1. Expand (a+b+c)’.
We have, (a+b+c)=(a+b+c)(a+b+c)(a+b+4+ 0).
This expression is symmetrical with respect to a, b, and ¢
(§ 146), and of the third degree.
There are three possible types of terms of the third degree
in a, b, and c; terms like a’, terms like a*b, and terms like abe.
It is evident that a? has the coefficient 1; and so, by sym-
metry, J? and c® have the coefficient 1.
It is evident that a’b has the coefficient 3; and so, by sym-
metry, have 07a, b’c, cb, ea, and a’e.
Let m denote the coefficient of abe.
Then, (a+b +c)’
=04+04+43(ab+ a4 e+ b+ Ca +a’c) + mabe.
To determine m, we observe that the above equation holds
for all values of a, b, and c.
We may therefore let a=b=c=1.
Then, 27=38+18+m; and m=6.
Whence, (a+ 0 +c)?
=e+b?+ +3(a°b 4 va + b’c + cb + a+ a’c) +6 abe.
The above result may be written in a more compact form by represent-
ing the sum of terms of the same type by the symbol 2; read sigma.
Thus, (Sa)? = 2a? + 8 Zab + 6 abe.

2. Expand (@ —y—2)?+(y—z—2#)?+ (@—-a—y)

This expression is symmetrical with respect to a, y, and z,
and of the second degree.
The possible types of terms of the second degree in a, y, and
z are terms like a, and terms like ay.
It is evident, by the law of § 134, that a has the coefficient
3; and so, by symmetry, have 7 and 2’.
Let m denote the coefficient of ay.
Then, (w—y—2)?+ (y—z—2)?+(2-a—y)?
= 3(a’ + oy? + 2°) + m(ay + yz + 22).
To determine m, put e=y=z=1.
Then, 8=9+3%m, or m= — 2,
 SPECIAL METHODS 75

Whence, (w—y — 2)?+ (y—2z—a@)?+ @—a—y)?

=8 (e+ y+ 2) — 2 (ay + yz +20).
3. Expand
(a+b+c)?+(a+b—c)+ (6+c—a)?+(e+a—b)?
The expression is symmetrical with respect to a, b, and ¢,
and of the third degree.
The possible types of terms are terms like a’, terms like a’,
and terms like abe.
It is evident, by the law of § 136, that a’ has the coefficient
2; and so, by symmetry, have 0? and c’,
Also, by § 136, ab has the coefficient 3+3-+3—83, or 6;
and so, by symmetry, have b7a, bc, cb, ca, and a’e.
Again, abe has the coefficient 6 — 6 — 6 — 6, or — 12.
Whence,
(a+b+ch+(a+b—c)>+(b+e—a)>+(e+a—by
=2(a'+ b+) +6 (ab
+ ba + b’e + cb + ca + a’c) — 12 abe.

EXERCISE 8
1. In the expansion of an expression which is symmetrical with re-
spect to a, b, and c, what are the possible types of terms of the fourth
degree ? of the fifth degree ? of the sixth degree ?
2. If one term of an expression which is symmetrical with respect to
a, b, and ¢, is (2a —b —c) (2b —c — a), what are the others ?
8. Is the expression a(b — c)? + b (¢ — a)? + c(a — b)? symmetrical
with respect to a, b, and c?
4. Is the expression (a? — y?)? + (y? — 2?)8 + (2 — w?)3 symmetrical
with respect to «, y, and z?
Expand the following by the symmetrical method :
5. (a+6+4+¢)2. 6. (a+b4+c¢4d)?.
1. (@ty—2)?t+(yte—ayt(eta—y)
8. 2Qa—38b—4c)24+ 2b—38c—4a)2+ Qe—8a—4b)%
9 (at+b+c—d)?+(b+e+d—a)?+(c+d+a-—b)?
+(d+a+b—c)?
10. (a+b+c+d).
ll. (a+6+0¢)§+ (a—b—c)?+ (b—c—a)>+ (c—a—b)?
12. (©+ty—z) (yte—%) (2+2-y).
13. [a2 + y2 + 22+ 2 (ay + ye + 2x) ]?.
14. (a+b+c) (a+b—c) (b+e—a) (at+c-—D).
76 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

VIII. FACTORING

151. To Factor an algebraic expression is to find two or

more expressions which, when multiplied together, shall pro-
duce the given expression.
152. In the present chapter we consider only the separation
of rational and integral expressions (§ 63), with integral nu-
merical coefficients, into factors of the same form.
153. A Common Factor of two or more expressions is an
expression which will exactly divide each of them.

FACTORING

154. It is not always possible to factor an expression; there

are, however, certain forms which can always be factored;
these will be considered in the present treatise.

155. Casel. When the terms of the expression have a com-

mon factor.
1. Factor 14 ab*— 35 a®b’,
Each term contains the monomial factor 7 ab”.
Dividing the expression by 7 ab’, we have 2 b?—5 a?
Then, 14 ab*— 35 a°b? =7 ab? (20°? —5a°).
2. Factor (2m+3) a+ (2m+3)y°.
The terms have the common binomial factor 2 m + 8.
Dividing the expression by 2m -+ 3, we have a+ y%.
Then, (2m +3) a+ (2m+3)y=(2m+3) @+y’).
3. Factor (a —b) m+ (b—a) n.
By § 81, b—a=—(a—D).
Then, (a—b)m+(b—a)n=(a—b)m—(a—b)n *
f =(a—b) (m—n).
4, Factor 5a (a—y)—3 a4 (w@+y).
 FACTORING at

5a(e—y)—3a(@+y)=a[5 @—y)—3(@+y)]
=a(dea—5y—3x—3y)
=a(2u—8y)
=2a(a—4y).
We may also solve Ex. 3 by writing the first term in the form
—(6—a)m.
Thus, (a@—b)m+(b—a)n=(b—a)n—(b—a)m
= (b—a)(n—™m).
This agrees with § 91; for, by § 91, the signs of two factors of a
product may be changed without altering the value of the expression.
We may thus have more than one form for the factors of an expression.

156. The terms of a polynomial may sometimes be so ar-

ranged as to show a common polynomial factor; and the
expression can then be factored as in § 155.
1. Factor ab — ay + bx — ay.
By § 155, ab — ay + bx — ay=a(b—y) + a(b —y).
The terms now have the common factor b — y.
Whence, ab—ay+bua—ay = (a+ 2) (b—y).
Re ACLON Ge 1211= On
The third term being negative, it is convenient to enclose
the last two terms in parentheses preceded by a — sign.
Thus, “@+2a—3a—6=
(a+ 2a’)—(8a+ 6)
= a? (4+ 2) — 3(a+ 2)
= (a’?— 3)(a+ 2).

EXERCISE 9
Factor the following :
1. (82%+5)m+(8«+4+5). 8. w(5y—22) —#Qy+ 2).
2 (m—n)e+(n—m)(y+2). 4 4u(a—b—c)—5y(b+c—a).
5. (a — b)(m? + “z) — (a — b) (im? — yz).
6. (nm — n)*— 2m(m — n)? + m2(m — n)?.
7. Say +i12ay+10ba%+
15 ab. 9. 6—10 a + 27 a? — 45 a3.
8. m*+6
m3 — 7m — 42. 10. 20ab — 28 ad —5 be +7 cd.
11. ax — ay + az — bu + by — bz.
12. 3am —6an+4bm—8bn+ cm —2en.
18. ax + ay — az — bx — by + bz + cH + cy — C2.
78 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

157. If an expression when raised to the nth power (n being

a positive integer) is equal to another expression, the first
expression is said to be an nth Root of the second.
Thus, if a” = b, ais an nth root of b.

158. The Radical Sign, 1’, when written before an expres-

sion, indicates some root of the expression.
Thus, Vat indicates a second, or square root of a‘;
Syma 5 ‘ *
Va? indicates a third, or cube root of a’;
Va" indicates an nth root of a"; ete.
The indew of a root is the number written over the radical
sign to indicate what root of the expression is taken.
If no index is expressed, the index 2 is understood.
An even root is one whose index is an even number; an odd
root is one whose index is an odd number.

159. A rational and integral expression is said to be a perfect

square, a perfect cube, or, in general, a perfect nth power, when
it has, respectively, a rational and integral square, cube, or nth
root. i

160. Since (2 ab)? =8 a%b® (§ 130), a cube root of 8 a%b3

is 2 a7.
Again, since (m*)4 = m§, a fourth root of m® is m’.
It is evident from this that every positive term, which is a
perfect nth power, has a positive nth root.
We shall call this its principal nth root.
We also have (— m?)+= m8; so that another fourth root of m8 is — m?2.
It is evident from the above that every positive term which is a perfect
nth power, has, if n is even, in addition to its positive nth root, a negative
nth root of the same absolute value.
In the present chapter, only the principal nth root will be considered.

161. Since (— 3 a*)? = — 27 2 (§ 130), a cube root of — 27 a?

i Soa ie
It is evident from this that every negative term, which is a
perfect nth power, has a negative nth root.
We shall call this its principal nth root.
 FACTORING 1

162. It will be shown (§ 756) that a number has two differ-

ent square roots, three different cube roots, and, in general,
n different nth roots.
It will be understood throughout the remainder of the work,
unless the contrary is specified, that when we speak of the nth
root of a term, we mean the principal nth root.

163. Let n be a positive integer, and a and b two equal

perfect nth powers; then, by Ax. 5, § 66,
Va=V0.
That is, if two perfect nth powers are equal, their principal
nth roots are equal.

164. Any Root of a Power.

Required the value of Va", where m and n are any positive
integers.
By § 128, (ory a".
Then, by § 157, Va” = a.
165. Any Root of a Product.
Let » be a positive integer, and a, 0, ¢, ---, numbers which
are perfect nth powers.
By § 157, = (Wabe---)" = abe+.
Also,
(Va x Vb x Ve x +++)" = (Wa) x (Vb) K (We)" Xo
= abe ---, by § 157.
Then, by § 163, Vabe-. = Va x Vb XVe X 5
for each of these expressions is the nth root of abe --
This simply means that the principal mth root of a product is equal to
the product of the principal nth roots of the factors.

166. Any Root of a Monomial.

From §§ 160, 161, 164, and 165, we have the following
rule for finding the principal root of a rational and integral
monomial, which is a perfect power of the same degree as the
index of the required root:
80 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Extract the required root of the absolute value of the numerical

coefficient, and divide the exponent of each letter by the index of
the required root.
Give to every even root of a positive term the positive sign, and
to every odd root of any term the sign of the term itsely.
1. Required the cube root of 64 2°.
By the rule, V 64 af= 4 22,
2. Required the fourth root of 81 m*n”.
V81min® = 3 mn’.
3. Required the fifth root of — 32 ab'c®.
32 OHH = — 2 ake,
167. It follows from § 131 that a rational and integral tri-
nomial is a perfect square when its first and third terms are
perfect squares, and positive, and its second term plus or minus
twice the product of their square roots.
Thus, 42?+4 12 ay’?+9y* is a perfect square.

168. To find the square root of a trinomial perfect square,

we reverse the rules of § 131:
Extract the square roots (§ 166) of the first and third terms,
and connect the results by the sign of the second term.
1. Find the square root of 4a?+12a7?+9y'4,
By the rule, V4a?+12a7?+9yi=2024+3y%
The expression may be written in the form
(— 22)? + 2(—2«)(— 8y2)+(— 3 y2)2;
which shows that (—2 x)+(—3y?), or —2%—8 y?, is also a square root.
But the first form is simpler, and will be used in the examples of the
present chapter.

2. Find the square root of m?—2mn+n*.

By the rule, Vm? —2mn+n?=m—n.
We may write the expression in the form n?2 — 2 mn -+ m?; in which
case, by the rule, the square root is — m.
 FACTORING 81

169. Case II. When the expression is a trinomial perfect

square.
1. Factor 25 a?+ 40 ab? + 16 0%
By § 168, the square root of the expression is 5a +4 b%,
Then, 25a’? + 40 ab?+160°= (5a+4b)
2. Factor m*—4m?n?+4 n+.
By § 168, the square root of the expression is either m? — 2n?,
or 27? — m’.
Then, m*— 4 m’n? + 4n' = (m? — 2 n’)’, or (20? — 1m’), (Com-
pare § 91.)
3. Factor 2° —2a(y—2z) + (y—2)*.
Wehave a’—2a(y—z)+(y—2)
=[2@—(y—)P=@-y 42)
or, =[y—2)—2}=(y—2—2)
4. Factor —9at—6a?—1.
—9a'*—6¢@—1=— 9a*+6e?+1)=— Ba? +1)*

EXERCISE 10
Find by inspection the values of the following:
1. V— 125 mn’. 2. V16 xy, 8. 243 @5b25¢20,

Factor the following :

4. 81 m?+ 144 m + 64. 4 — 121 atm? + 220 a2b2mn — 100 btn?2.
5. 49 n6 — 168 niat + 14408 8. 9a? -—Car(y+z2)+(y4+ 2)?
6. — 25 a? — 60 ax — 36 x. 9. 25(a— b)? of 40(a@ — b)c + 16.c*.
10. (a -+ b)? + 4(a + b)(a — b)+4(a— b)?.
11, 9@+y)?—-12(a+ y)(@—y)+ 4(@—y)?.
170. Casr III. When the expression is in the form
VW+to+e+2ab-+2 ac+2 be.
By § 134, this expression is the square of a+b+6¢.
Ex. Factor 92°+y?+42?—6ay—1202+4 yz.
We can write the expression in the form
9a? —G6ay + y?—1202+4y24
42’.
82 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Or, by §§ 155 and 169,

(8a—yy—42(8ea—y)+42.
This expression is the square of (8% —y)—2z.
Thus, 92?+y?+42—6ay—120244 yz2= (8a—y—22)’.
By § 91, we may put the result in the form (—34+y+2 2).

é EXERCISE It
Factor the following :
1. a®?#+ 02+ c2 +2 ab —2ac — 2 be.
1 + 25 m2 + 36 n? — 10 m + 12 n — 60 mn.
5 Oppel UO SE TG athe = tien SE FPA 17)
9 a2 + y2 + 25 224 6 ay + 30 x2 4 10 yz. y
36 m? + 64 n?2 + x? + 96 mn — 12 mae — 16 ne.
16 at + 9 b* + 81 c* — 24 a2? — 72 o2c? + 54 b2c?.
BV
Pw
OT
. 2548
+ 49 71 4 36 28 — 70 23y5 + 60 a3zt — 84 yozt.

171. Case IV. When the expression is the difference of two

perfect squares.
By § 182, wv — b= (a+b)(a—d).
Hence, to obtain the factors, we reverse the rule of § 132:
Extract the square root of the first square, and of the second
square; add the results for one factor, and subtract the second
result from the first for the other.
1. Factor 36 a’b*— 49 c®.
The square root of 36 a°b* is 6ab?, and of 49 ¢* is 7 ¢.
Then, 36a°b*—49c= (6 ab? +7 )(6 ab?—7 ce’).
2. Factor (2a—38y)?— (@#—y).
By the rule, (2a—3y)?— (@—y)?
=[@e—3y)+(@—y)][2@2—3y)—@—y)]
=(2a—3y+a—y)\(2ea—8y—a2+y)
=(3u—4y)(e—2y).
A polynomial of more than two terms may sometimes be
expressed as the difference of two perfect squares, and factored
by the rule of Case IV.
 FACTORING 83

3. Factor 2mn+m?—1-+ n?.

The first, second, and last terms may be grouped together in
the order m’+2mn-+ n°; which expression, by § 168, is the
square of m+n.
“Thus, 2mn+m?—1+4+7?= (mi? +2 mn +n?) —1
=(m+n)?—1
=(m+n+1)(m+n—1).
4. Factor 12 y+ 2? —97?—4.
l2y+2-—9y—4=2—97'4+12y-—4
=a—
(9y —12y+44)
=x’ — (3y— 2)’, by § 168,
=[#+(8y—2)][z—@y—2)]
=(#+3y—2)\(@—38y4+2).

EXERCISE 12
Factor the following:
1. 196 mtxl2 — 289 n6y10,
. 86a? — (2a — 8)2.
16(2 m — 72)? — 25(8n + 4y)2.
4(8a+8b)2—9(4a—5b)%
a2#+ b2—c?+
2 ab.
x2 — y? — 2yz — 2.
6 np + 16 m? — 9 p? — n?,
m? -2mn + n?— 224+ 2 ay — y?.
wD
CHART
16 a2 — 8 ab4+ b?— c? — 10 cd — 25 a2,
iS 28 ay — 36 224+ 49 y? + 602 — 254422.

172. Case V. When the expression is in the form

att aay? + y'*,
Certain trinomials of the above form may be factored by
expressing them as the difference of two perfect squares, and
then employing § 171.
1. Factor a* -- ab? +- 5%.
 84 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

By § 167, a trinomial is a perfect square if its first and last

terms are perfect squares and positive, and its second term plus
or minus twice the product of their square roots.
The given expression can be made a perfect square by adding
ab? to its second term; and this can be done if we subtract
- a’b? from the result.
Thus, at + ab? + bt = (at + 2 ab? + b*) — a’b?
= (a’ + 0’)?— a’b’, by § 168,
= (a? + b?+ ab)(@ + b? — ab), by § 171,
= (a? + ab + b°)(a? — ab + Db’).

2. Factor 9 at — 37 a? +4.
The expression will be a perfect square if its second term is
— 122’.
Thus, 9a! — 87 a? +4= 9 at— 12274 4) — 252°
= (3 2? — 2)? — (52)?
=(38e+5a— 2)(82—5a—2).
The expression may also be factored as follows:
Qat— 87a? +4= (Oat + 122244) —4922
= (Ba? + 2)2— (Ta)?
= (8at+47e4+2)(802— 7242).
Several expressions in the following set may be factored in two different
ways.
The factoring of trinomials of the form «* + azy2 + y*, when the
factors involve surds, will be considered in § 459.

EXERCISE 1I3
Factor the following :
1. of + 54249. 5. Dat + 6 a2y?2 + 49 y!,
2. at — 21 ab? + 36 4, 6. 16 at— 81 a? + 16.
Sy GE Seis ae abies. 7. 64 + 64 m? + 25 m4.
4. 25 mt + 6 m2n? + n4. 8. 49 at — 127 a2x? + 81 x4.

Factor each of the following in two different ways:

9. «t—17 x2 + 16. 11. 16 m* — 104 mx? + 25 xt,
10. 9 — 148 a? + 64 at, 12. 36 at — 97 a?m? + 36 m4.
 FACTORING 85

173. Casr VI. When the expression is in the form

e+ ae+b.
By $188, a? + (m+ n)x + mn = (@ + m)(% + n).
If, then, a trinomial is in the form 2? + a#+ bd, and a and b
are, respectively, the sum and product of two numbers, the
factors are « plus one number and 2 plus the other.
The numbers may be found by inspection.
1. Factor «7+ 14a + 45.
We find two numbers whose sum is 14 and product 45.
By inspection, we determine that these numbers are 9 and 5.
Whence, w+ 14¢+45 =(@+9)(e+5).
2. Factor 2? —52-+4.
We find two numbers whose sum is — 5 and product 4.
Since the sum is negative, and the product positive, the
numbers must both be negative.
By inspection, we determine that the numbers are —4
and —1.
Whence, we —5e+4=(%—4)(e
—1).
3. Factor 27+ 6a — 16.
We find two numbers whose sum is 6 and product — 16.
Since the sum is positive, and the product negative, the
numbers must be of opposite sign; and the positive number
must have the greater absolute value.
By inspection, we determine that the numbers are +8
and — 2.
Whence, x? + 6a —16 = (« + 8)(x — 2).
4. Factor «*— aba? — 42 a*b’.
We find two numbers whose sum is —1 and product — 42.
The numbers must be of opposite sign, and the negative
number must have the greater absolute value.
By inspection, we determine that the numbers are —7
and +6.
Whence, at — aba? — 42 ab? = (a —7 ab)(a’ + 6 ab).
86 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

5. Factor 1+ 2a—99a?.
We find two numbers whose sum is + 2 and product — 99.
By inspection, we determine that the numbers are + 11
and — 9.
Whence, 1+2a—99¢%=(14+11a)1—9a).
If the x? term is negative, the entire expression should be
enclosed in parentheses preceded by a — sign.
6. Factor 24 + 5a — 27.
We have, 244+ 5% — 2 = — (a? —5 4 —24)
=— (w— 8)(x+3)
= (8 —x)(3+ 2).
In case the numbers are large, we may proceed as follows :
Required the numbers whose sum is — 26 and product — 192.
One of the numbers must be +, and the other —.
Taking in order, beginning with the factors + 1 x — 192, all possible
pairs of factors of —192, of which one is + and the other —, we have:
+1 x— 192.
+2x— 96.
+3x— 64.
+4x— 48.
+6x— 382. .

Since the sum of + 6 and — 82 is — 26, they are the numbers required.

; EXERCISE 14
Factor the following :
1. 22 +18a+ 56. 11. (a+ 2)2—28(a-+
x)+192.
2. 22+ 16% — 57, 12. 95 — 14a4
— a8,
3. a®—10a— 75. 13. 105 + 8m — m§,
4. y*—21y? 4 104. 14. 1+ 36 ay? + 68 ay,
5. 77 —4a@ — a2, 15. x — 17 xyz? + 72 y2z4,
6. 84+5n—n2. 16. a2? — 6ab — 9102.
7 1-17 m+ 70m. 17. a%+ 82 amn + 112 m2n?2,
8. 1+ 5ab — 14 ab. 18. xty* + 7 x2y22 — 170 22.
9. @w—y)? —15(@ — y) — 16. 19. «—(2m+8n)x+6 mn.
10. (m — n)?+21(m — n) — 180. 20. «?—(a — b)x — ab.
 FACTORING 87

174. Case VII. When the expression is in the form

an + ba +c.
If a is a perfect square, and b is divisible by Va, we may
factor the expression directly by the method of § 173.
1. Factor 92?—18 «+5.
We have, 92a°—18%+5=(82)?—6(32)+5.
We find two numbers whose sum is — 6, and product 5.
The numbers are —5 and —1.
Then, 9a?—-18e%+5=(8e%—5)(84—1).
If b is not divisible by Va, or if a is not a perfect square, we
multiply and divide the expression by a, which, by § 96, does
not change its value.
2. HKactor 6 a+ 5 a —4.
Multiplying and dividing the expression by 6, we have
ree ee Oe 02 Oa Ea)
The numbers are 8 and —3.

Then, Ge th pd OOO NEE SS p

2x3
Dividing the first factor by 2, and the second by 38, we have
6e+5e—4=(82e+4)2u—1).
In certain cases, the coefficient of # may be made a perfect
square by multiplying by a number less than itself.
3. Factor 8 a + 26 ay + 15 y’.
Multiplying and dividing by 2, we have
16 # + 52 ay + 307
827+ 26ay4+157=
2
_ (42)? +13 y(4 2) +30 ¥
2
_424+10y)(4%+8y)
ey. 2
=(2¢+5y)\(4u+3y).
88 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

4. Factor 2+52—32.
24+52—30?=—(80?—5a—2)
_ 8 x)?—5(8
a) —6
=8
_ Ba—6)(3e+1)
e —3
= (2—2)(14+32).

EXERCISE 1I5
Factor the following:
1. 4024 2824 45. 8. 724-72 —49 23.
2. 6e2 +24 —2. 9. 6—x—1522.
8. 252? — 25 mx — 6 m2. 10. 5+ 9n?— 18 nt.
4, 1022
— 39a + 14. 11. 214? + 28 ay + 6 y?.
5. 1242+ 114242. 12. 1822 — 27 abx — 35 a?b2,
6. 20 ax? — 23 ax + 6. 138. 7(a — 6)? — 30(a — b)4+ 8.
7%. 3602+
124 — 35, 14. 12(@4+ y)?4+ 17(@+y)—T.
15. 14(m — n)?2 + 89 a(m — n)4+ 10 a.
16. acu? —(ad + bc)x + bd.

175. It is not possible to factor every expression of the form

x’ +axe+b by the method of § 175.
Thus, let it be required to factor x? + 18 2 +35.
We have to find two numbers whose sum is 18, and product
35.
The only pairs of positive integral factors of 35 are 7 and 5,
and 35 and 1; and in neither case is the sum 18.
In Chap. XIX will be given a general method for factoring
any expression of the form aa? + ba + e.

176. Case VIII. When the expression is the cube of a

binomial.
Hie. actor 3 Go — 100 C707 ab eee. .
We must show that the expression is in the form of the cube
of a binomial, as obtained by the rule of § 135, and find its
cube root.
 FACTORING 89

We can write the expression as follows:

(2 a)? — 8(2 a)°(3 0°) +8(2 a)(3 b*)? — (8 6’).
This shows that it is a perfect cube, and that its cube root
is2a—3 0’. ;
Then, 8 a?— 36 a’b’ + 54 abt — 27 0° =(2a — 3 Bb).

Factor the following : eh ae

1. 284382243241,
8—-12¢4+6@-—
a3,
- 149m
+ 27 m? 4+ 27 m3.
64 n§ — 48 n?+ 12n—1,
8 a? + 86 a®b + 54 ab? + 27 33,
27 ab? — 108 a7b?c + 144 abc? — 64 c3,
- 125 «3 — 600 ay + 960 vy? — 512 3,
DAP
et216
ww m® + 756 mtx? + 882 m2a5 + 343 «°,

177. Case IX. When the expression is the sum or difference

of two perfect cubes.
By § 158, the sum or difference of two perfect cubes is
divisible by the sum or difference, respectively, of their cube
roots.
In either case the quotient may be obtained by the rules of
§ 138.
1. Factor 2° — 27 y%z°*.
By § 166, the cube root of a is 2, and of 27 72° is 3 y%z.
Then one factor is a — 3 yz.
Dividing 2° — 27 y*z° by a — 3 y%z, the quotient is
w+ 3 ay + 9y% (§ 138).
Then, «° — 27 yz? = (a? — 3 y*z) (at + 3 a*y’z + 9 y*2").
2. Factor a®+ d%.
One factor is a? + 0%.
Dividing a® + b° by a? + 0’, the quotient is at — ab? + 6%.
Then, a’ +b° = (a? + b*) (at — ab? + 0°).
90 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

3. Factor (# + a)?— (#—a)’.

(a +0)'— (e—a)?
=[(# +a) —(@—@) ][(@+0)8+ (@ +4) (@—a) + (@—@)"]
= (a+a—a+a)(a*+2ax+a?+a*— a +a°—2ax+4 a’)
=2a(82’+ a’).
178. Case X. When the expression is the sum or difference
of two equal odd powers of two numbers.
By § 142, the sum or difference of two equal odd powers of
two numbers is divisible by the sum or difference, respectively,
of the numbers.
The quotient may be obtained by laws of § 148.
Ez. Eactor a+ 320°.
By § 180, 32 O° = (2 bY’.
Then, by § 142, one factor is a+ 2b.
Dividing a’ + 326° by a+ 25, the quotient is
at— a®(2b) + a? (26)? a (2b)? + (2b)! (§ 143).
Whence,
a + 320°= (a+ 20) (at— 20° + 40°70? —8 ab’ + 16 0°).

f EXERCISE 17
Factor the following :
1. 8m3 — ni’. 3. a® + 64, 5. 729 a8b8 + 512 c8a3,
2. x y3 + 125 28, 4. 216 am — 343 0% = 6. m3 —(m4+ n)3.
7 («@+y)3+ (a —y)3 9. 2a+2)§-(a4+22)3,
8. 27(a
— b)8 — 8B. 10. (5e%—2y)84+(8e—4y)3.
11. 45 + y5, 14. 14+ 27, 17. 82 a — BS,
NPS ie ale 15. m9 + n?. 18. 243 25 + y5.
13. a7 — 07. 16. a@—1. 19. m4 + 128 n7,
20. 1024 a5b5 — 243 cl,

179. By application of the rules already given, an expression

may often be resolved into more than two factors.
If the terms of the expression have a common factor, the
method of § 155 should always be applied first.
 FACTORING ol

1. Factor 2 aw y? — 8 axy'.
By § 155, 2 aa*y’ — 8 aay* = 2 aay? (ax — 4 y")
= 2 aay’ (x + 2y) (#—2y), by § 171.
2. Factor a® — 6°.
By § 171, a’ — b = (a? + b) (a? — b°),
Whence, by § 177,
a® — ° = (a + b) (@ — ab +b’) (a — b) (a? + ab + B*).
3. Factor «° — y’.
By§171, BY =@+y)(a'—y/)
=@' +2) +9) 9%)
H=@+y)@+y)@+y) ey).
4. Factor 3(m +n)? — 2(m?— 1’).
3(m +n)? — 2 (m? — n?) = 3(m +n)? — 2 (a + n) (m— 7)
=(m+n)[3(m+n) —2(m—n)]
=(m+n)(8m+3n—2m+2n)
=(m+n)(m+5n).

5. Factor a(a—1)—b(b—1).
a(a—1)— b(6—-1) =a —a—d’+)
= a — b? —a+b
= (a+b) (a—b) —(a— bd)
=(a—b)(a+b—1).

EXERCISE 1I8
Factor the following :
xt — 625, 10. (16 m? + n?)?2 — 64 m?n?.
a? — 1, 11. 2a — 8 aba3 + 2 abe — 8 an’.
mis — J, 12. 9 a2c?—16 a2d2—36 b2c? +64 b?d?.
x® — 26 x3 — 27, 13. 214-297 +1.
- (a2 +4 ab + 62)? —(a? + b7)?. 14. 729 — nb,
12 2° — 182° — 624+ 923. 15. a2b3 + ay? — b3x? — 2273.
. 81 m*— 256 n8. 16. 48 x3y — 52 x2y2 — 140 ay?.
git — lt, 17. 16 a7 — 72 a® + 108 a> — 54 at.
A x® — 16 xy8 + 64 y8,
Sah
SD
ER
Ge
Set
le
Sh
Da 18. (m+n)t—2(m+n)?+ (m+n)?
92 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

19. Resolve a? + 512 into three factors by the method of § 177.

20. a®@—m?+a+™m. 22. ni0 — 1024.
21. (@2+42)2—37(@2+44%)+160. 28. m?+m+22+4%.
24. a2c2 — 4 b2c2 — 9 ad? + 36 b2a?.
25. (m — n) (a? — y2)+ (@ + y) (m? — n*).
26. (7 —1)?+6@—1)?+9@—1).
27. a&—4b%?-a-—20.
28. (m + n)(m? — 2?) —(m 4+ &) (m? — n?).
29. (4? + 4 y? — 22)? — 16 wy? 81. 3b? + 27 ay — 8 b348—216 xy?
80. (#?-9x)?+4(@?—9x)—140. 32. Qa?—3)?—2.
83. (m2 + m)? + 2(m? + m)(m + 1) +(m 4 1)?.
84. 64 a3x3 + 8a? — 823-1. 86. (@+2y)?—a(a@’ —4y?).
85. (4 a2 — b? — 9)? — 36 b2. 87. (14+ 23)4+(14+2)3%
88. (a2+6a+4+8)?—14(a2+6a+48)-— 15.
39. at-—9+42a(a?+3). 43. m® — m> + 82 m3 — 32.
40. (8+ y3)—ay(~@+y). 44. a(a—c)— b(b—-¢).
41. (a3 — 8 m3) — a(a — 2m)? 45. m?(m+ p)+ n?(n — p).
42. 18 a°d + 22 a3b? + 8 abe. 46. 29+ 8284+ 234 8.
47. (27 m3 — #3) +(38 m+ x@) (9 m2 — 12 mx + 2).
48. (402+ 9)? — 24 a(4a2 + 9) + 144 a%
49. m? + mo — 64 m3 — 64.
50. (x? + y?)38 — 4 w?y?(a? 4 y?).
51. a+ atb + a3b?2 + a2b3 + abt + BS,
52. (8 n3 — 27)
+ (2n—3)(4n?+4n—6).

180. Factoring by Substitution.

1) Factor — 7a 10m = 6.
By § 140, if the expression becomes 0 when 2 is put equal to
a, then « — a is a factor.
The positive and negative integral factors of 6 are 1, 2, 8, 6,
—1, — 2, —3, and — 6.
It is best to try the numbers in their order of absolute,mag-
nitude.
If « = 1, the expression becomes 1 — 7 + 10 + 6.
If « = — 1, the expression becomes — 1 — 7 —10+ 6.
 FACTORING 93

If x = 2, the expression becomes 8 — 28 + 20 + 6.

If « = — 2, the expression becomes — 8 — 28 — 204+ 6.
If a = 3, the expression becomes 27 — 63 + 380 +4 6, or 0.
This shows that « — 3 is a factor.
Dividing the expression by x — 3, the quotient is 7? — 4a — 2,
Then, « —7a’+10%+6=(e—3) @’—4a— 2).
2. Prove that a is a factor of
(a+ 6+ ¢)(ab + be+ ca) — (a+b) (+0) (c+a).
Putting a = 0, the expression becomes
(6 +c) be —b(6 + 0)¢, or 0.
Then, by § 140, a is a factor of the expression.
3. Prove that m + n is a factor of
m' — 44min + 2 mn? + 5 mn? — 2n4
Putting m = — n, we have
n+4n*+2n*— 5n*— 2n4, or 0.
Then, m + n is a factor.

EXERCISE 19
Factor the following:
1. 28+ 40?+4+
7% —12. 4, 28 —90?+15%+9,
2. vt — a8 + 622+ 142+ 6. 5. 28 —182+4+8.
8. «3 — 2? —112—10. 6. 28 —522?—
8a -+ 48,
7. vt + 822 + 13822 —13 2 —4.
8. 20t— 7484+ 1002-1444
12.

Find, without actual division,

9. Whether « — 8 is a factor of x? — 642+ 184 — 12.
10. Whether «x + 2 is a factor of 3 + 7x? — 6.
11. Whether z is a factor of a(y+2)?+y(2e+u)?+2@+y)?.
12. Whether a is a factor of a3 (b — c)? + D3 (¢ — a)? + 8 (a — b)3.
13. Whether x — y is a factor of (x —y)® + (y— 2)8+4+ (2—2)8.
14. Whether m + n is a factor of m (m + 2n)8—n (2m +4 n)3.
15. Whether a + b + cis a factor of
a(b+c)+b(e+a)+e(@+b)4+¢40+ce
94 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

181. Factoring of Symmetrical Expressions.

The method of § 180 is advantageous in the factoring of sym-
metrical expressions. (§§ 146, 147.)
1. Factor
a(b +c)? + b(e + a)? + (a + b)?— a(b +c) — be + a)— (a+ B).
The expression is symmetrical with respect to a, b, and c.
Being of the third degree, the only literal factors which it
can have are three of the type a; three of the type a+; or
a+b-+e¢, and a factor of the second degree.
Putting a=0, the expression becomes
bc? + cb? — b’c — c’b, or 0.
Then, by § 140, a is a factor; and, by symmetry, b and c¢
are factors.
The expression, being of the third degree, can have no other
literal factor; but it may have a numerical factor.
Let the given expression = mabe.
To determine m, leta=b=c=1.
Then, 4+4+4—2—2—2=m, orm=6.
Whence, the given expression = 6 abe.
2. Factor a(y+2)+y(¢+2)+2(a+y) +38 ayz.
The expression is symmetrical with respect to a, y, and z.
The only literal factors which it can have are three of the
type x; three of the type e+y; orw+y+<z, and a factor of
the second degree.
It is evident that neither x, y, nor z is a factor.
Putting # equal to — y, the expression becomes
ron yy t+2)+y¥@—y) —3 xe,
which is not 0.
Then, x+y is not a factor; and, by symmetry, neither y +z
nor z+ 4 is a factor.
Putting x equal to — y — z, the expression becomes
(yt2"y+2) —p~—#—3 yay +2) ;
=P4+3 y2+38 y+ 8—-—Y—8—3 y2—8 y=0.
Then, «+ y+ is a factor.
 FACTORING 95

The other factor must be of the second degree; and, as it is

symmetrical with respect to a, y, and 2, it must be of the form
m (a + y? + 2°), or n(wy + yz + 22).
The first of these cannot be a factor; for, if it were, there
would be terms involving a’, x’, and z’ in the given expression.
Then, the given expression = n(@ + y + 2)(xy +yz + 2a).
To determine n, let x=1, y=1, andz=0.
then, 14-1=2n, and n=.
Then, the given expression =(#@+ y+ 2) (wy + yz + 20).
3. Factor ab (a —b) + be(b —c) 4+ ca(e —a).
The expression is cyclo-symmetrical with respect to a, },
and ¢.
It is evident that neither a, }, nor ¢ is a factor.
The expression becomes 0 when a is put equal to b.
Then, a—0 is a factor; and, by symmetry, )—c and c—a
are factors.
The expression can have no other literal factor, but may
have a numerical one.
Let the given expression = m(a— b)(b —c) (c—4).
To determine m, let a=2, b=1, and c=0.
Then, 2=— 2m, and m= —1.
Then, the given expression = — (a—b)(6—c) (¢—a).

EXERCISE 20
Factor the following:
. m+2
mn +2 mn? + nv.
. (ab4+ be + ca)\(a+b4+¢)—a@(b+c)—v?(c+a)—C(a+d).
-eyta+yete)+2(a+y) + 2ayz.
. a(b64+6)2+b6(c+a)2?+c¢(a+
bd)? —4 abe.
. @b-c)+0(c—a)+e(a—bd).
- (@+tyt+z) (ay t+yet2n)—-@t+y)(yt+2)
e+).
ab (a+b) + be (b +c) +ca(e+ a) +2 abe.
@+yt+z)>—@+y+ 2).
wD
TP (@+y+ 2) (ey + yz +2n) — xyz.
CoOWD
@—y)i+ y— ze + @-4)%
=.
—
© @(b—c)
+b (c—a)+c(a—Dd).
96 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS BY FACTORING

182. Consider the equation

where A, B, C, ---, are integral expressions which involve the

unknown numbers.
By § 49, if Ax BxCx--- =0, some one of the factors 4,
B, OC, +++, must equal 0.
We obtain in this way a series of equations
A=), Be), Ca), =a (2)
- We will now show that these are equivalent (§ 114) to (1).
Any solution of (1) makes 4 x Bx Cx --- identically equal
to 0.
It then makes at least one of the factors A, B, C, -+-, identi-
cally equal to 0; and hence satisfies at least one of the equa-
tions (2).
Again, any solution of any of the equations (2) makes A x
Bx Cx. identically equal to 0; and hence satisfies (1).
Then, (1) and (2) are equivalent.
It follows from the above that the equation
AxBxCxX-.-=0
may be solved by placing the factors of the first member sepa-
rately equal to zero, and solving the resulting equations.
1. Solve the equation 22—a#=0.
Factoring the first member, the equation becomes
a (2% —1)=0 (§ 155).
Placing the factors separately equal to 0,
v=);
and one 0. ores

2. Solve the equation 234+ 4a?—a—4=0. .

Factoring the first member (§§ 156, 171),
(a +4) (a —1)=0, or (a+4) (w+ 1) (@—1) =0.
 FACTORING OT

Then, e+4=0, or v= —4;

e-+-1=0, ore=—1;
and t=—L—=0, ore=1.
3. Solve the equation (2 # — 3)? = (a — 1)°+ (w— 2)8
Factoring the second member, we have
[(e—1) + (@—2)] [@~1)*— @—1) (@-2) + (@— 9%) -
= (2x%—3) (aw? —2a+1—a+3e—2+4a°—42744)
= (2e—3) (#’—324+38).
Then the given equation can be written
(2% —3)[(2a— 3)?—(@’—3a+43)]=0.
Or, (2% —3) (4e?—-12e%+9—2°+3%—3)=0.
Or, (2%—3) (827-924 6)=0.
Dividing both members by 3,
(2% —3) (@’—3
4+ 2)=0, or (2a—3) (@—1) (w@—
2) =0.
Then, 2a —3=0, or e=9;

ead =A); OR an.1 5

and e—2Z=0,
or v= 2,
The above examples illustrate the principle (§ 715) that the degree
- ($118) of an equation involving one unknown number indicates the num-
ber of its roots; thus, an equation of the third degree has three roots ; of
the fourth degree, four roots; etc. It should be observed that the roots
are not necessarily wnequal ; thus, the equation x? -2%+1=0 may be
written (@ —1)(*—1) =0, and therefore the two roots are 1 and 1.

EXERCISE 2l

Solve the following equations:

1. 524+ 3523=0. 8. z*— 1842+ 32%7—0.
2. 323— 1082 =0. 9. 60?+7%+2=0.
8. (4% —3) (4a? — 25) =0. 10. 10a2-7x—12=0.
4. “2123
4+ 102=0. ll. 154?4+%—2=0.
5. 2+ 4x%—96=0. 12. 1223 — 2922+ 15%=0.
6. #2 —17%—110=0. 13. «2—ax+be—ab=0.
7. (6%+1)(@?+22%-+4
121) =0. 14. 272+ me + ne+ mn=0.
98 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

15. 22?9-—2cn—84%+16c=0. 16. «?+3 me —5 m3x — 15 m=0.

17. (422-28 « + 49) (a? —3a%—10)(8a?+
14% —16) =0.
18. 272%3+180?-—32—2=0.
19. «34+ 622-2 —380=0
(§ 180).
20. at +203 —132?-1427+4
24=0.
21. (@—2)2?-—4(@—2)4+8=0. 22. (« —2)8+ 848 = (Bx —2)8.
23. 22-4 —-— («— 2)(8a24+42
—4)=0.
24. (x2?-1)(a2—9) = —3(#—1)(4+4
38).
25. (2¢+1)8— (a+ 2)3=
(# —1)3.
26. (a2? -—1)(#8— 8) -19(@+1)(@?—382x+2)
=0.

183. It follows from §§ 140 and 182 that

If the first member of the equation
A=
is a rational and integral polynomial involving the unknown
number x, and divisible by « — a, the equation has a as a root.
For by § 140, the first member has « — a as a factor.

If A is divisible by az — b, the equation has 5 as a root.

a
9

Hx. Find whether es is a root of the equation

38e'+8eF+130e?4+9e212—0.
Dividing the first member by 3a + 2, the quotient is 2°+ 2 2?
+3%+1; then, 5 is a root.

EXERCIS
Find whether : pce
1. 4 is a root of «? — «2 —19%-+
28 —0.
e
~ —3 is a root of 6734+ 18424 5a”+ 25 =0.

3 3 +isa root of 4a — 1122 — 147 — 15 =0.

4. —5isa root of 444 + 2273 + 992 84% —15—0.

5 518 a rootof 16 at — 17 28 + Fa2 — 19%4+ 6=0.

6 . —3 is a root of 9a! + 2623 — 822 -1llx—3=0.

 HIGHEST COMMON FACTOR 99

IX. HIGHEST COMMON FACTOR. LOWEST

COMMON MULTIPLE
HIGHEST COMMON FACTOR

In the present chapter, we consider only rational and integral expres-

sions (§ 63), with integral numerical coefficients.

184. The Highest Common Factor (H. C. F.) of two or more

expressions is their common factor of highest degree (§ 64);
or if several common factors are of equally high degree, it is
the one having the numerical coefficient of greatest absolute
value in its term of highest degree.
There are always two forms of the highest common factor, one of
which is the negative of the other.
Thus, in the expressions a? — ab and b? — ab, either @—b or b—a
will exactly divide each expression.

185. Two expressions are said to be prime to each other

when unity is their highest common factor.
In determining the highest common factor of expressions, it
is convenient to distinguish two cases.

186. Case I. When the expressions are monomials, or poly-

nomials which can be readily factored by inspection.
1. Required the H.C. F. of 42 ab’, 70 a’be, and 98 atb?d?.
The H.C. F. of 42, 70, and 98 is 14.
It is evident by inspection that the expression of highest
degree which will exactly divide a%b’, a’bc, and a*b*d’, is ab.
Then, the H.C. F. of the given expressions is 14 a0.
It will be observed, in the above result, that the exponent of
each letter is the lowest exponent with which it occurs in any of the
given expressions.
2. Required the H.C. F. of
5 aty — 45 a’y and 10 ay? + 40 xy? — 210 ay’.

Univ. of Arizona Library

Breve oe Saat eee i i) Be
100 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

By §§ 155, 171, and 178,

5 aty — 45 oy = 5 a’y (2?— 9)
= 5 xy (a + 3)(# — 3),
and 10 a®y? + 40 ay? — 210 ay? = 10 ay? (a + 4a — 21)
= 10 ay’ (@ + 7)(# — 3).
The H.C. F. of the numerical coefficients 5 and 10 is 5.
It is evident by inspection that the H. C. F. of the litera
portions of the expressions is ay (# — 3).
Then, the H.C. F. of the given expressions is 5 xy (x — 3).

EXERCISE 23

Find the highest common factor of :

64 23 + 27y8, 1642 —9y?, and 162?
+ 24 ay+ 9 y?.
203 —120?4
164, 8a*—
323 — 36 22, and 525+
52t — 10023,
125 m3— 8, 10 m2 + m — 2, and 25 m? — 20m-+ 4.
at — 3a?
— 28, at
— 16, and a+ a*+4a+4+4.
208 + 22 —64%—8, 622419448, and 8234+ 129246241.
Rb 27 «38 — y8, 243 45 — y5, and 12 42 — 25 ay+ 7 y?.
Go
he
Se
Co
% @+02+c—2ab+2ac—2be, a+ 0? —c?—2ab, and
a? — b?— c+ 2 be.
8. 27 a3 + 185 a®b 4+ 225 ab?
+ 12563, 5a2+2ab—5b2, and
8ac —6ad + 5 be — 10 bd.
9. 4044 11024 25, 243-—9a?+4
14% —15, and 248+ 222+ 10.

187. Case II. When the expressions are polynomials whic

cannot be readily factored by inspection.
Let A and B be two polynomials, arranged according to th
descending powers of some common letter, and let the exponen
of that letter in the first term of A be not lower than its e3
ponent in the first term of B.
Suppose that, when A is divided by B, the quotient is p, an
the remainder C.
We will prove that the H. C. F. of B and C is the same ¢
the H.C. F. of A and B.
The operation of division is shown as follows:
 HIGHEST COMMON FACTOR 101

B) A (p
pb
tee
We will first prove that every common factor of Band C is
a common factor of A and B.
Let F be any common factor of B and C; and let
B= Oran, C= el, (1)
Since the dividend is equal to the product of the quotient
and the divisor, plus the remainder, we have
A=pB+C. (2)
Substituting in (2) the values of B and C from (1),
A=pbF+cF=F (pb +c). (3)
It is evident from (1) and (8) that #’ is a common factor of
A and B.
We will next prove that every common factor of A and B is
a common factor of B and C.
Let F' be any common factor of A and B; and let
A=mE, and B= nb". (4)
From (2), C= A— pB
= mF" — pri" = F" (m — pn). (5)
From (4) and (5), #’ is a common factor of B and C.
It follows from the above that the H. C. F. of B and C is
the same as the H.C. F. of A and B.

188. Let A, B, and C have the same meanings as in § 187.

Suppose that when B is divided by C, the quotient is q, and
the remainder D; that when C is divided by D, the quotient is
r, and the remainder EF, and so on; and that we finally arrive
at a remainder H, which exactly divides the preceding divi-
sor G.
By § 187, the H.C. F. of Cand D is the same as the H.C. F.
of B and OC; the H.C. F. of D and £# is the same as the H. C. F.
of Cand D; and so on’
102 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Hence the H.C. F. of G and H is the same as the H. C. F.

of A and B.
But since H exactly divides G, His itself the H.C. F. of G
and H.
Therefore, H is the H.C. F. of 4 and B.
We derive from the above the following rule for the H.C. F.
of two polynomials, A and B, arranged according to the de-
scending powers of some common letter, the exponent of that
letter in the first term of A being not lower than its exponent
in the first term of B:
Divide A by B.
Tf there bea remainder, divide the divisor by it; and continue
thus to make the remainder the divisor, and the preceding divisor
the dividend, until there is no remainder.
The last divisor is the H. C. F. required.
Note 1. It is important to keep the work throughout in descending
powers of some common letter; and each division should be continued
until the exponent of this letter in the first term of the remainder is less
than its exponent in the first term of the divisor.
Note 2. If the terms of one of the expressions have a common fac-
tor which is not a common factor of the terms of the other, it may be
removed ; for it can evidently form no part of the highest common factor.
In like manner, we may divide any remainder by a factor which is not a
factor of the preceding divisor. :
Note 3. If the first term of the dividend, or of any remainder, is not
divisible by the first term of the divisor, it may be made so by multiply-
ing the dividend or remainder by any term which is not a factor of the
divisor.
Note 4. If the first term of any remainder is negative, the sign of
each term of the remainder may be changed. (See note to § 184.)
Note 5. If the given expressions have a common factor which can
be seen by inspection, remove it, and find the H.C. F. of the resulting
expressions. . :
The result, multiplied by the common factor, will be the H.C. F. of
the given expressions.

Note 6. The operation of division may usually be abridged by the

use of detached coefficients (§ 104).
 HIGHEST COMMON FACTOR 103

1. Required the H.C.F. of

6 a? +7 a’b —3 ab? and 4 a°d+8 ab?
— 3 ab?—9 bt
We remove the factor a from the first expression, and the
factor 6 from the second (Note 2).
We then find the H.C. F. of
6a?+7 ab—3 0b? and 4a°+ 8 ab —3 ab?—9G3
Since 4° is not divisible by 6a, we multiply the second
expression by 3 (Note 3).
4a? +8 ab —3 ab’?—9 BF
3
60+ 7 ab—3 0’)12 a+ 24 wb —9 ab? — 27 Ba
12 a°+14 ab —6 ab?
10 ab — 3 ab? — 270°
Since 10 a is not divisible by 6 a’, we multiply this remain-
der by 3.
6 a?+ 7 ab—38 b*)30 ab — 9ab?—81B(5b
30 ab + 35 ab? — 15 0?
— 44 ab? — 66 b°
Dividing the remainder by — 22 b? (Notes 2, 4),
2a4+3b)60+7ab—30'(8a—b
6a? + 9ab
—2ab
—2ab— 30?
Then, 2a+ 30 is the H.C. F. required.

2. Required the H. C.F. of

2et—3e8—a
+e and 6at—a+32?—2e.
Removing the common factor « (Note 5), and using De
tached Coefficients,
2—3—1416— 14+ 3-— 23
6— 9— 34 3
8+ 6— 5
104 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA ~

2—- 8— 14+ 1
4.
8+6—5)8—-12— 44 42
8+ 6— 5
eyih ele ts
4
—72+ 4416(-9 ,
—72— 54+ 45
29)58— 29
2— 1

2—1)8+ 6— 5(4+5
8— 4
10:— 5
10— 5
The last divisor is 2% —1.
Multiplying this by 2, the H.C. F. of the given expressions
is 7(2«—1).

189. The H.C.F. of three expressions may be found as

follows:
Let A, B, and C be the expressions.
Let G be the H.C.F. of A and B; then, every common
factor of G and Cis a common factor of A, B, and C.
But since every common factor of two expressions exactly
divides their H.C. F. (§ 188), every common factor of 4, B,
and Cis also a common factor of G and C.
Whence, the H.C.F. of G and C is the H.C.F. of A, B,
and C.
Hence, to find the H.C.F. of three expressions, find the H. C. F.
of two of them, and then of this result and the third expression.
We proceed in a similar manner to find the H.C. F. of any
number of expressions. vi
EXERCISE 24

Find the highest common factor of:

1, 402+44—8 and 622+ lla—2—6,
a
LOWEST COMMON MULTIPLE 105

. 6a3—17a2b
—7ab? +463 and 12 a3 —13 a2b + 21 ab?
—6 B3,
9 et — 24934
48 02 24% and 15a4— 2543+ 25 a? — 55% 4+ 80.
6at+a0+5@+4+7a—38 and 8at—6a24-7e—-9,
605+ e4+ 303 622-44 and 12275484! —323—102?2?—4¢.
ow 8x2
aap —6a—-— 35, 10%3— 2742-2415, and 6a43—13 22-138” 4+ 20.
7. 6a? —19a7b + ab? +603, 8a —18 ab — 17 ab? — 363, and
6 @ + 23 ab — 6 ab? — 8 b3.

LOWEST COMMON MULTIPLE

190. A Common Multiple of two or more expressions is an

expression which is exactly divisible by each of them.
191. The Lowest Common Multiple (L. C. M.) of two or more
expressions is their common multiple of lowest degree; or if
several common multiples are of equally low degree, it is the
one having the numerical coefficient of least absolute value in
its term of highest degree.
There are always two forms of the lowest common multiple, one of
which is the negative of the other; thus, in the expressions a? — ab
and 6? — ab, either ab(a — b) or ab(b —a) is exactly divisible by each
expression,

In determining the lowest common multiple of expressions,

it is convenient to distinguish two cases.

192. Case I. When the expressions are monomials, or poly-

nomials which can be readily factored by inspection.
1. Required the L.C.M. of 36 ax, 60 a’y’, and 84 ca’.
The L. C. M. of 36, 60, and 84 is 1260.
It is evident by inspection that the expression of lowest
degree which is exactly divisible by a’w, a*y’, and ca®, is a®ca*y’.
Then, the L. 0. M. of the given expressions is 1260 a%ca*y’.
It will be observed, in the above result, that the exponent of
each letter is the highest exponent with which it occurs in any of
the given expressions.
2. Required the L. C. M. of
o+a—6, e—4e+4, and 2-92.
106 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

By § 178, xv?+e%—6=(@+3)(ex—2).
By § 169, e—4a+4= (4—2)’
By § 171, 0 —9x=x(ea+ 3) (w— 3).
It is evident by inspection that the L.C. M. of these expres-
sions is a(# — 2)?(#+ 3) (#—3).

EXERCISE 25

Find the lowest common multiple of:

1. 2? —154”-+ 50, x2 4+ 2a — 35, and x? — 3x — 70.
2. 27 a* 4+ 64a, 18 at — 82a, and38a?+7a+4.
3. 6a2+72 —5, 1022 -—92+4 2, and 823 — 1227462
—1.
4. 3ac+ ad —6 be —2 bd, ac—4ad—2 bc + 8 bd, and 3c? — 11 cd—4d?.
5. a2+4b2—9c?—4ab, a®—4b2—9c?+12
bc, and
+4624 9c?—4ab—6ac+ 12 be.
6. 8m? — n3,4m?2—4 mn + n2, and 16 m* + 4 m2n? + nit.
Y. 2+5246, 23 — 19%
— 30, and 22 — 722+ 2-4 40.

193. Case II. When the expressions are polynomials which

cannot be readily factored by inspection.
Let A and B be any two expressions.
Let F be their H.C. F., and M their L.C.M.; and suppose
that A=aF, and B= DF.
Then, AL XB Sa: (1)
Since Fis the H.C. F. of A and B, a and b have no common
factors; whence, the L.C. M. of af’ and bF is abF.
That is, M = abF.
Multiplying each of these equals by 7, we have
LOM earabd (2)
From: (1) and.@), . doe Basra: (Ax. 4, § 66)
That is, the product of two expressions is equal to the product
of their H.C. F. and L.C. M.

194. It follows from § 193 that, to find the L.C.M. of two

expressions,
Divide their product by their highest common factor.
 LOWEST COMMON MULTIPLE 107

Or, divide one of the expressions by their highest common JSactor,

and multiply the quotient by the other expression.
Ez. Required the L. C. M. of
xe —S8ay+7y and a — 9 ay + 23 ay? — 15 ¥?.
By the rule of § 188, the H.C. F. of the given expressions is
o— ¥-
Dividing «? — 8 ay +7 ? by « — y, the quotient is w—7 y.
Then, the L. C. M. of the given expressions is
(@ — 7 y) (a — 9 ay + 23 wy? — 15 7).
195. It follows from § 193 that, if two expressions are prime
to each other (§ 185), their product is their L. C. M.
196. The L.C.M. of three expressions may be found as
follows:
Let A, B, and C be the expressions.
Let M be the L. C. M. of A and B; then every common mul-
tiple of Mand C is a common multiple of A, B, and C.
But since every common multiple of two expressions is ex-
actly divisible by their L. C. M., every common multiple of A,
B, and C is also a common multiple of Mand C
Whence, the L.C. M. of M and C is the L.C. M. of A, B,
Fand C.
Hence, to find the L. C. M. of three expressions, find the L. C. M.
of two of them, and then of this result and the third expression.
We proceed in a similar manner to find the L. C. M. of any
number of expressions.
EXERCISE 26
Find the lowest common multiple of :
8a27—6x—9and623-T22-Tx+6.
6 a? + ab — 11 ab? — 6 B3 and 6 @ — 5 a®) — 8 ab? + 3 03,
8 43 — 22 42 6x and 82° + 645 — 11 a — 23.28 — 6 x.
totewt —908 —2 924+ 727 —6 and at—42240°?4
Co
Le 74-2.
5. 4024+ 402-43
a+ 20, 4024 20a°4+ 13a—12, and
4a + 12 a — 381a— 60.
6. 622-—7x2—38, 4023-—4224+32
—9, and 4a3—1242—a%+
15.
108 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

X. FRACTIONS

197. In the fraction :, the dividend a is called the numera-

tor, and the divisor 6 the denominator.
The symbol / is often used to represent a fraction ;thus, a/b signifies a

The numerator and denominator are called the terms of the

fraction.

198. A rational fraction is a fraction whose terms are rational

and integral (§ 63).
A monomial is said to be rational when it is a rational and
integral expression, or a rational fraction.
A polynomial is said to be rational when each of its terms is
rational.

199. By § 96, (4), ,=o.

That is, tf the terms of a fraction be both multiplied by the same
expression, the value of the fraction is not changed.

200. By § 30, (2), =-=5

ac a

te
else

That is, if the terms of a fraction be both divided by the same

expression, the value of the fraction is not changed.

201) By.§ 48, 4c Sho eee

+b —b —b +6
That is, if the signs of both terms of a fraction be changed, the
sign before the fraction is not changed; but if the sign of either
one be changed, the sign before the fraction is changed.
If either term is a polynomial, care must be taken, on chang-
ing its sign, to change the sign of each of its terms.
t FRACTIONS 109

Thus, the fraction — by changing the signs of both

numerator and denominator, can be written ae (§ 81).

202. It follows from §§ 91 and 201 that

If either term of a fraction is the indicated product of two or
more expressions, the signsof any even number of them may be
changed without changing the sign before the fraction; but if the
signs of any odd number of them be changed, the sign before the
Sraction is changed.
; —0O 5
fins, the fraction ———__-_— may be written
; (=a ie—%)
a—b b—a b—a
@—o(f—e-) G@—o(e—-f) @-o(f—-2
REDUCTION OF FRACTIONS

203. Reduction of a Fraction to its Lowest Terms.

A rational fraction (§ 198) is said to be in its lowest terms
when its numerator and denominator are prime to each other
(§ 185).
204. Casz I. When the numerator and denominator can be
readily factored by inspection.
By § 200, dividing both terms of a fraction by the same ex-
pression, or cancelling common factors in the numerator and
denominator, does not alter the value of the fraction.

We then have the following rule:

Resolve both numerator and denominator into their factors,
and cancel all that are common to both.
4} 2am
1. Reduce ies to its lowest terms.
40 a7b?c7d?
We have, 24. atb?ca Bx 8 x atb?cx
ave Bxbx abord
110 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Cancelling the common factor 2° x a’b’c, we have

24 atb’ce _ 3 aa.
40 a?b?c’d? —«5s cd?
Rg a FK
2. Reduce wee as to its lowest terms.

By §§ 177 and 173,

e— 27 _(@—3)(?4+324+9) #43249)
(a — 3)(x@+ 1) a+1
e—22—3

Aw Reduce — a + by to its lowest terms.

— == aar

ByashlbG audigi er eee

b? — a? (6+a) (b—a)
By § 202, the signs of the terms of the factors of the numera-
tor can be changed without altering the value of the fraction;
and in this way the first factor of the numerator becomes the
same as the second factor of the denominator.
ax —be—ay+by _(6—a)(y—@)_y—@
Then,
pia" ~ (b+a)(b—a)
b+a
If all the factors of the numerator are cancelled, 1 remains to form a
numerator.
If all the factors of the denominator are cancelled, it is a case of exact
division.

205. Case Il. When the numerator and denominator cannot

be readily factored by inspection.
By § 184, the H.C. F. of two expressions is their common
factor of highest degree, having the numerical coefficient of
greatest absolute value in its term of highest degree.
We then have the following rule:
Divide both numerator and denominator by their H.C. F.

Hx. Reduce Gai —i1 v7+tTa—6 to its lowest terms,

YO =)Gh =
By the rule of § 188, the H.C. F. of 6 a—11 a?+-7 a—6 and
207 —a—3is2a—3.
 FRACTIONS 111

Dividing 6a’ —11a@+7a—6 by 2a—83, the quotient is

38a°—a+ 2.
Dividing 2 a — a — 3 by 2a —3, the quotient is a+ 1.
Then, OL a a OO ee ee
PRO Eh 3) a+

206. Reduction of a Fraction to an Integral or Mixed Expres-

sion.
A Mixed Expression is a polynomial consisting of a rational
and integral expression (§ 63), together with one or more
rational fractions (§ 198), each of which has letters in its
denominator when in its lowest terms (§ 203).
b ve, 2u—4 :
Thus, a+-, and 3 += ” are mixed expressions.
¢ xy
(Ga?
2S Ie —
1. Reduce to a mixed expression.

By the Distributive Law for Division (§ 100),

6Ga?+15¢—2
= 62 , 152 saeot cape
cle 2
Ba Pee
3@ ot ot ow 3@
A fraction whose denominator is a polynomial may be re-
duced to an integral or mixed expression by the operation of
’ division, if the degree (§ 64) of the numerator is not less than
that of the denominator.
2 05? = BSger ts la 5)
2. Reduce — to a mixed expression.
Abe? ae BS
4a? + 3)12 03 —8e? +42—5(38e—2
1 ae +92
—82'7>—dea
= 8 xv —6
=yap
ae Al
Since the dividend is equal to the product of the divisor and
quotient, plus the remainder, we have
12%8— 8a? +4e2—5= (407+ 3)\(8e—2)+(—5a+1).
112 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Then, by the Distributive Law for Division,

120°—8ai'+4e—5_(40+38)Ge—2), —de41
4243 4243 4243

Then, a remainder of lower degree than the divisor may be

written over the divisor in the form of a fraction, and the
result added to the quotient.
If the first term of the numerator is negative, as in Ex. 2, it
is usual to change the sign of each term of the numerator, chang-
ing the sign before the fraction (§ 201).
120°—82°?+4a7—5 2 Hpac!
Thus, mane ee ak eo ee

207. Reduction of Fractions to their Lowest Common Denomi-

nator.
To reduce fractions to their Lowest Common Denominator
(L. C.D.) is to express them as equivalent fractions, having for
their common denominator the L.C.M. of the given denomi-
nators.
4cd 3m 5n
Ex. Reduce 3 ab” Dab? and Zab to their lowest common
enominator.
The L. C. M. of 3 ab’, 2 ab’, and 4 a%b is 12 ab (§ 192).
By § 199, if the terms of a fraction be both multiplied by
the same expression, the value of the fraction is not changed.
Multiplying both terms of a by 4a, both terms of oe
B
by 6 ab, and both terms of 7nn- by 3 0’, we have

16 acd 18 abn 15 b’n

12 ad? 12 a®b?’ 12 ab?
It will be seen that the terms of each fraction are multi-
plied by an expression, which is obtained by dividing the
L.C. D. by the denominator of this fraction.
Whence the following rule.
 FRACTIONS ae

Find the Li. C. M. of the given denominators.

Multiply both terms of each fraction by the quotient obtained
by dividing the L. C. D. by the denominator of this fraction.
Before applying the rule, each fraction pnowd be reduced to
its lowest terms.

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF FRACTIONS

208. By § 100, ty fe we eee ene

a a a

We then have ae ea eee rules:

To add two rational fractions which have a common denomi-
nator, add their numerators, and make the result the numerator
of a fraction whose denominator is the common denominator.
To subtract two rational fractions which have a common de-
nominator, subtract the numerator of the subtrahend from the
numerator of the minuend, and make the result the numerator of
a fraction whose denominator is the common denominator.
If the fractions have not a common denominator, it follows
from § 30, (3) and (4), that they may be added, or subtracted,
by reducing them to equivalent fractions having their lowest
common denominator (§ 207), and then using the above rules.
The final result should be reduced to its lowest terms.
Be , od.
4 ab’ 6 ab
(he Li. C.D. is 12 a7b*.
Multiplying the terms of the first fraction by 30’, and the
terms of the second by 2 a, we have
3¢ bd 96 , 100d 9b%+4+10ad
A a2b a 6 ab? 12 ab? a51203 = =12 ab?
If a fraction whose numerator is a polynomial is preceded
by a — sign, it is convenient to enclose the numerator in
parentheses preceded by a — sign, as shown in the last term
of the numerator in equation (A), of Ex. 2; if this is not done,
care must be taken to change the sign of each term of the nu-
merator before combining it with the other numerators.
114 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

e+1 e-2 2e'+a—13

2. Simplify
e+5 w«—38 a+22—15
Since 2?+2ae—15=(#+5)(a—3), the L.C.D. is
av +2a—15.
Multiplying the terms of the first fraction by «—3, and the
terms of the second by x +5, we have
@+N)@—8) , @—2)(@+5)_ 22 +e—18
et2e¢—15 e4t2e—15 2+2e%—15
_ (+1) (@—3)+ @—2)(@+5)—-2e+e—18) (A)
w+ 2a—15
_#@—2e—384e7+4+38x—10—20—2+13
we +2e%—15
oS 0 == Oi(5 0103).
~ 4+ 2a—15
In certain cases, the principles of §§ 201 and 202 enable us
to change the form of a fraction to one which is more con-
venient for the purposes of addition or subtraction.
' é 3 Di Gs a
3. Simplify rar ae

Changing the signs of the terms in the second denominator,

at the same time changing the sign before the fraction (§ 201),
we have, 8 2b+a
Ont wha oe
The L.C. D. is now a?— 6?

Then, _3 _26+4a_3(a+b)—@6'+4)
a—-b w—b a’?
— 0?
—_34+38b—2b—-—a_2a+d.
az — b? a?
— b?

4. Simplify 1 Au 1 el
(@—y)@—z) Y-2)y-2) @—2)@—-y)
By § 202, we change the sign of the factor y—a tn the
second denominator, at the same time changing the sign before
the fraction; and we change the signs of both factors of the
third denominator.
 FRACTIONS 115

The expression then becomes

di a zl = 1 ;
@—y@-%) @-yY-% @-2DY-2)
The L.C.D. is now (w—y)(@—z)(y—z); then the result
E Y—2)+ @—2)—@—y)_y—2z4+"—-—2—a+y
(@—y) @—2)(y—2) (@—y) @—2)(¥—2)
. 2y—2z aa 2(y—2) im 2 :
(e@—y)\@—z)(y—2) @—y)(@—-z)yY-2%) @—-y)@—-%
;
Simplify2 x 2¢—3— 3a—d
5). imphfy ae :

oy 3.22) 2 t=3@rl)—Se—5)
e+1 o+1
SE le OO is
age al etd
: : il i Dy aie4.Ss
(3, Shinyalliey, == 2
ee ke re ihe ia
We first add the first two fractions; to the result we add the
third fraction, and to this result the fourth fraction.
1 1 i+e¢+i-«w 2...
ise lite Gdeed=2)-1-2
2 Py oe 2G ee a
ee Lae (1 + a”)(1 — 2”) ila
4 Se Ae)
eS le) Oo
fe at Aee— ) ta
7. Simplify a—1
_t_—_1
a-+l
1
Gate aoe
id
We first combine the first two fractions, then the last two,
and then add these results.
Ie pee ee he (Gl en
ee ee elven,
4.1 (don) aont
i 1 _a+2-—(a—2) 4
0 Ba HON (a+ 2G 2) oA
116 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

2 4 _2¢0—84+40—4 _ 6@—12 |
@—1'a@—4 (a@—1)(?—4) at—5a’+4
MULTIPLICATION OF FRACTIONS

210. By § 30, (1), we have the following rule for the product
of two fractions :
Multiply the numerators together for the numerator of the
product, and the denominators for its denominator.

211. : By§ 2 210, Male eae

ca 1
(4)

Dividing both numerator and denominator by ¢ (§ 200),

a cee a : 2
b ss b+c (2)
From (1) and (2), we have the following rule for multiplying
a fraction by a rational and integral expression:
If possible, divide the denominator of the fraction by the
expression ; otherwise, multiply the numerator by the expression.
212. Common factors in the numerators and denominators
should be cancelled before performing the multiplication.
Mixed expressions should be expressed in a fractional form
(§ 209) before applying the rules.
10 a’y Ns a
1. Multiply
Oba? y 4 aye
10 a*y, 3b 2xdx%3 x abety 50%
9ba? “ 4aty? 8? x 2? x abary by :
The factors cancelled are 2, 3, a’, 6, 2, and y.
oe eoae es
ee <a
s her op
2. MultiplyPaytoret e. ae an

eit 2a x (2 eA ay? — 9

oe, 2a O ee
S :
ee 2 @= 2) t—2 @+3)(e—3) _ v.
(@+3)(@—2) a—38° (e@+2)\(a—2)
2-2
 FRACTIONS 117

The factors cancelled are «+2, x—2, «+3, and a—3.,

e+ b?
3. Multiply a B by a—b.

Dividing the denominator by a—b, we have

a? JL b? ~ae ;

(Oi = (pe a+b

4. Multiply —“~ by m+n.

m—n

Multiplying the numerator by m+n, we have

— x (mm) = mdmn.
m — —n

DIVISION OF FRACTIONS

213. By § 30, (2), we have the following rule:

To divide one fraction by another, multiply the dividend by the
divisor inverted.

214. By §213, het)

%+e="%x==4. 1
oe : b ; b ‘ Ca0c (1)
Dividing both numerator and denominator by ¢ (§ 200),
a a+e
a,
-s+ a ° :
(2)
2

From (1) and (2), we have the following rule for dividing a
fraction by a rational and integral expression:
If possible, divide the numerator of the fraction by the expres-
sion ; otherwise, multiply the numerator by the expression.

6 ab 9 a?b®
215. 1. Divide = b -
a 5 ay y Ovary"
Gab Fabs Care 10a— = 44 e
W I ae =
ee? bay 10a Say Dare 3 bm
Mixed expressions should be expressed in a fractional form
(§ 209) before applying the rules.
a
22—93 boy
_3a—13
pane
EE ae
2. Divide 2 TE 3 EEE]
118 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

GoayigGe res,
2e%—8\ fg 32-18

—2e+2—2e4+3 _ Bie aS heAb 118

eee pil
ei: Rica osb(e+ Iie— 1) _
Big 10S ee sae st) ee
3 3
3. Divide “—2 by m= n.
m +n?
Dividing the numerator by m— n, we have
m> 3 —n 3 m +mn+n 2
a ans =
m+n m* + n-
2

Multiplying the denominator by a+b, we have

4-0"
a? a waa
a ge
oe ee
If the numerator = EM paa raeof the divisor are exactly
contained in the numerator and denominator, respectively, o
the dividend, it follows from § 210 that the numerator of th
quotient may be obtained by dividing the numerator of the dividenc
by the numerator of the divisor ; and the denominator of th
quotient by dividing the denominator of the dividend by th
denominator of the divisor.

5. Divide Dee
av? — 7?
eeex—y ee
We have, hast iNOE
dsa ak
aay wy wy
216. By § 213, Lee oe
a Gh O)
D
Hence, the reciprocal of a fraction is the fraction inverted.

COMPLEX FRACTIONS
217. A Complex Fraction is a fraction having one or mor
fractions in either or both of its terms.
a
FRACTIONS 119

It is simply a case in division of fractions; its numerator

being the dividend, and its denominator the divisor.

2ls—1. Simplify —”_,

ee
d
a d ad
Paid oe ed ee Se
d d
It is often advantageous to simplify a complex fraction by
multiplying its numerator and denominator by the L. C. M. of
their denominators (§ 199).

a—b a+b
The L. C. M. of a+ 6 and a—b is (a + b)(a — BD).
Multiplying both terms by (a + b)(a — b), we have
O(G--0)—ae—)) _ a+ ab— aad _ Zab.
b(a+b)+a(a—b) ab++ae—ab w+?

3. Simplify 2
14+——
fe x
In examples like the above, it is best to begin by simplifying
the lowest complex fraction ; thus, .
1 1 x+1 x +1
gee doe. Coe
ee er
x
EXERCISE 27

Reduce to their lowest terms by factoring :

8 a3 — 125 3 90? — Dy? — 224 6 yz
298 + 02-15% " g—9y2
+ 2 —2az
9, __(a — 49) (a? — 16. + 63) fe 21 — a — 102?
(a — 142+ 49) (a? — 2% — 63) (bay — 20x —21y +28
120 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

a® + 28 a3b3 + 27 08 2 — be — 246
at + 9 ab? + 81 b4 ” 97 — 54a” 4+ 36 22 — 823

Reduce to their lowest terms by finding the H.C. F.:

UO ieee 10 623 —a72—11274+6
7.
403 —492-—5x4-—1 " 998 — 1822 +114
—2
4 a + 13 ab — 4 ab? —6 0? 228 — 9 ay — 2 xy? — 15 98
8. 10.
8a2+14ab
— 15 B? 203 — 7 xy — 16 vy? +543

Reduce each of the following to a mixed expression :

11.
9x4 — 203
— 20 1g, Wn, 18.
1228 —3 a? — 224+ 8
12 28 m—n 322 —5

Simplify the following :

38u—y a+b
14. aoe
——_*_ x @azt+y)
(2a : 19. a
—+——a+0. +
a3
EE + 64 b3 SG SLID : 3 = 2 1 i
15.
a — 64 03 & ) 5a? lbay 6y?
4
lee Lae aR 91. 2a+8 2 2
8@+4+1 38a8-2
16. at + nt 6a 12 a 36 a
ye AEE Gy Se) py pee EA Res
4x+5m 2m—n n2 — 4 in?
7 8
18. Oy ey ete pS pp Se
2%—3 25 a2 — 25a7—20a+4
24 2ac — Bad — be 4-3 bd a —Tab +100?
s8act+ad—6bc—2bd 10a2—3ab— 2

25.
2 vie
: KG Ses (Bees
3)Qa —
|———
_2a+6 26. Deana i

38a—2 1—a? 1422

8m+1 mas - Smt— 2m at
8m—1 5-2m 6m?—17m4+5
1 4 1 1 1
2 SY Ot 2a 29. Se Rewer te
28. im
— Op" —4
9 yp +3 e-3 w+4 w—4

30. (22 Ce at o+9—S2471).

w+4 a+4 s

31. Ba + 8a 6 a 12 at a
a@tb a—b C+R ative
39. m? = m2 ve 2m3n
m2 —mn + n2 m* + mn + n mt + m2n2 + nt
 FRACTIONS w2T

a—% a@&—x
a+x B+ 34 4a —1 As 8% -+1
383.
a—-« , a—2 " 6217x2412 1022—9x%—-9
atx a+

35. b—c¢ a c—a * Oe

(a—b)(a—c) (6—c)(b—a) (c—a)(c—bd)
3 3 5 n2 5 n2
36.
2n+1l 1—2n 8n?4+1 1-—8n3
x y 1 ik
aie Gab? @itd fed,
37.
1 1
@+1I)Yy—1)? @+D2y—-)
OG x 8M = 1 a—-5, a+ Ta—12.
38.
8a2—26a+15 9a?+6a-—8 8a2?+6a+1

[( 1 aie S SS aS eS
39.
y-2 & yte v—y—2—2yz
8 —2e2? 448 es on + 5 )x(a- wee
40.
et+ 303 —27%—81 v+642+9 =sG
2a—1 2a+1 6a—1 11 8 F
41.
a—2 a+2 a(2—a) 4-—@ a(at—16)

42. HERS
-@-2)
ee
y-@-s
ees SOS
8 *.
eae
4 —1
ie reso
al

ml aa
ater ata sar
ee
a
ile ~~ eal b a 1 ee 1 BE
ae
a(; ae ( C a e ;

1 1
45. te u Se
a2—(b+c)2 b%?—(¢c+a)? c?—(a+b)?
a, l—2,1+28
x—Y uty 47 de ioc aary
46.
(22uy414(2—)" “14+ 1-2
x-—y e+y 1—@ 1-+4%8

be Ca ab
48.
G—8)\(a—0) | @—a(b—a) (—a)(e—b)
ote, She ete 7G (ae Gh)
a? ol— 19%
+ 36).
49.
2-2 3— (a — 2)(a@~—3)(%—4)
"122 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

XI. FRACTIONAL AND LITERAL EQUATIONS

INVOLVING LINEAR EQUATIONS
219. Suppose that an equation, with one unknown number,
x, has fractional terms.
Transpose all terms to the first member.
Let the terms in the first member be then added, using for a
common denominator the L.C.M. of the given denominators;
and let the resulting fraction be reduced to its lowest terms.
The equation will then be in the form

_=0; (1)
where A and B are rational and integral expressions which
have no common factor.
If B contains x, the given equation is called a Fractional
Equation.
By § 117, (1) is equivalent (§ 114) to the given equation.
(The principles demonstrated in §§ 116 to 119, inclusive, and § 122,
hold for fractional equations. )

Equation (1) may be cleared of fractions (§ 121) by multiply-

ing both members by B, giving the equation
A (0), (2)
We will now prove equation (2) equivalent to (1).
Any solution of (1), when substituted for , makes = identi-
eally equal to 0. B
Then, it must make A identically equal to 0 (§ 105).
Then, it is a solution of (2).
Again, any solution of (2), when substituted for a, makes A
identically equal to 0.
Now B cannot equal 0 for this value of w; for if A and B
became 0 for the same value of a, say «=a, they would have
« — aasacommon factor (§ 141), which is impossible by § 219.
 FRACTIONAL AND LITERAL EQUATIONS 123

Hence, any solution of (2), when substituted for 2, makes =

identically equal to 0 (§ 105). fe
Then, it is a solution of (1).
Therefore, (1) and (2) are equivalent.

220. A fractional equation may be cleared of fractions by

multiplying both members by any common multiple of the
denominators; but in this way additional solutions are intro-
duced, and the resulting equation is not equivalent to the first.
Consider, for example, the equation
he Ae
ee ee
Multiplying both members by 1 — 2’, the L. C. M. of the given
denominators, we have
1—a#—ax=1—2* ore’ —22=0.
Factoring the first member,
x(a —2)=0; and x =0 or 2 (§ 182).
If, however, we multiply both members of the given equa-
tion by (1 + 2)(1 — 2”), we have
1—2 —a#(1+a) = (14 2)(1 — 2”).
Then, 1 —2 —2—¢=1+2—2?—-2', or —2#-—22¢=0.
Factoring the first member,
a (e+ 1)(« — 2)=0, and «=0, —1, or 2
This gives the additional solution «= —1; and it may be
verified by substitution that this does not satisfy the given
equation.

221. If both members of a fractional equation be multiplied

by any common multiple of the denominators, the additional
roots, if any, introduced must satisfy the equation formed by
equating this common multiple to 0.
Thus, in § 220, the additional solution —1 satisfies the equa-
tion (+2)(1—2*)=0.
124 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Tf, then, we reject all solutions which satisfy the equation

formed by equating the common multiple to 0, we shall retain
the correct solutions.
222. It follows from § 219 that, if all the terms of a frac-
tional equation with one unknown number be transposed to
the first member; and all terms in the first member be added,
and the resulting fraction reduced to its lowest terms; and the
numerator of this fraction be equated to 0, the resulting equa-
tion is equivalent to the first.
But in most cases the above is not the shortest method of
solution.
By §§ 220 and 221, we may multiply the members of the
given equation by the L. C. M. of the given denominators; and
if we reject all solutions which satisfy the equation formed by
equating the L.C.M. to 0, only the correct solutions will be
retained.
223. We may now give arule for solving any fractional equa-
tion, leading to a linear equation with one unknown number:
Clear the equation of fractions by multiplying each term by the
L.C. M. of the given denominators.
Transpose the unknown terms to the first member, and the
known terms to the second.
Unite the similar terms, and divide both members by the coeffi-
cient of the unknown number.

1. Solve the equation 2 — 5 = 2 :

C= 2) oe a
Multiplying each term by #?—4, the L.C.M. of the given
denominators, we have
2(% +2) —5(@—2)
=2.
Or, 2e+4—52%+10=2.
Transposing, and uniting terms, -
—3x= —12, anda=—4.
Since 4 does not satisfy the equation x? —4=0, it is the cor-
rect solution (§ 222).
 FRACTIONAL AND LITERAL EQUATIONS 125

If the denominators are partly monomial and partly poly-

nomial, it is often advantageous to clear of fractions at first
partially ; multiplying each term of the equation by the L. C. M.
of the monomial denominators.

2. Solve the equation

15 Tx—16
Multiplying each term by 15, the L. C. M. of 15 and 5,

Guupeocoe
= OO
sae ia
Transposing, and uniting terms,
002 — 6),
7x—16
Clearing of fractions, 28 «—64= 30 «— 60.
Then, —2e=4, and x= — 2.
—2does not satisfy the equation 7 x —16=0, and is there-
fore the correct root.
If any fractional terms in the equation have the same de-
nominator, they should be combined before clearing of frac-
tions.
3. Solve the equation ae each te
ae —1 x —1

Transposing the term ol to the first member, and com-

bining it with the term —S , we have

Xx —

Clearing of fractions, 1—«—1=0, or ~=0.

0 does not satisfy the equation «+1=0, and is the correct
root.
If we solve the given equation by multiplying both members by a? — 1,
we have x —(*?—1)=1, orx—a2?+1=1, orz—2=0.
126 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Factoring the first member,

(a7) = 10s andia,
— Olona:
Now the value x = 1 satisfies the equation «2 - 1=0; then it must be
rejected, and the only solution is x = 0. =

4. Solve the equation

CaS
et
9
ee
er LO) a6
Adding the fractions in each member, we have
Te+58 e458
(@+8)(@+9) (@+10)(«+6)
Since 7 7+ 58 is a factor of each member, we may place it
equal to zero (§ 182).
Then, T+ 58 =0, or s=— =.
The remaining root is given by
i: S 1
@+8)@+9) @+10@+ 6)
Or, (% + 8)(@ + 9) = (@ + 10)(@ + 6),
or, etif «+ 72 —27 + 162+ 60.
Whence, SSS
‘
Neither — -e nor — 12 satisfies the equation
(@ + 8)(@+ 9)(@ + 10)(@ + 6) = 0.
Dre p2 as
5. Solve the equation = 2 L++ = ao
2ea—3d wW+a4
Dividing each numerator by its corresponding denominator,
we can write the equation in the form
9 ; 9
14: 74
1 eee
a 4
a a Dua ae
Zo 7 4. ZO 8, V4
Clearing of fractions,
20°+8—2e—52+12=0;
whence, C=.

EXERCIS “8
Solve the following : CISE 28

1 Beall [era 8e-8 ope Oe era = ee

9 12 8 glqu Osea 7 oy
 FRACTIONAL AND LITERAL EQUATIONS 127

, et ee ee go eke
ee Tee)
4x2 —9 5 422-9 “Qe4+3 8a2—2 6
4. pod pie 78 — io: 6. Dee lee = 12@
= 2p
a—5d x+8 1-2 840 w4+2e—3
2x2—1 54+6_54 23 «2 — 10
84+5 T—2e 642 — lle — 35.
3 5 nes 4
e2—9 w4+7¢+12 2-16 22—7e+12
9. ee Omen 2¢— i 1 ie
Mei) SrA 1 Om Sie
oe e+ 4 8a+2

See = 10 -
x—-3 x+7 2x-9 4£+2
es eye es 10 Akos
Qe—1 6a+tb sx—4 4441
e+4 —%+2,%+3
yl 4 2) ee—
gt+2,x-—3 © 4.
x—38 w+4 x42

e+e—-6 22—624+8 x—2—12

22+5 ,#+34—T1_o5
w—2¢—3 #2+3e-+1 ;

Ee a ea

224. Problems involving Fractional Equations, leading to Linear

Equations with one Unknown Number.

1. A can do a piece of work in 8 days, which B can perform

in 10 days. In how many days can it be done by both working
together ?
Let = number of days required.

Then, = the part both can do in one day.

&
Sil
128 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Also, 5 the part A can do in one day,

and 55= the part B can do in one day.

ae i Melb Sa
h conditions,
By the dit ee
Sgr ate

5“a2+4a=40.
9a = 40.

Whence, x = 44, number of days required.

2. The second digit of a number exceeds the first by 2; and

if the number be divided by the sum of its digits, the quotient
is 48. Find the number.
Let a = the first digit.
Then, x“ + 2 =the second digit,
and 2” +2 =the sum of the digits.
The number itself equals 10 times the first digit, plus the second ; then,
10”%+ (+2), or 11a +2 =the number.

By the conditions, lle + 2 _ 34,

2%+2 if
T7ia“+ 14=68
«+4 68.
92= 54
Whence, ae On
Then, the number is 68.
EXERCISE 29

1. The denominator of a fraction exceeds twice the numerator by 4 :

and if the numerator be increased by 14, and the denominator decreased
by 9, the value of the fraction is r Find the fraction.

2, A can do a piece of work in 3} hours, B in 3 hours, and C in 33

hours. In how many hours can it be done by all working together?
3. The second digit of a number of two figures exceeds the first by 5 ;
and if the number, increased by 1, be divided by the sum of the digits
increased by 2, the quotient is 3. Find the number.
4. The numerator of a fraction exceeds the denominator by 5. «lf the
numerator be decreased by 9, and the denominator increased by 6,
the sum of the resulting fraction and the given fraction is 2, Find
the fraction.
; FRACTIONAL AND LITERAL EQUATIONS 129

5. A tank has three taps. By the first it can be filled in 8 hours 10

iuinutes, by the second it can be filled in 4 hours 45 minutes, and by the
third it can be emptied in 8 hours 48 minutes. How many hours will it
take to fill it if all the taps are open ?
6. A freight train runs 6 miles an hour less than a passenger train. It
runs 80 miles in the same time that the passenger train runs 112 miles.
Find the rate of each train.
7. The digits of a number are three consecutive numbers, of which the
middle digit is the greatest, and the first digit the least. If the number be
divided by the sum of its digits, the quotient is oe Find the number.

8. A man walks 13} miles, and returns in an hour less time by a

carriage, whose rate is 14 times as great as his rate of walking. Find
his rate of walking.
9. A vessel runs at the rate of 112 miles an hour. It takes just as
long to run 23 miles up stream as 47 miles down stream. Find the rate
of the stream.
10. A can do a piece of work in two-thirds as many days as B, and B
ean do it in four-fifths as many days as C. Together they can do the
work in 37; days. In how many days can each alone do the work ?
11. The first digit of a number of three figures is three-fourths the
second, and exceeds the third digit by 2. If the number be divided by
the sum of its digits, the quotient is 88. Find the number.
12. A and B together can do a piece of work in 5+ days, B and C
together in 62 days, and C and A together in 53 days. In how many days
’ can it be done by each working alone ?

225. Literal Equations, leading to Linear Equations with one

Unknown Number.
x ee 2 eee tee
Hx. Solve the equation
Ca ea. 2 —a@
Multiplying each term by a?— a’,
x (@ + a) — (w+2b)(w@—a) =a? +B’,
0? + av— (a + 2 bx — ax —2ab)=a’+b’,
e+ ae —v?—2be+ar+2ab=a’?
+b’,
2 ax — 2 ba = a? — 2 ab + b’.
Factoring both members, 2 «(a —b) =(a—b)’.

Dividing by 2(a—b), oe (a —b)? Lele

2(a— b) 2
130 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Since @— b does not satisfy the equation x? — a? = 0, it is the correct

solution,
EXERCISE 30
Solve the following :
1. @—2a—b)?-(@+a42b)?=0,
g br _@+b?_a@_ aa—Dd),
a a 2 b
3 eee ee 2 a, 6m :
“5at2@m 4¢2—3m 2022—Tme—6m?
4. 4e+8n ,4¢—5n_ 10 n?
+20 38n—x 22—ne—6n2
5. («c+a—b)? -(@—a+b)8=2(a— b)(82?+4 2“).
6 ax —a? , bx
— b?
a—b per oe
7. #—-a,e—-b, %—c_ be(x + b)— abi — are,
b @ a abe
3. 2 b a—b
: “-a “x—-b w-—e
9 Meee ol i ee
w2—4@2 2a a? —4@
10. #=4 t+a _ 2a%+194? 1.
Reo pao tae Os
er le OL had Pog Sk aes SO
x—-2a Geta 84—8a 22-324
12. 4x LR Naty GSM Oe: Nh
2—-4n utn x2+4n z+3n
13. (@+a)?+(@+
6/8 +(e@+c¢)8=8@+4+a)(a+ b)(e+e).
14. m+n 2m 2 m—n
a ()
e+m—-n 4-M+n L—M—-—N

16a st ee OC Otis
x—-2b w—2a x-—a-—bdb
16. e—2axr+5a? , 8e27+8ax—2a?_
w—2ae—B8a2° x+axr+2a?
17, te, 2+, %-a-b_»
e-—a “2—b x«+a+b : e
1g, 242 e-2n_¢44+6n “4437
T—n UwtWn e¢—6n U—sn
19. @+2a)?+(@+ 6% =Q2x+
2a +4 b)8,
 FRACTIONAL AND LITERAL EQUATIONS 131

226. Problems involving Literal Equations, leading to Linear

Equations with one Unknown Number.
Prob. Divide a into two parts such that m times the first
shall exceed n times the second by dD.
Let x = the first part.
Then, a@ — « =the second part.
By the conditions, mx=n(a—2)+0b.
m“z=an—nxe+b.
me+ne=an-+b.
x(m+n)=an+ bd.
Whence, ag = Ont a the first part. (1)
m+n

Also, 6—-ea Gg Esa a Sb

m+ 2 m+n

am —b
= the other part. 2
m+n’ P @)

The results can be used as formule for solving any problem of the
above form.
Thus, let it be required to divide 25 into two parts such that 4 times the
first shall exceed 3 times the second by 37.
Here, 0 = 25, w=4, n= 3, and b= 37.
Substituting these values in (1) and (2),

‘the first part Se onels (0s ul 11) 6 ’

7 7 7

and the second part = thd 31 100 331 68S 9,

7 u if

EXERCISE 31
1. Divide a into two parts whose quotient shall be m.
2. Two men, A and B, a miles apart, set out at the same time, and
travel towards each other. A travels at the rate of m miles an hour, and
B at the rate of n miles an hour. How far will each have travelled when
they meet ?
3. Divide a into three parts such that the first shall be one-mth the
second, and one-nth the third.
4. If A can do a piece of work in a hours, B in } hours, C in ¢ hours,
and D in d hours, how many hours will it take to do the work if all work
together ?
132 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

5. What principal at per cent interest will amount to @ dollars in

t years ?
6. In how many years will p dollars amount to @ dollars at r per cent
interest ?
4%. Divide a into two parts such that one shall be m times as much
above 0b as the other lacks of c.
8. A grocer mixes a pounds of coffee worth m cents a pound, 6 pounds
worth n cents a pound, and c pounds worth pcentsa pound. Find the cost
per pound of the mixture.
9. A was m times as old as B a years ago, and will be n times as old
as Bin b years. Find their ages at present.
10. If A and B can do a piece of work in a days, B and C in 6 days,
and A and C in c days, how many days will it take each working alone ?

227. A linear equation containing but one unknown number

cannot have more than one root.
Every linear equation containing but one unknown number,
can be reduced to the form
c= a.
If possible, let this equation have two different roots, 7, and 7.
Then, by § 110, T=,
and i Oe
Whence, T= 1, (Ax. 4, § 66).
But this is impossible, since by hypothesis, 7, and 7, are dif-
ferent; hence, a linear equation containing but one unknown
number cannot have more than one root.
ele
*.
SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS 133

XII. SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS

CONTAINING TWO OR MORE UNKNOWN NUMBERS
228. An equation containing two or more unknown numbers
is satistied by an indefinitely great number of sets of values of
these numbers.
Consider, for example, the equation # + y = 5.
Putting «= 1, we have l +y=5, ory =4.
Putting = 2, we have 2+ y= 5, ory =3; ete.
Thus the equation is satisfied by the sets of values
v= ile Y= 4,

and “= Dp Y= 3 5

and this could be extended indefinitely, for we may give to a

any numerical value whatever.
An equation which has an indefinitely great number of solu-
tions is called an Indeterminate Equation.

229. Consider the equations

{ aty=5, (1)
2%+2y=10. — (2)
By § 119, equation (2) is equivalent to (1).
Hence, every solution of (1) is a solution of (2), and every
solution of (2) is a solution/of (1).
Again, consider the equations
ot+y=65, (3)
|e—y=3d. (4)
Equation (3) is satisfied by the set of valuesa=4,y=1;
as also is equation (4).
But (4) is not satisfied by every solution of (3), nor is (8)
satisfied by every solution of (4).
Thus, (3) and (4) are not equivalent.
If two equations, containing two or more unknown numbers,
are not equivalent, they are called Independent.
134 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

230. Consider the equations

(aty=5, (1)
et+ty=6. (2)
It is evidently impossible to find a set of values of # and y
which shall satisfy both (1) and (2). .
Two equations which express incompatible relations between
the unknown numbers involved are called Inconsistent.
If they express possible relations between the unknown
numbers, they are called Consistent.
231. A system of equations is called Simultaneous when each
contains two or more unknown numbers, and every equation
of the system is satisfied by the same set or sets of values of
the unknown numbers.
A Solution of a system of simultaneous equations is a set of
values of the unknown numbers which satisfies every equation
of the system.
232. Two systems of equations, involving two or more un-
known numbers, are said to be equivalent when every solution
of either system is a solution of the other.

PRINCIPLES USED IN SOLVING SIMULTANEOUS

EQUATIONS
233. If for any equation of a system an equivalent equation be
put, the resulting system is equivalent to the first.
AmB
a ‘coo (1)
be equations involving two or more unknown numbers; and
E = F an equation equivalent to (1).
To prove the system of equations
{A=B,
|E=F, » @&
equivalent to the first system.
Since every solution of (1) is also a solution of (2), every.
solution of the first system is a solution of the second.
 SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS 135

And since every solution of (2) is a solution of (1), every

solution of the second system is a solution of the first.
Therefore, the two systems are equivalent (§ 232).
In like manner, the theorem may be proved for a system of
any number of equations.
234. If for either equation, in a system of two, we put an equa-
tion whose first and second members are the sums, or differences,
respectively, of the given first and second members, the resulting
system will be equivalent to the first.
Al=.B,
Let
eC ==.D,
be equations involving two or more unknown numbers.
To prove the system of equations
A= RB,
| A+C=B+4+D,
equivalent to the first system.
Any solution of the first system, when substituted for the
unknown numbers, makes A equal to B, and C equal to D.
It then makes A + C equal to B+ D (§ 115, 1).
Then it is a solution of the second system.
Again, any solution of the second system makes A equal to
_ B,and A + C equal to B+ D.
It then makes C equal to D (§ 115, 2).
Then it is a solution of the first system.
Therefore, the two systems are equivalent.
In like manner, the first system is equivalent to the system
A=_B,
A—C=B-—D.
235. It may be proved, as in § 234, that if the equations
A= B, C= Debs ete. (1)
involve two or more unknown numbers, and any equation be
replaced by an equation whose first member is the sum of any
of the given first members, and second member the sum of the
corresponding second members, the resulting system will be
equivalent to the first.
136 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

The above is also the case if the signs of both members, in

any of the equations (1), be changed from + to —.
For example, any equation may be replaced by the equation
ALCL ESAS DoF
236. If any equation of a system be solved for one of the
unknown numbers, and the value found be substituted for this
unknown number in each of the other equations, the resulting sys-
tem will be equivalent to the first.
(A= B, (1)
Let
|C=D ? (2)
be equations involving two unknown numbers, # and y.
Let E be the value of w obtained by solving (1); and let
F=G be the equation obtained by substituting # for x in (2).
To prove the system of equations
|ee, (3)
==,
equivalent to the first system.
We know that (3) is equivalent to (1); hence, any solution
of the first system is a solution of (3) (§ 233).
Again, any solution of the first system makes # identically
equal to x; and also makes C equal to D.
Then it must make the expression obtained by putting # for
x, in C, equal to the expression obtained by putting # for a, in
D; that is, it makes F equal to G.
Then, any solution of the first system is also a solution of
the second.
Again, since (3) is equivalent to (1), any solution of the
second system is a solution of (1).
Also, any solution of the second system makes « identically
equal to Z, and also makes F equal to G.
Then it must make the expression obtained by putting,« for
FE, in F, equal to the expression obtained by putting « for E,
in G; that is, it makes C equal to D.
Then, any solution of the second system is also a solution of
the first.
 SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS 137

Therefore, the two systems are equivalent.

In like manner, the theorem may be proved for a system of
any number of equations, involving any number of unknown
numbers.

237. Any equation involving two unknown numbers, 2 and

y, can be reduced to the form ax + by =c.
If we have two independent simultaneous equations of the
form ax+ by=c, they may be combined in such a way as to
form a single equation involving but one unknown number.
This operation is called Elimination.
There are three principal methods of elimination.

I. ELIMINATION BY ADDITION OR SUBTRACTION.

238. 1. Solve the equations {anisye ‘i 3

Multiplying (1) by 4, 20x —12y=76. (3)
Multiplying (2) by 3, Zle+i2y= 6. (4)
Adding (8) and (4), 41% = 82. (5)
Whence, G2, (6)
Substituting «= 2 in (1), 10 —3y=19. (7)
Whence, = OYa= 0, OF tae a (8)
The above is an example of elimination by addition.
(The principles demonstrated in §§ 116 to 119, inclusive, and § 122,
hold for equations with more than one unknown number.)
By § 119, equation (1) is equivalent to (8), and (2) to (4).
Then, by two applications of § 233, the given system is equivalent to
the system (3) and (4).
By § 234, the system (3) and (4) is equivalent to the system (3) and (5).
By § 122, equation (6) is equivalent to (5); and then by § 238, the
system (3) and (5) is equivalent to the system (3) and (6), or to the sys-
tem (1) and (6).
By § 236, the system (1) and (6) is equivalent to the system (6) and
(7) ; which by § 233 is equivalent to the system (6) and (8).
Thus, the given system is equivalent to the system (6) and (8) ; and
since no solutions are introduced nor lost, (6) and (8) form the correct
solution.
138 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

2. Solve the equations boa Yee abels a

10a—Ty= — 24. (2)
Multiplying (1) by 2, 30a+16y= 2. (3)
Multiplying (2) by 3, 30e—2ly= —T2. (4)
Subtracting (4) from (3), 37 y = TA, and y=2.
Substituting y=2in(1), 15¢%+16=1.
Whence, 15¢= —15, and x= —1.
The above is an example of elimination by subtraction.
We speak of adding a system of equations when we mean placing the
sum of the first members equal to the sum of the second members.
Abbreviations of this kind are frequent in Algebra ; thus we speak of
multiplying an equation when we mean multiplying each of its terms.

From the above examples, we have the following rule:

If necessary, multiply the given equations by such numbers as
will nake the coefficients of one of the unknown numbers in the
resulting equations of equal absolute value.
Add or subtract the resulting equations according as the coeffi-
cients of equal absolute value are of unlike or like sign.
If the coefficients which are to be made of equal absolute value are
prime to each other, each may be used as the multiplier for the other
equation ; but if they are not prime to each other, such multipliers should
be used as will produce their lowest common multiple.
Thus, in Ex. 1, to make the coefficients of y of equal absolute value,
we multiply (1) by 4 and (2) by 8; but in Ex. 2, to make the coefficients
of x of equal absolute value, since the L.C.M. of 10 and 15 is 30, we mul-
tiply (1) by 2 and (2) by 3.

II. ELIMINATION BY SUBSTITUTION

Tx—9y= 16. (1)

239. Ex. Solve the equations |

Transposing — 5a in (2), S8y=ba—17.

ves 5a = ike (3)
Whence,

Substituting in (1), Tx—9 Ga =aiL5. (4)

 SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS 139

Clearing of fractions, 56%—9(5a—17) =120.

Or, 56 @ — 452+ 153 = 120.
Uniting terms, 112 = — 33.
Whence, x= — 3. ©)
Substituting «= —3in(3), y= a - OL iae
—4, (6)
By § 286, the given system of equations is equivalent to the system (3)
and (4) ; or, since (4) is equivalent to (5), to the system (3) and (5).
By § 236, the system (3) and (5) is equivalent to the system (5) and
(6); whence, the given system is equivalent to the system (5) and (6).
From the above example, we have the following rule:
From one of the given equations find the value of one of the
unknown numbers in terms of the other, and substitute this value
in place of that number in the other equation.

Ili. ELIMINATION BY COMPARISON

240. 5 Ex.x. , SolveSolve the

th equatiti ons [eee
eensStee (1)
(2)
Transposing — 5 y in (1), 2x=5y—16.
5y—
Whence, e= oe (3
Transposing 7 y in (2), 38u=5—T y.
5
Whence, ea? y. (4)
Equating values of 2, Eee = Pott. (5)
Clearing of fractions, 15 y—48 =10—14 y.
Transposing, 29 y = 58.
Whence, y=2. (6)
Substituting y =2 in (3), aoe = eens. (7)
By § 233, the given system of equations is equivalent to the system (3)
and (4) ; or, since, by Ax. 4, § 66, (4) is equivalent to (5), to the system
(8) and (5).
140 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

But: (5) is equivalent to (6) ; so that the given system is equivalent to

the system (3) and (6).
By § 236, the system (3) and (6) is equivalent to the system (6)
and (7).
From the above example, we have the following rule:
From each of the given equations, find the value of the same
unknown number in terms of the other, and place these values
equal to each other.

241. If the given equations are not in the form aw + by =c,

they should first be reduced to this form, when they may be
solved by either method of elimination.
In solving fractional simultaneous equations, we are liable
to get results which do not satisfy the given equations.
By § 221, we must reject any solution which satisfies the
equation obtained by equating to zero the L.C.M. of the
given denominators.
242. 1. Solve the equations
7 3
cama cu : a
ee Seen (2)
Multiplying each term of (1) by (# + 8)(y+4),
Ty+28—82—9=0, or Ty—32=—19. (3)
From (2),
xy —2e—xy+5y=—18, or 5y—2ea=—138. (4)
Multiplying (3) by 2, 14y—6x=— 88. (5)
Multiplying (4) by 3, 15 y—6xe%=— 39. (6)
Subtracting (5) from (6), y=— 1.
Substituting in (4), —5—2xe=—13.
Whence, —2x%=— 8,ora=—4,
Since « = 4 and y =— 1 do not satisfy the equation (@ + 8)(y er4) =)
the solution « = 4, y =— 1 is correct (§ 241).

2ue+3y = Lo. (1)

; 2. Solve the equations ye is Lee, 0. (2)
[C2 eee
aie
SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS 141

Multiplying each term of (2) by (# — 2) (y — 3),

y—3+e2—2=0, or y=—@2+5. (3)
Substituting in (1), 2e—32+15=13, orr=2.
Substituting in (3), y=—24+5=38.
Since «=2 and y=8 satisfy the equation (x = 2) (y—3) =0, the
solution must be rejected.
The above solution satisfies the first given equation, but not the second ;
it is impossible to find a solution which will satisfy both given equations.
In solving literal simultaneous linear equations, the method
of elimination by addition or subtraction is usually to be
preferred.
by =e. 1
3. Solve the equations pea @)
ae+by=e. (2)
Multiplying (1) by 0’, ab'a + bb'y = b'e.
Multiplying (2) by 0, a'be + bbly = bel.
Subtracting, (ab' —a'b)a = b'e — be'.
Whence, b'c — be'
ee

Multiplying (1) by a’, aa'x + a'by = ca'. (3)

Multiplying (2) by a, aa'e + ably = c'a. (4)
Subtracting (8) from (4), (ab'— a'b)y = cla — ca’.
1
Whence,
= ¢o! = co!(}
y Oe

Certain equations in which the unknown numbers occur in

the denominators of fractions may be readily solved without
previously clearing of fractions.

[——
LORE?
“= (1)
4. Solve the equations
oe
eg ae @)
Jie 50 45
Multiplying (1) by 5, Pat = 40.

: 24 45
Multiplying (2) by 3, = +—=— 3,
142 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

; T4
Adding, —= 7.
i)
Whence, (4=31 a, and a2=2.
pasate woes 9
Substituting in (1), 5— ae 8.

9
Whence, yee and y=—3.

EXERCISE 32
Solve the following:
HieOe er 9y
= .048. « Cee
l 8” —.35y
= .478. 5 | gerd 10
» 3 Tee 2O ; 38e2+8_6x%—1.
| 3a y 9 Lian Seer
fee oo
ooze & 8xe—4y=—11

2n—8y
=Sy)
4 Sip
4a+6y
tore 3 y 1 51 sa{e+5
Si ies yl
2 ee:=0
ire
|Se+2y,Ty—8e_ 39. ees
2 5 10 baa
m(x% + y)+ ne — y) = 2. ee d
hemes A a ce +-=N.
m2(2+y)— n2(a#—-y)=m—n. i y
ety ee ee
ce eee alco
\x-a-—-b y-—-a+b
ie teed a ee es eee)
[e-a y+b 10 Qaot+y w«—4y
© 36 3
| n WO es ; Tee
LeSa sel 2a ey 249s
2ay +3s)
9D yw
49 oy,
1, | x—2 x+3
2%+3y—1 oR = See 25 2
| 2a+y 382—lly (2Qe+y)(8%—11y)"
(a+ b)a+(a— b)y=2a2—2 bd?
12. y Ce ee aD,
a—b a+b @—-bl?
on
SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS 143

SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS CONTAINING MORE

THAN TWO UNKNOWN NUMBERS

243. If we have three independent simultaneous equations,

containing three unknown numbers, we may combine any two
of them by one of the methods of elimination explained in
§§ 238 to 240, so as to obtain a single equation containing only
two unknown numbers.
We may then combine the remaining equation with either
of the other two, and obtain another equation containing the
same two unknown numbers.
By solving the two equations containing two unknown num-
bers, we may obtain their values; and substituting them in
either of the given equations, the value of the remaining
unknown number may be found.
We proceed in a similar manner when the number of equa-
tions and of unknown numbers is greater than three.
The method of elimination by addition or subtraction is usu-
ally the most convenient.
If any equation is fractional, we should reject any solution which satis-
fies the equation obtained by equating to zero the L.C.M. of the given
denominators (§ 241).
6a— 4y— Tz= 17. (1)
1. Solve the equations { 9e— Ty—l6z= 29. (2)
{10%— 5y— 32= 28. (3
Multiplying (1) by 3, 18#—12y—21z= 541. (4)
Multiplying (2) by 2, 18”—14y—322= __58. (5)
Subtracting, 2yt+1lz=— 7. (6)
Multiplying (1) by 5, =30x—20y—85z= 85. (7)
Multiplying (3) by 3, 30a—15y— 9z=_ 69. (8)
Subtracting (7) from (8), 5y+26z=—16. (9)
Multiplying (6) by 5, 10y+55z= —35. (10)
Multiplying (9) by 2, 107+522= —32. (11)
Subtracting, 32=—3, or g=—1. (12)
Substituting in (6), Sy atl =—7, ory=2, 63)
2
Substituting in (1), 6e—84+7=17,or~=3. (14)
144 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

By §§ 119 and 233, the given system of equations is equivalent to the

system (3), (4), and (5) ; which, by § 285, is equivalent to the system
(8), (4), and (6), or to the system (1), (8), and (6).
But (1) is equivalent to (7), and (8) to (8) ; so that the given system
is equivalent to the system (6), (7), and (8); this, by § 235, is equiva
lent to the system (6), (7), and (9), or to the system (1), (6), and (9).
But the system (1), (6), and (9) is equivalent to the system (1), (10),
and (11); which, by § 285, is equivalent to the system (1), (10), and
12).
ae system (1), (10), and (12) is equivalent to the system (1), (6),
and (12) ; which, by two applications of § 236, is equivalent to the sys-
tem (12), (13), and (14).
In certain cases the solution may be abridged by aid of the
artifice which is employed in the following example.
utety= 6. (1)
2. Solve the equations |
ee MR ap @)
ytet+u= 8. (3)
|2ztute= 9. (4)
Adding, 3u+3e+3y+32=380.
Whence, utetytz=10. (5)
Subtracting (2) from (5), fates
Subtracting (3) from (5), t= 2,
Subtracting (4) from (5), y= 1.
Subtracting (1) from (5), z= 4,

EXERCISE 33
Solve the following :
5e+ y—4z2= —65, ax + by = (a+ d)e.
1 [3-59 os=—m 3 [+ =(¢e+a)b.
*—38y+82 = — 24, cz + ax = (b+ 0)a.
ee Yee
|Se A eS 22—By=—26, .
9, Basta Said eRe 4. 7% +62=
— 88.
 SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS 145

Ba—y 42-—5y_19
% 80 — 24 — 2 — 8. ay Oe tare
5 2u-—x—-—y+3¢2= 238. " 2%—32 %“%—4y _7
bee 8y— len —12. =r G ges =e
Ps inason 4%a+2 38y+5z2_ 49
oe 3 ee Pts
ee ie

toto
bg Ti MiaeE
aa
re
lac?
: a
6. : 1 6 —_ 5 = il

p+ o+iRo, ogee ve

OD”eeea heGjree ad ewe

Ves ib ee i‘ ay

x 5 OSG

Bryt+e= a ‘
9. De rage Paret ys 2. 10. oar Fe =0
bex + cay + abe =1.
Zz _%+Ta@_q
c+a b

PROBLEMS INVOLVING SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUA-

TIONS WITH TWO OR MORE UNKNOWN NUMBERS

244. In solving problems where two or more letters are

used to represent unknown numbers, we must obtain from
the conditions of the problem as many independent equations
(§ 229) as there are unknown numbers to be determined.
1. If 3 be added to both numerator and denominator of
a fraction, its value is 2; and if 2 be subtracted from both
numerator and denominator, its value is }; find the fraction.
Let x = the numerator,
and y =the denominator.
9

By the conditions, hee

Daa) Ss
and fae b
y—2 2
Solving these equations, x = 7, y = 12; whence, the fraction is a
146 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

2. A crew can row 10 miles in 50 minutes down stream, and

12 miles in an hour and a half against the stream. Find the
rate in miles per hour of the current, and of the crew in still
water.
Let a2 = number of miles an hour of the crew in still water,
and y = number of miles an hour of the current.
Then, « + y = number of miles an hour of the crew down stream,
and « — y = number of miles an hour of the crew up stream.
The number of miles an hour rowed by the crew is equal to the dis-
tance in miles divided by the time in hours.
Then, e+y=10+2=12,
a b

and ty = las oe 8.

Solving these equations, x = 10, y = 2.

3. The sum of the three digits of a number is 13. If the

number, decreased by 8, be divided by the sum of its second
and third digits, the quotient is 25; and if 99 be added to the
number, the digits will be inverted. Find the number.
Let x = the first digit,
y = the second,
and zg = the third.
Then, 100” + 10 y + 2 = the number,
and 100z + 10y + @ =the number with its digits inverted.
By the conditions of the problem,
e+y+2= 13,
100%+ 10y4+ 2—-— 3 98,
MAE
and 100% +10y+2+99=100z24
10y4+~-,
Solving these equations, «= 2, y¥=8, z2=3; and the number is 283.

EXERCISE 34
i. If 3 be added to the numerator of a certain fraction, and 7 sub-
tracted from the denominator, its value is 8. and if 1 be subtracted from
7
the numerator, and 7 added to the denominator, its value is 2. Find the
fraction. 2
2. Find two numbers such that one shall be m times as much greater
than @ as the other is less than @; and the quotient of their sum by their
difference equal to b.
 SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS 147

3. If the greater of two numbers be divided by the less, the quotient

is 1, and the remainder 6. And if the greater, increased by 14, be divided
by the less, diminished by 4, the quotient is 5, and the remainder 4, Find
the numbers.
4, A sum of money at simple interest amounted to $1868.40 in 7 years,
and to $2174.40 in 12 years. Find the principal and the rate.
5. A certain number of two digits exceeds three times the sum of its
digits by 4. If the digits be inverted, the sum of the resulting number
and the given number exceeds three times the given‘number by 2. Find
the number.
6. A man invests a certain sum of money at a certain rate of interest.
If the principal had been $1200 greater, and the rate one per cent greater,
his income would have been increased by $118. If the principal had been
$8200 greater, and the rate two per cent greater, his income would have
been increased by $312. What sum did he invest, and at what rate ?
7. The middle digit of a number of three figures is one-half the sum of
the other two digits. If the number be divided by the sum of its digits,
the quotient is 20, and the remainder 9; and if 594 be added to the num-
ber, the digits will be inverted. Find the number.
8. A crew row 163 miles up stream and 18 miles down stream in 9
hours. They then row 21 miles up stream and 194 miles down stream in
11 hours. Find the rate in miles an hour of the stream, and of the crew
in still water.
97
9. A and B can doa piece of work in a hours, A and C in i hours,
“a

A and D in a hours, and B and C in > hours. How many hours will it

take each alone to do the work ?

10. A and Brun arace of 280 feet. The first heat, A gives B a start
of 70 feet, and neither wins the race. The second heat, A gives B a start
of 35 feet, and beats him by 62 seconds. How many feet can each run in
a second ?
11. A, B, C, and D play at cards. After B has won one-half of A’s
money, C one-third of B’s, D one-fourth of C’s, and A one-fifth of D’s,
they have each $10, except B who has $16. How much had each at
first ?
12. The fore-wheel of a carriage makes a revolutions more than the
hind-wheel in travelling } feet. If the circumference of the fore-wheel
were increased by one-mth, and the circumference of the hind-wheel by
one-nth, the fore-wheel would make ¢ revolutions more than the hind-
_ wheel in travelling d feet. Find the circumference of each wheel.
148 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

13. The sum of the four digits of a number is 14. Thesum of the last
three digits exceeds twice the first by 2. Twice the sum of the second
and third digits exceeds three times the sum of the first and fourth by 3.
And if 2727 be subtracted from the number, the digits will be inverted.
Find the number.
14. A and B run arace from P to Q and back; the distance from P
to Q being 108 yards. The first heat, A reaches Q first, and meets B on
his return at a point 12 yards from Q. The second heat, A increases his
speed by 2 yards a second, and B by 1 yard a second; and now A
meets B 18 yards from Q. How many yards can each run in a second ?
15. A train running from A to B, meets with an accident which de-
lays it a hours. It then proceeds at arate one-nth less than its former
rate, and arrives at B } hours late. Had the accident occurred ¢ miles
nearer B, the train would have been @ hours late. Find the rate of the
train before the accident, and the distance to B from the point of
detention.
16. A man buys 60 shares of stock, part paying dividends at the rate of
88 per cent, and the remainder at the rate of 44 per cent. If the first
part had paid dividends at the rate of 44 per cent, and the other at the
rate of 33 per cent, the total annual income would have been $12 less.
How many shares of each kind did he buy ?
 DISCUSSION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 149

XIII. DISCUSSION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS

VARIABLES AND LIMITS’

245. A variable number, or simply a variable, is a number

which may assume, under the conditions imposed upon it, an
indefinitely great number of different values.
A constant is a number which remains unchanged throughout
the same discussion. :
A limit of a variable is a constant number, the difference
between which and the variable may be made less than any
assigned number, however small, without ever becoming zero.
In other words, a limit of a variable is a fixed number which
the variable approaches indefinitely near, but never actually
reaches.
246. It is evident that the difference between a, variable
and its limit is a variable which approaches the limit zero.
a
247. Interpretation of 5

Consider the series of fractions

ee ee ae
a78 03.003 7 4
where each denominator after the first is one-tenth of the pre-
ceding denominator.
It is evident that, by sufficiently continuing the series, the
denominator may be made less than any assigned number, how-
ever small, and the value of the fraction greater than any
assigned number, however great.
In other words, if the numerator ofafraction remains constant,
while the denominator approaches the limit 0, the value of the
Sraction increases without limit.
It is customary to express this principle as follows:
Z =o.
0
150 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

The symbol o is called Injinity; it simply stands for that which is

greater than any number, however great.

248. Interpretation of <.

Consider the series of fractions
Oi Oe Oe eee
3” 30’ 300’ 8000’?
where each denominator after the first is ten times the preced-
ing denominator.
It is evident that, by sufficiently continuing the series, the
denominator may be made greater than any assigned number,
however great, and the value of the fraction less than any
assigned number, however small.
In other words,
If the numerator of ds fraction remains constant, while the
denominator increases without limit, the value of the fraction
approaches the limit 0.
It is customary to express this principle as follows:
ee
ioe)
|
It must be clearly understood that no literal meaning can be attached
to such results as D a
—-=o, and —=0;
0 eo

for there can be no such thing as division, unless the divisor is a jfinite
number.
If such forms occur in mathematical investigations, they must be in-
terpreted as in §§ 247 and 248.

249. Interpretation of >.

By § 44, : signifies a number which, when multiplied by 0,

gives 0.
But by §§ 387 and 40, if any number be multiplied by 0, the
result is 0.
Hence, 9 may be any number whatever.
 DISCUSSION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 151

For this reason the fraction is called Indeterminate.

250. A Function of a number is any expression which con-

tains the number.
Thus, the expression 2 2 —3aa+5a’ is a function of a.
251. Function Notation.
A function of a is often represented by the symbol f («) ; read
“f-function of x,” or simply “ f-a.”
If, in any investigation, f(#) stands for a certain function of
x, then, whatever value a may have, f(a) represents the result
obtained by substituting a for w in the given function.
Thus, if f(#)=2#?+3— 2, then
f (3) =34+3-3—-2=16;_
f(—3) =(— 3+ 3(— 3) —2= — 2; ete.
Functions of « are also represented by the symbols F(x), ¢ («), ete.

THE THEOREM OF LIMITS

252. If two functions of the same variable are so related that,

as the variable changes its value, they are equal for every value
_ which the variable can assume, and each approaches a certain
limit, then the two limits are equal.
Let y and z be functions of a certain variable, «; and let them
be equal for every value which the variable can assume, and
approach the limits y' and z', respectively.
To prove that =a.
Let y'—y=m, and 2! -—z=n.
Then, m and n are variables which can be made less than
any assigned number, however small (§ 246).
Then, m—vn is either zero, or else a variable which can be
made less than any assigned number, however small.
But m—n=y'—y—2'+z2=y'—2; for, by hypothesis, y
and z are equal.
Since y' —z! is not a variable, m —n is not a variable.
Then, m—n is 0; and hence its equal, y'—z! is 0, or y! =2".
152 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

PROPOSITIONS IN REGARD TO LIMITS

253. The limit of the sum of a constant and a variable is the

sum of the constant and the limit of the variable.
Let a be a constant, and w a variable whose limit is 2’.
Then, w!/—az can be made less than any assigned number,
however small (§ 245).
Whence, (#'+ a) — (w+ a), which equals a’ —x, can be made
less than any assigned number, however small.
Then, w + a is the limit of w+ a.
254. The limit of the sum of any finite number of variables is
the sum of their limits.
Let x, y, 2, «++, be variables whose limits are wa’, y’, 2’, ---,
respectively.
Then, w' —a, y!'—y, 2'—z, +, can be made less than any
assigned number, however small.
Whence, (v’—a)+(y'—y) + @'—2z) +,
or, (eo! + y' +a! +--)—(w+ty+e+--),
can be made less than any assigned number, however small.
Then, w+ y'+2'+--- is the hmit of e+y+z24+-. (1)
255. Any two corresponding positive signs, in (1), § 254,
may be changed to negative.
Thus, «#—y'+2'+.--- is the limit of e—-y+z+-+.
256. The limit of the product of a constant and a variable is
the constant multiplied by the limit of the variable.
Let a, x, and a have the same meaning as in § 258.
Then, a(a' — @), or av! — ax, can be made less than any assigned
number, however small.
Whence, aw! is the limit of aa.
257. The limit of the product of any number of variables is the
product of their limits. .
Let , y, 2, +++, be variables having the limits 2’, y’, z!, ... ?
respectively ; and let #/—-a=I, y!'—y=m, z'—z=n, +».
Then, /, m,n, +++, can be made less than any assigned number,
however small.
 DISCUSSION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 153

Now, w'y'a! ++» = (a+1)(y+m)(z+n)

= wyz+---+ terms involving J, m, n, «+.
Then, 2'y'z'.-- — ayz--- = terms involving 1, m, n, -+-. (1)
The second member of (1) can be made less than any assigned
number, however small.
Then, w'y'z'--- is the limit of ayz---.
258. Let n be a positive integer, and wa variable having the
limit x’; then,
limit of a” = limit of # x # x ax +. to n factors
=a xa! x a! x --- to nm factors, by § 257,
=e = (limit or a),
259. The limit of the quotient of two variables is the quotient
of their limits, if the divisor be not zero.
Let w and y be variables having the limits a! and 7’, respec-
tively ;and suppose that y’ is not zero.
Let a! —w=l, and y'—y=m; then, e=a'—land y=y'—™m.
Now,
1 @ a! at—l aly! —ma! — (aly'— ly’) __ ly! — ma! (1)
y y y—nm y'(y' — m) ~ y? — my"
_* Since 7 and m can be made less than any assigned number,
however small (§ 245), the numerator of this fraction can be
‘made less than any assigned number, however small.
Also, the denominator can be made to differ from y” by less
than any assigned number, however small.
Then, the fraction (1) can be made less than any assigned
number, however small.
er als 2
Whence, a is the limit of a

INTERPRETATION OF NEGATIVE RESULTS

260. A problem is said to be Impossible when its conditions
cannot be satisfied.
It is said to be Indeterminate when the number of its solu-
tions is indefinitely great.
154 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

261. 1. The length of a field is 10 rods, and its breadth 8

rods; how many rods must be added to the breadth so that the
area may be 60 square rods ?
Let # = number of rods to be added.
By the conditions, 10(8 + x) = 60.
Then, 80 + 10x
= 60, orx=
— 2.
By § 78, adding —2 rods is the same thing as subtracting 2 rods.
Hence, 2 rods must be subtracted from the breadth in order that the
area may be 60 square rods.
The above problem is impossible arithmetically ; for the area of the
field is at present 80 square rods; and it is impossible to make it 60
square rods by adding anything to the breadth.
If we should modify the problem so as to read :
‘“‘The length of a field is 10 rods, and its breadth 8 rods; how many
rods must be subtracted from the breadth so that the area may be 60
square rods?”
and let « denote the number of rods to be subtracted, we should find # = 2.
Also, if we had solved the given problem by letting x denote the num-
ber of rods to be subtracted, we should have found x =2.

2. Ais 35 years of age, and B 20; it is required to deter-

mine the epoch at which A’s age is twice as great as B’s.
Let us suppose that the required epoch is w years after the present
date.
By the conditions, 35+%=2(20+~2).
Then, 85 +%=40+4+2a, ore= —65.
By § 56, — 5 years after is the same thing as 5 years before the present
date. :
Therefore, the required epoch is 5 years before the present date.
If we had supposed the required epoch to be # years before the present
date, we should have found z = 5.

From the discussion of the above problems, we infer that a

negative result may be obtained:
1. In consequence of the fact that the problem is arithmeti-
cally impossible.
2. In consequence of a wrong choice between two possible
hypotheses as to the nature of the unknown number.
 DISCUSSION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 155

In the first case, it is usually possible to form an analogous

problem, whose conditions are satisfied by the absolute value
of the negative result, by attributing to the unknown number
a quality the opposite of that which had been attributed to it.
In either case, a positive result may be obtained by attribut-
ing to the unknown number a quality the opposite of that which
had been attributed to it; and the equations answering to the
new conditions may be derived from the old equations by
changing the sign of the unknown number wherever it occurs.
Similar considerations hold in problems involving two or
more unknown numbers.
A negative result sometimes indicates that the problem is
impossible.
3. If 11 times the number of persons in a certain house,
increased by 18, be divided by 4, the result equals twice the
number increased by 3; find the number.
Let x = the number.

By the conditions, nee =24+3.

Whence, 1ig+18=8e-+
12, and ¢=—2:
The negative result shows that the problem is impossible.

262. A problem may also be impossible when the solution

is fractional, or zero.
1. A man has two kinds of money; dimes and cents. The
total number of coins is 23, and their value 37 cents. How
many has he of each ? as
Let 4% = number of dimes.
Then, 23 — «= number of cents.
The x dimes are worth 10 x cents ; then, by the conditions,
14
10”%+
23 —x=37; and «=>.

The fractional result shows that the problem is impossible.

2. The denominator of a fraction exceeds the numerator by

6; and if 2 be added to the numerator, the value of the fraction
is, Find the fraction.
156 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Let x = the numerator.

Then, a + 6 = the denominator.
ape pet
By y th the conditions,
ditions ae
Cuig aS

Whence, 82+6=%24+6; andz=0.

The result shows that the problem is impossible.

THE PROBLEM OF THE COURIERS

263. The discussion of the following problem serves to

further illustrate the interpretation of negative and zero results,
besides furnishing an interpretation of infinite and indetermi-
nate results.
The Problem of the Couriers. Two couriers, A and B, are
travelling along the same road in the same direction, RR’, at
the rates of m and nm miles an hour, respectively. If at any
time, say 12 o’clock, A is at P, and B is a miles beyond him
at Q, after how many hours, and how many miles beyond P,
are they together ?
R P Q R’

Let A and B meet w hours after 12 o’clock, and y miles

beyond P.
They will then meet y — a miles beyond Q.
Since A travels ma miles, and B nx miles, in @ hours, we
have if y= M2,
|YY — d= ne.
Solving these equations, we obtain
am
x= ; and y= °
7 — m— nN

We will now discuss these results under different hypotheses.

Lise .
In this case, the values of x and y are positive.
This means that the couriers meet at some time after 12, at
some point to the right of P. :
 DISCUSSION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 157

This agrees with the hypothesis made; for if m is greater

than n, A is travelling faster than B; and he must overtake
him at some point beyond their positions at 12 o’clock.
2,.m<n.
In this case, the values of # and y are negative.
This means that the couriers met at some time before 12, at
some point to the left of P.
This agrees with the hypothesis made; for if m is less than
_n, A is travelling more slowly than B; and they must have
been together before 12 o’cluck, and before they could have
advanced as far as P.
3. 4=0,andm>norm<n.
In this case, «= 0 and y= 0.
This means that the travellers are together at 12 o’clock, at
the point P.
This agrees with the hypothesis made; for if a =0, and m
and » are unequal, the couriers are together at 12 o’clock, and
are travelling at unequal rates; and they could not have been
together before 12, and will not be together afterwards.
4. m=n, and a not equal to 0.
- In this ease, the values of # and y take the form @ and are
inginite (§ 247). Q
No definite values can be assigned to # and y, and the prob-
lem is impossible.
This agrees with the hypothesis made; for if m =n, and a
is not zero, the couriers are a miles apart at 12 o’clock, and are
travelling at the same rate; and they never could have been,
and never will be together.
Therefore, an infinite result indicates that the problem is iv-
possible.
In this case, as m — n approaches the limit 0, the values of « and y
increase without limit.
That is, as the difference of the rates of the couriers approaches the
limit 0, both the number of hours after 12 o’clock, and the number of
miles beyond P, when A and B are together, increase without limit.
158 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

>, mM =n, and a—0.

In this case, the values of w and y take the form >,and are
indeterminate (§ 249).
This means that any value of « whatever, with the corre-
sponding value of y, is a solution of the problem.
This agrees with the hypothesis made; for if m=n, and
a = 0, the couriers are together at 12 o’clock, and travelling at
the same rate; and they always have been, and always will
be together.
Thus, an indeterminate result indicates that the number of solu-
tions is indefinitely great.

EXERCISE 35

Interpret the negative results, and modify the enunciation accordingly,

in the following :
1. If the length of a field is 12 rods, and its width 9 rods, how many
rods must be subtracted from the width so that the area may be 144 square
rods ?
2. A is 44 years of age, and B 12 years; how many years ago was A
three times as old as B ?
8. A’s assets are double those of B. When A has gained $250, and B
$170, A’s assets are five times those of B. Find the assets of each.
4. A cistern has two pipes. When both are open, it is filled in 74
hours ; and the first pipe alone can fill it in 3 hours. How many hours
does the second pipe take to fill it ?
5. A and B are travelling due east at the rates of 41 and 31 miles an
hour, respectively. At noon, A is 5 miles due east of B. How many
miles to the east of A’s position at noon will he overtake B ?
6. A has $720, and B $300. After A has gained a certain sum, and
B has gained two-thirds this sum, A has three times as much money as B.
How much did each gain ?
In each of the following, interpret the solution:
7. The number of apple and pear trees in an orchard is 23; and seven
times the number of apple trees plus twice the number of pear trees equals
82. How many are there of each kind ? i
8. The number of silver coins in a purse exceeds the number of gold
coins by 8. And five times the number of silver coins exceeds three times
the number of gold coins by 8. How many are there of each kind ?
 DISCUSSION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 159

9. The numerator of a fraction is four times the denominator; and if

the numerator be diminished by 9, and the denominator by 15, the value
of the fraction is ee Find the fraction.
3)

10. A is a years old, and B b years. After how many years will A be
n times as old as B?
Discuss the solution in the cases when n = 1 and a is not equal to nb,
and when n = 1 and a= nb.
11. What number must be added to both terms of the fraction 5to
make it equal -
d
Discuss the solution in the cases when a and ¢ is not equal to d,
whenc=d and : is not equal to ‘,and when c=d and =

12. Two couriers, A and B, are travelling along the same road, in the
in the same direction, at the rates of m! and m/!’ miles an hour, respec-
tively. B passes a certain point m hours after A. How many hours after
B passes this point will he overtake A ?
Determine for what values of the letters the solution is positive, nega-
tive, zero, impossible, and indeterminate, and discuss the solution in each
case.
13. The circumference of the fore-wheel of a carriage is a feet, and of
the hind-wheel } feet. How far will the carriage have travelled when the
fore-wheel has made n revolutions more than the hind-wheel ?

Discuss the solution in the following cases :

1. n=0, a andb unequal. 2. a=b, n not equal to zero. 3.a=b,n=0.

INDETERMINATE FORMS

264. The indeterminate form ; does not always represent

a fraction which may have any value whatever.
2 g2
Take, for example, the fraction lease 2s
x” — ae
If «=a, the fraction takes the form >.
Dividing both numerator and denominator by «—a,
v—a? «+a
a a w
which holds so long as # does not equal a (§ 115, 4).
160 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

The second member of (1) approaches the limit 2 when 2

approaches the limit a.
: approaches the limit 2 when # approaches the
2 —

Then, .
imiie-
x? — @?
We call the limit approached by the fraction , when & ap-

proaches the limit a, the value of the fraction when «=a.

In any similar case, we divide both terms of the fraction by the ex-
pression which makes each term vanish, and find the limit approached by
the result.

In the problem of § 264, the result was obtained in consequence of

two independent hypotheses, one causing the numerator to vanish,

and the other the denominator ; and in any similar case we should find
the result 5susceptible of the same interpretation.

But in the above example, the result is obtained in consequence of

the same hypothesis causing both numerator and denominator to vanish.

265. The Indeterminate Forms = 0X, and © —o.

1. To find the limit approached by the fraction ies

o+5ba
when 2 is indefinitely increased.
Dividing each term of the fraction by a, we have

ine
lim 1422 _ lim @& Ea ee ee 248) 2
ezo3+be te Bean 0+5 5
e na OES. ae . Dao “A = Ss

We use the notation hn for the words ‘‘the limit when @ is in-
x =o :
definitely increased of,’? and the notation oie for the words ‘the
limit as # approaches q@ of.” n= a

In the above example, the fraction takes the indeterminate fofm ©

when « is indefinitely increased. co

In any similar case, we divide both numerator and denominator of the

fraction by the highest power of 2.
ae
DISCUSSION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 161

2. Find the value of the expression (a? + 8) ( + ae) when

v= — 2.
The expression takes the indeterminate form 0 x « when

se[esa(ircda)p teste ets

o= — 2.
We have
lim 3 1 — lim eo

Se (a + 0?—24+4+12)=—84444412=12.
In any similar case, we simplify the expression as much as possible
before finding the limit.
dete 22%
3. Find the value of when «=1.
—e% l1—2 2

The expression takes the indeterminate form « —o when

ip se Ae

lim Des fe is or oe
ot; eel eee a 1—2
Pim Las lim « 1 1
@t11—@ w«=li+e 2

EXERCISE 36

Find the values of the following :

1 7-16 wnene = 4,
e2 — 2% —
3 2
4+5%—32" when x is indefinitely increased.
T—a+422

Fag 3 er
, 8a?—~2a—3 when « =<- @ See en SOU.
12 42 — 25% + 12 4 3% a
x? —1
4. v8 +942 + 27% 427 when eS. et 1 ee en ae
x — 18 x? + 81 2-2 x-—8

5, S20? + 204+) henge) 8. — 8a? +82%—-2 when o=2,

8x8 +1 2 v—T4H%+6

9. (2a?-52—8)(2+—15) # = 3.
when
162 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

DISCUSSION OF THE SOLUTION OF A SYSTEM OF

SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR EQUATIONS

266. A system of simultaneous equations is said to be Inde-

terminate when the number of solutions is indefinitely great.
267. Any system of two simultaneous linear equations, in-
volving two unknown numbers, can be reduced to the form
|ae + by =, (1)
age + by = 0} (2)
where a), bj, Cy, Qs, b:, and ce, may have any numerical values
whatever, except that a, b,, a, and b, cannot be zero.
By Ex. 3, § 242, the solution of the above system is
bee, — Dye,2 Col — CA
4 , and y=— 12.
Ab, — Ady yb, — Agd,
These fractions have definite values as long as a,b, does not
equal a,b,.
We will now discuss the valies of w« and y when
D5 hein (A)
(1) If b,c; — b,c, is not zero, @ is infinite (§ 247).

From (A), Oy = ts (B)

1

Then, C0 — €,@ = C0, — ai = q (byCy — bec). (C)

i 1

Since neither aj, bi, nor b,c, — bec, is Zero, C4, — GM, is not
zero.
Whence, y is also infinite.
By aid of equation (B), the given equation (2) can be written

tab,«+ by = Co, Or GHae+ dy = Pree,

by bs
by multiplying each term by ot
1)
Thus, the given equations are inconsistent ; for, by (1), we
have aw + by = «.
 DISCUSSION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 163

Hence, infinite results show that the given equations are incon-
sistent.
(2) If bac,— dycy is zero, w takes the form 7 and may have
any value whatever (§ 249); for in this case we have two inde-
pendent hypotheses, one causing the numerator to become zero,
and the other the denominator. (Compare § 264.)
In this case, by (C), cya, — ca. is also zero; so that y is
indeterminate.
From the equations b,c, — bc, = 0 and ca, — cd, = 0, we have

by ey and Qo = 2.
Q q
Then the given equation (2) can be written

ge Dts Y = Cy OF ae + by =;
q Cy
which is the same as (1).
We thus have a single equation to determine two unknown
numbers.
Hence, indeterminate results show that the given equations are
not independent.
Similar considerations hold for any system of simultaneous
linear equations, involving more than two unknown numbers.

268. We will illustrate the principles of § 267 by an example.

Consider the system of equations
ae + by+oz=d,
age + boy + coz = dy,
ast + bay + C3% = dg.
Solving, we find
— Ubsls — Aybalo + Asb3e, — Ayb\C3 + Agh\co — debe (1)
~~ Abels — AydgCy + Agb3C, — Mqd1C3 + Agh{Co— Az),oe
with results of similar form for y and z.
We will now use equation (1) as a formula for finding the
value of x in the following system of equations.
164 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

i
2e+3y—22=—1,
| e—dsy+5z= 6.
Here, I= oO, b, =— 2, Cie d=, n= 2; (On 3h, Co =— 2,

d,=—1, hy Ie b,=— 5, (Gn Gn—=105

Substituting these values in (1), we have

Oe OO gs One eee Oo.
27 —30—10412+4+4-—3 0’
and the same result will be found for y and z.
The indeterminate results show that the given equations are
not independent (§ 267); this may be seen by observing that
the first equation is the sum of the second and third.
In this case, 2 may have any value whatever.
We will now apply formula (1) to the following system:
2e+5y—32= 8,
e—-4yt2z2= 3,
38e+ y— 2g=—-2.,
Here, Che 74, O== Db, ¢ =— 3, C= 8, Oo=1, b,=—4, = 2,

Ojo, Coy Chal, ¢,=—1, d,=— 2.

Substituting these values in (1), we have

pe OO HS I a0 oe 2 .
49 98=4-3 6450-36 5 0 FL
and the same result will be found for y and z.
The infinite results show that the given equations are incon-
sistent ($ 267); this may be seen by observing that the sum
of the first two equations gives 8a+y—z=11, while the third
requires that 32+ y—z should equal — 2.

269. Number of Solutions of a System of Simultaneous Linear

Equations.
If we have a system of m independent and consistent simul-
taneous linear equations, involving m unknown numbers, we
may eliminate m—1 of the unknown numbers, and obtain a
single linear equation involving one unknown number.
ij
DISCUSSION OF LINEAR EQUATIONS 165

By § 227, the latter has one solution.

Whence, the given system of equations has one solution.
And, in general, a system of independent and consistent linear
equations has a single solution when the number of equations is
the same as the number of unknown numbers.
If we have a system of m independent linear equations,
involving m+n” unknown numbers, we may eliminate m—1
of the unknown numbers, and obtain a single linear equation
involving the remaining n+ 1 unknown numbers.
By § 228, the latter has an indefinitely great number of solu-
tions; and hence the given system has an indefinitely great
number of solutions.
And, in general, a system of independent linear equations has
an indefinitely great number of solutions when the number of equa-
tions is less than the number of unknown numbers.
If we have a system of m+n independent linear equations,
involving m unknown numbers, we may find a set of values
of the unknown numbers which will satisfy any m of the
equations. .
But this set of values will not satisfy the remaining n equa-
tions; and hence the given system has no solution.
And, in general, a system of independent linear equations has
no solution when the number of equations is greater than the
number of unknown nunvers.
166 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

XIV. GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION

270. Rectangular Co-ordinates of a Point.

Let XX! and YY’ be straight lines, intersecting at right

angles at O; OY being above, and OY' below, XX', when OX is
horizontal and extends to the right, and OX' to the left, of O.
Let P, be any point in the plane of X_X' and YY', and draw
line P,M perpendicular to X_X'.
Then, OM and MP, are called the rectangular co-ordinates of
P,; OM is called the abscissa, and MP, the ordinate.
The lines XX’ and YY’ are called the azis of X and axis of
Y, respectively; and O the origin.
We express the fact that the abscissa of a point is 0, and its
ordinate a, by saying that, for the point in question, «= b and
y =a; or, more concisely, we speak of the point as the point
(b, a); where the first term in parentheses is understood to be
the abscissa, and the second term the ordinate.

271. Let M and N be points on OX and OX’, respectively,

such that OM= ON=b; and draw lines P,P, and P,P, through
M and N, respectively, perpendicular to XX', making
MPS MPS NP = IER == (0
 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION 167

Then, each of the points P,, P,, P;, aud P, will have its
abscissa equal to b, and its ordinate equal to a.
To avoid this ambiguity, abscissas measured to the right of
O are considered +, and to the left, — ; and ordinates measured
above XX' are considered +, and below, —.
Then the co-ordinates of the points will be as follows:
P,, (0, a); Px (—6, a); Ps, (—), —a); P, 0b, =.0);
It is understood, in the above convention respecting signs, that the
Jigure is so placed that OX is horizontal, and extends to the right of O.

If a point hes upon XX’, its ordinate is zero; and if it lies

upon YY’, its abscissa is zero.
The co-ordinates of the origin are (0, 0).

272. Plotting Points.

To plot a point when its co-ordinates are given, lay off the
abscissa to the right or left of O, according as it is + or —,
and then draw a perpendicular, equal in length to the ordinate,
above or below XX’ according as the ordinate is + or —.
Thus, to plot the point (— 3, 2), lay off 3 units to the left of
O upon XX’, and then erect a perpendicular 2 units in length
above XX’.

GRAPH OF A LINEAR EQUATION INVOLVING TWO

UNKNOWN NUMBERS

273. Consider the equation y = «+ 2.

If we give any numerical value to w, we may, by aid of the
relation y = + 2, calculate a corresponding value for y.
Le 2 == 0, We 2. (A)
eR y= 3. (B)
Titi2, y=4. (C)
hie oO, jo. (D)
ieee lt) yea. (£)
lfie=—2, y=0. (Ff)
If v¢=—3, y=—1; ete. (@)
168 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Now let these be regarded as the co-ordinates of points; and

let the points be plotted, as explained in § 272.
They will be found to lie on a certain line, GD, which is
called the Graph of the given equation.
By assuming fractional values for x, we may obtain intermediate points
of the graph.

274. We shall always find that a linear equation, involving

two unknown numbers, has a straight line for a graph; this
may be proved as follows:
Every such equation can be put in the form y= ax +b.
We will first show that the graph of y= az is a straight line.
The equation y=azx is satisfied if
*x=0 and y=0; hence, the graph of
y=aw passes through O.
Let A and B be any other two points
on the graph; draw lines OA and OB;
also, lines AC’ and BD perpendicular to
OX.
Since A and B are on the graph,
ACG=ax
0G, and BD=a@x 0D:

Then, a= ao since each of these equals a.

Then, triangles OAC and OBDare similar; and OB coincides

with OA. :
Therefore, all points in the graph of y = aw are in a straight
line passing through O.
Now the graph of y=ax+b can be obtained from that of
y = ax by increasing the ordinate of each point of the graph of
y = aw by b.
Hence, the graph of y=ax+b is a straight line parailel to
the graph of y= az.
It follows from the above that the graphs of y= ax +b andy=ax+e
are parallel.

275. A straight line is determined by any two of its points.

a
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION 169

Then, it is sufficient, when finding the graph of a linear equa-

tion involving two unknown numbers, to find two of its points,
and draw a straight line through them.
The points most easily determined are those in which the
graph intersects the axes.
For all points on OX, y=0; hence, to find where the graph
cuts OX, put y = 0, and calculate the value of 2.
To find where the graph cuts OY, put «= 0, and calculate
the value of y.
Let it be required, for example, to plot the graph of
24+3y=—T.
ra by
Put y=0; then 22=—7, and w= — 5
ff A
Then plot A on OX', 5 units to the X’ jae
left of O. B
Put e=0; then 3 y= —7, and y=—t L,

Then plot B on OY’, :units below O.

Draw the straight line AB; this is the required graph.
The above method cannot, of course, be used for a straight line passing
through the origin, nor for the equations of § 276.

276. Consider the equation y= 5.

This means that every point in the ¥ Caalk ms
graph has its ordinate equal to 5.
Then the graph is the straight line AB,
parallel to XX', and 5 units above it. f
In like manner, the graph of «=—3 3 0 a
is the straight line CD, parallel to YY’, MT 4:
and 3 units to the left of it.
The graph of y = 0 is the axis of X, and the graph of x = 0 is the axis
of ¥.
EXERCISE 37

Plot the graphs of the following :

Bee =O. SS, 7 ='2- ba 2 Sys 7. 162 —27y=—
72.
2 e«-—4y=4, 4. y=-4. 6 «+y=0. -8 8~%+15y=-6.
170 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

INTERSECTIONS OF GRAPHS

277. Consider the equations

3ae—y=—9. (AB)
ae 4. (CD)
Let AB be the graph of 3a—y=—9,
and CD the graph of «+ 2y=4.
Let AB and CD intersect at Z.
Since # lies on each graph, its co-
ordinates must satisfy both given equa-
tions; hence, to find the co-ordinates of ZH, we solve the given
equations.
In this case, the solution is s=—2, y=3; and it may be
verified in the figure that these are the co-ordinates of E.
Hence, if the graphs of any two linear equations, with two
unknown numbers, intersect, the co-ordinates of the point of inter-
section form a solution of the system of equations represented by
the graphs.
EXERCISE 38
Verify the principle of § 277 in the following systems:
ea 4 f5a—4y=0.
3% —2y=— 5. "UI e 56 ys 29.
peels (9a+14y =— 25.
8a4+3y=— 18. PASeebas es

278. Graphs of Inconsistent and Indeterminate Linear Equa-

tions, with two Unknown Numbers.
Consider the equations

The equations can be written,

Le 5 3 Th

and it was shown in § 274 that the graphs .

of two equations of this form are parallel.
 GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION iat

The given equations are inconsistent; and we shall always

find that two inconsistent equations, with two unknown num-
bers, are represented by parallel graphs.
Again, consider the equations
|3e2—2y= 5.
6x2—4y=10.
In this case, the graphs coincide.
The given equations are not independent;
and in any similar case, we should find
that the graphs were coincident.

279. Graphical Representation of Linear Expressions involving

one Unknown Number.
Consider the expression 3a + 5. if
Put y=3u+5; and let the graph of
this equation be found as in § 275.

Putting y=0, x= — 2; then the graph

cuts XX! = units to the left of O.
oO

Putting «=0, y= 5; then the graph

cuts YY' 5 units above O.
The graph is the straight line AB.
It was shown in § 274 that the graph of a linear equation, with two
unknown numbers, is a straight line.

280. Graphical Representation of Roots (§ 110).

Consider the equation aw + b= 0. (1)
To find the graph of the first member, puty=ar+b. (2)
The abscissa of the point in which this graph intersects OX,
must, when substituted for # in (2), make y= 0.
Then, it makes the first member of (1) equal to zero, and is
therefore a root of the given equation.
Hence, the abscissa of the point in which the graph of the first
member of any linear equation, with one unknown number, inter-
sects X_X', is the root of the equation.
172 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Consider, for example, the equation 3%4+5=0.

The graph of the first member was found in § 279.
This intersects XX’ at the point A, whose abscissa is ~3; and th
root of the equation is — 2.

EXERCISE 39

Verify the principles of § 278 in the four following systems :

Ve 16. : ea iy=14.
8a+4y= —16. ' l4a—14y =28.
eh bigi= 0: f 5e+ 6y=15.
6a —16y = 30. 1152418
y =45.
Plot the graphs of the first members of the following equations, an
in each case verify the principle of § 280:
5. 244+7=0. 6. 5a—4=0.
 INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION 173

XV. INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION

INVOLUTION
281. Involution is the process of raising an expression to
any power whose exponent is a positive integer.
We have already given (§ 180) a rule for raising a rational
and integral monomial to any power whose exponent is a
positive integer.
282. Any Power of a Fraction.

We have ese x UX ... to n factors

S iy
_@xXaxX ++ ton factors
_ a"
~ bxbxX + ton factors b*
Then, a fraction may be raised to any power whose exponent is
a positive integer by raising both numerator and denominator to
the required power, and dividing the first result by the second.

iain, (=e 20° "eee

(2 a)? = 32 ae"= (§ 130):
: ( 39 Bye 438 889)
THE BINOMIAL THEOREM

283. A Series is a succession of terms.

A Finite Series is one having a limited number of terms.
An Infinite Series is one having an unlimited number of terms.
284. In §§ 131 and 135, we gave rules for finding the square
or cube of any binomial.
The Binomial Theorem is a formula by means of which any
power of a binomial may be expanded into a series.
In the present chapter, we shall consider those cases only in
which the exponent is a positive integer.
285. Proof of the Theorem for a Positive Integral Exponent.
The following are obtained by actual multiplication.
174 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

(a+2)?=a?+2 ax 42°;
(a+e=a+3
wa+3 aa’ +2;
(a+e)t=a'+4
ax+ 6 a’a?+4
aa? + at; ete.

In these results, we observe the following laws:

1. The number of terms is greater by 1 than the exponent of
the binomial.
2. The exponent of a in the first term is the same as the
exponent of the binomial, and decreases by 1 in each succeed-
ing term.
3. The exponent of x in the second term is 1, and increases
by 1 in each succeeding term.
4. The coefficient of the first term is 1, and the coefficient of
the second term is the exponent of the binomial.
5. Ifthe coefficient of any term be multiplied by the exponent
of a in that term, and the result divided by the exponent of x
in the term increased by 1, the quotient will be the coefficient
of the next following term.
We will now prove by Mathematical Induction (Note, § 134)
that these laws hold for any positive integral power of a+ 2.
Assume the laws to hold for (a +)", where n is any positive
integer.
naa n is
4)eS
(a fe x)” =a"+
a Sot (1)
Then,

Let P, Q, and R denote the coefficients of the terms involvy-

ing a* "a", a**—Ja"*!, and a"*~*a"?, respectively, in the second
member of (1); thus,
(a+ a)"=a"+ na"-le + +
+ Para’ + Qatar") 4+ Rar tart? +... (2)
Multiplying both members by a+ 2, we have
(a+ a)" =a"! + nate + +--+ Qa" "ae"! + Ra™r-lgrt? 4...
+ ate fe + Patra} 4 Qari rt?
=a"t+ (n+ 1)a+-
+ (P+ Qa" rar + (Q+ Rat... (8)
 INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION Lo

This result is in accordance with the second, third, and fourth

laws.
Since the fifth law is assumed to hold with respect to the
second member of (2), we shall have
Oe. and pa wi TI):
ica r+2
Therefore,
g42m=r —1) Qm+l1)
Q+h r+2 tb 2 ee
Pes cas IGREaN AT, ~ Qm@+i) r+2
u—? n—?

Whence, ms
Q+ R=(P+Q) u—?T
mo

But n — 7 is the exponent of a in that term of (3) whose coeffi-

cient is P+Q, and 7+ 2 is the exponent of @ increased by 1.
Therefore, the jijth law holds with respect to (38).
Hence, if the laws hold for any power of a+ whose expo-
nent 1s a positive integer, they also hold for a power whose
exponent is greater by 1.
But the laws have been shown to hold for (a + «)*, and hence
they hold for (a+ 2)’; and since they hold for (a+ «)”, they
' hold for (a+ )*; and so on.
Hence, they hold when the exponent is any positive integer.
By aid of the fifth law, the coefficients of the successive
terms after the second, in the second member of (2), may be
readily found; thus,
(a+e)"=a"+ na" e+ nin=t)ts SP

+ n(n —1)(n—2)
5.3 a” 8934. “He vos, (4)

This result is called the Binomial Theorem.

In place of the denominators 1-2, 1-2-3, etc., it is customary to
write |2,|8, etc. The symbol |n, read ‘‘ factorial n,’’ signifies the product
of the natural numbers from 1 to n inclusive.
176 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

286. In expanding expressions by the Binomial Theorem, it

is convenient to obtain the exponents and coefficients of the
terms by aid of the laws of § 285, which have been proved to
hold for any positive integral exponent.
1. Expand (a+ 2)’.
The exponent of a in the first term is 5, and decreases by 1
in each succeeding term.
The exponent of w in the second term is 1, and increases by
1 in each succeeding term.
The coefficient of the first term is 1; of the second, 5.
Multiplying 5, the coefficient of the second term, by 4, the
exponent of a in that term, and dividing the result by the
exponent of # increased by 1, or 2, we have 10 as the coefficient
of the third term; and so on. ?
Then, (a+a)=a'?+ 5 atx + 10 aa? + 10 a’a? + Saat + a’.
It will be observed that the coefficients of terms equally distant from
the ends of the expansion are equal; this law will be proved in § 288,
Thus the coefficients of the latter half of an expansion may be written
out from the first half.

If the second term of the binomial is negative, it should be

enclosed, negative sign and all, in parentheses before applying
the laws; in reducing, care must be taken to apply the princi-
ples of § 150.

2. Expand (1 — 2)%
(1—a)'=[14+(—a}
=1°4+6-1°-(—a)+15-1*.
(— 2)? 4 20-18. (— a)8
+15-1?-(—a)'+6-1-(—2)’+(—
2)
=1—6e@-+-152?—
2002-15 4 — 6 2? a
Tf the first term of the binomial is a number expressed in Arabic
numerals, it is convenient to write the exponents at first without reduc-
tion ; the result should afterwards be reduced to its simplest form.
s

If either term of the binomial has a coefficient or exponent

other than unity, it should be enclosed in parentheses before
applying the laws,
 INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION 177

3. Expand (8 m? + 2 n')*.
(8 m? + 2 n*)* = [(8 m?) + (2 n)}
= (3 m’)* + 4(8 m’)°(2 n*) + 6 (8 m?)?(2 n?)?
+4(8 m’) (2 n*)8 + (2 n3)*
= 81 m* + 216 m'n3 + 216 min§ + 96 m?n? + 16 n?.
A polynomial may be expressed as a binomial, and raised to
any positive integral power by successive applications of the
Binomial Theorem.
But for second or third powers, the methods of §§ 134 and
136 are shorter.
4. Expand (a? — 2a — 2)4
(a! — 2» —2)'= [(® 22) + (—2)}
= (x? — 2 w)*+ 4(a’ — 2 w)°(— 2) + 6(a? — 2 x)?(— 2)?
+ 4(a? — 2 x) (— 2)*+ (— 2)
=e —8 7) + 24 of — 320° +16 ¢
— 8(a8 — 6 a + 12 a — 8 2°)
+ 24(at — 4 o + 4 x’) — 32 (a? — 2 w) +16
=v —S8 a7 + 16 2° +16 a — 56 a4 — 32 0? + 6407+ 642416.

287. To jind the rth or general term in the expansion of (a+a)”.

The following laws hold for any term in the expansion of
(a+)", in equation (4), § 285:
1. The exponent of x is less by 1 than the number of the
term.
2. The exponent of a is n minus the exponent of a.
3. The last factor of the numerator is greater by 1 than the
exponent of a.
4. The last factor of the denominator is the same as the
exponent of a.
Therefore, in the rth term, the exponent of x will be r—1.
The exponent of a will be n—(r—1), orn—r+1.
The last factor of the numerator will be n —r + 2.
The last factor of the denominator will be r—1.
178 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Hence, the rth term

= n(n a 1) (n — 2) see (n ae + 2) qr tyr-1, (1)

1+2-38+-(r—1)
In finding any term of an expansion, it is convenient to obtain
the coefficient and exponents of the terms by the above laws.
Ez. Find the 8th term of (8 a—b’)”.
We have, (8 a—0°)"=[(3 a) + (—0°) |".
The exponent of (— 0°) is 8 —1, or 7.
The exponent of (8 a) is 11 —7, or 4.
The first factor of the numerator is 11, and the last factor
4+1, or 5.
The last factor of the denominator is 7.

Then, the 8th term =

11-40
-9- 8276.6-5 3 a)t(— By
food oom
= 330 (81 at) (— B®) = — 26730 atd®.
If the second term of the binomial is negative, it should be enclosed,
sign and all, in parentheses before applying the laws.
If either term of the binomial has a coefficient or exponent other than
unity, it should be enclosed in parentheses before applying the laws.

288. Multiplying both terms of the coefficient, in (1), § 287,

by the product of the natural numbers from 1 to n—r+1,
inclusive, the coefficient of the rth term becomes
n(n —1) + (n—7+2)-(M—r+1)-2-1 |
r—1X1-2---(n—r+1) alee

To find the coefficient of the rth term from the end, which
since the number of terms is n + 1, is the [n — (r —2)]th from
the beginning, we put in the above formula n — r+ 2 for 7.
Then, the coefficient of the rth term from the end is
ln or In, :
[w—r+2—1 |n—(m—r42)41’ [n—r+1|[r—1

Hence, in the expansion of (a+ x)", the coefficients of terms

equidistant from the ends of the expansion are equal.
 INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION 79

289. Properties of Coefficients in the Expansion of (a +)".

J. Putting in (4), § 285, a=1 and a=1, we have
n(n
— 1)
1)
2=1+n+ foe ak
[2
That is, the sum of the coefficients, in the popensida of (a+a)”,
is equal to 2”.
II. Putting in (4), a=1 and «=—1, we have

ies
=ee
il 1mee
— Ly Gy — 2

:
Or, 1+
nin—1),
2 +--=n+
n(n — 1)
E
(n—2) IE 500,

That is, the swum of the coefficients of the odd terms is equal to
the sum of the coefficients of the even terms.

290. The Greatest Coefficient in the Expansion of (a +2)”.

By § 287, the coefficient of the (7 +1)th term, in the expan-
sion of (a+2)”, is
n(n—1)+--(—r+1).
[7
This is obtained by multiplying the coefficient of the rth
1 n+1
term by —s, or aya —1.

The latter expression decreases as 7 increases.

It is evident that the successive coefficients, commencing
with the first term, will increase numerically so long as
n—r+l,
‘ Chssscale

I. Suppose n even; and let n=2m, where m is a positive

integer.
n—r+1 2m—r+1
Then, Deed ecnmes < t=
ee
r
(a. one becomes) =,
m+1
and is >*T.
m
180 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

2m—r+1
ir =m 1K fe becomes ay and 18 <1.

Then, the greatest coefficient will be when r= m +1.

As the number of terms in the expansion is 2m +1, it fol-
lows that the middle term has the greatest coefficient.
II. Suppose n odd; and let n=2m-+1, where m is a posi-
tive integer.
n—r+1 2m—r-+2
Then, BET comes a
r ,
Tym,
> Cael
»
um —*
5 erat:
T* pecomes
nr 42 , and 4s sds
(fe n
Sipe ae ea
i= +1, eS becomes 7” = - and equals 1.
r m+1
om—r 2
If r=m+ r. +m —T T* becomes rand Mag 49
TF m + 2
There will then be two terms having the greatest coefficient;
those where r=m+1 and r=m-+2.

EXERCISE 40
Expand the following :
25\ 8
ise *): 4. (a +b)% 7. (2a? — b8)%,
2 ¢8
3 mta2\6 ytz\8
Bist hice : 5. —y)". 8. ee ei
( ny® io (« 3
Bgp2a/6\ 5
8, tae): 6. (1+ 28. ofDim? yee
ie
(¢b3c4 ee n + m

Expand the following to five terms :

10. (a + y)°. 11. (ab — 1)” 12. (m? — 2 n8)4,
Expand the following:
138. (202+ %+ 3)38. 16. (20? + 4 — 4)4.
14. (4a? — 3 ab — b?)8, 17. 2+22+ x2),
15. (1—382% 4 2 «?)$, 18. (7 — 3% - 2),
Find the
19. 8th term of (a + aH. 20. 10th term of (1 — n)™.
 INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION 181

21. 9th term of (a? + 1)4, 28. 7th term of (x? — 2 y3)12,

22. 5th term of a - aay ¥ 24. Middle term of fm? +”).0

ee eae f 3
25. Term involving x!* in (« rik
a
» 26. Term involving x in (2ee al BF
3 3

EVOLUTION

291. Evolution is the process of finding any root (§ 157) of

an expression.
We shall consider in the present chapter those cases only in which both
the expression and its root are rational (§ 198).
We have already given (§ 166) a rule for finding the principal
root of a rational and integral monomial, which is a perfect
power of the same degree as the index of the required root.

292. If m and n are positive integers, we have, by § 164,

Van a”.

Whenee, by § 157, 9-V(a")™ = (Va")”.

This method is preferable to that of § 166, if the expression
whose root is to be found is a power of a number which is a per-
fect power of the same degree as the index of the root.

Ex, V/G20") = (VW32a") = 2a’)? = 8 a'.

293. Any Root of a Fraction.
Let n be a positive integer, and a and 6 numbers which are
perfect nth powers.
~ nla LRT aes ni PSOE Ware
By § 165, {ix VoaNiixt= Va

Dividing both members by V4,

ala Va.
b 9
182 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Then, to find any root of a fraction, each of whose terms is

a perfect power of the same degree as the index of the required
root, extract the required root of both numerator and denominator,
and divide the first result by the second.

ees AO. 378 NCO

3 37,6 ao a02

644° 640 4¢3

SQUARE ROOT OF A POLYNOMIAL

294. In § 168, we gave a rule for finding the square root of

a trinomial perfect square; and, in § 170, of an expression of
or @?+b+e?e+2ab+2ac+ 2 be,
which could be seen, by inspection, to be a perfect square.
We will now consider the method of finding the square root
of any polynomial perfect square.
Let A and B be rational and integral expressions (§ 63);
and suppose them to be arranged in the same order of powers
of some common letter, a.
Let the exponent of w in the last term of A be greater, or
less, than its exponent in the first term of B, according as
A and B are arranged in descending, or ascending, powers
of w.
By § 131, (4+ B= A4?+2 AB+ B.
Whence, (4+ BY— A?=2 AB+ B’

If the expression 2 AB-+ B? be arranged in the same order

of powers of a as A and B, its first term must be twice the
product of the first term of A and the first term of B.
Hence, the first term of B may be obtained by dividing the
first term of 2.4B+ B? by twice the first term of A.
By the expression ‘‘ first term of A,’’ in the above discussion, we
mean the swm of all the terms of A containing the highest, or lowest,
power of x, according as A is arranged in descending, or ascending,
powers of a.
Thus, if A= axt + bat + cx’, the first term of A is (a + b)at.
 INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION 183

- A similar meaning is attached to the expressions ‘‘last term of .A,”’

and ‘first term of B.”

295. We will now consider an example.

Required the square root of
24e¢—-12 0 —Te’?+4a'+16.
Arranging the expression according to the descending powers
of a, we are to find an expression which, when squared, will
Bence 4 ot —12 0 —Ta® +2404 16,
It is evident from § 134 that the first term of the expression
is the square of the term containing the highest power of 2 in
the square root.
Hence, the term containing the highest power of « in the
square root must be the square root of 4 2*, or 2 a”.
Denoting the term of the root already found by A, and the
remainder of the root, arranged in descending powers of a,
by B, we have
(A+ BY — A? =4 ot —12 8 —7 2? + 2424416
— (22%)?
=—12e—Ta’+24e+16. (1)
_ By § 294, the first term of B may be obtained by dividing
the first term of (1), — 122’, by twice A, or 42”; that is, the
first term of Bis —3 2.
Hence, the first two terms of the root are 2 #’?—3 a.
Denoting this expression by A’, and the remainder of the
root, arranged in descending powers of x, by B', we have
re By — A%

=4 9-12 ® —Ta’?4 242416— (22°—3 2)?

=4ot—12 02 —Ta?+ 244+4+16—(4at—12
2+ 9 a’)
=—162?+24%-+16. (2)
By § 294, the first term of B' may be obtained by dividing
the first term of (2), —162°, by twice the first term of J’,
or 42?; that is, the first term of B' is —4.
Hence, the first three terms of the root are 227—3a—4,
184 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Denoting this expression by A", and the remainder of the

root, arranged in descending powers of 2, by B'', we have
(Ar Elie oe

=4e'—12 &—7 a? 4+242416—(20°—3 a—4)?

=4 ¢'—12 8 —7 0? +24 ¢4+16—(402'—-12 oF—7 2’?4242416)
=(0.

Hence, the required square root is 2a°—3a—4.

296. Let the last term of A’ be C.

Then, 4'=A+O0, and A?=4?+2AC+ 0%
Therefore,
(A'+
B'P — A? = (A+ B)?— A?-2 AC—C?
= [(A+B)— A] —(2A+ 0/6.
In like manner, if C' denotes the last term of A",
‘ CAM + B'y — Al? = peek ae i): ood, AP =o (2 A! +. COG":

and so on,
That is, any remainder after the first may be obtained by
subtracting from the preceding remainder an expression which
is formed by doubling the part of the root already found,
adding to it the next term of the root, and multiplying the
result by this term.
The expressions 2 4, 2 A’, etc., are called trial-divisors, and 2 A+ OC,
2A' + C’, etc., complete divisors. '

297. It is customary to arrange the work as follows, the com-

plete divisors and remainders being formed by the rule of § 296:
4at*—12a3— Ta’?4+ 24a416|20°—-3e—4
4 *
4e’?—3a%|/—12e°— 727+ 2442+ 16, 1st Rem.
—30|—12¢+ 92
4°—6a — 4 | —16 27+ 242416, 2d Rem. 2
— 4
To avoid needless repetition, the last three terms of the first remainder,
and the last two terms of the second, may be omitted.
wore
+

INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION 185

We then have the following rule for extracting the square

root of a polynomial perfect square:
Arrange the expression according to the powers of some letter.
Extract the square root of the first term (§ 294), write the result
as the first term of the root, and subtract its square from the given
expression, arranging the remainder in the same order of powers |
as the given expression.
Divide the first term of the remainder by twice the jirst term of
the root, and add the quotient to the part of the root already found,
and also to the trial-divisor.
Multiply the complete divisor by the term of the root last obtained,
and subtract the product from the remainder.
Tf other terms remain, proceed as before, doubling the part of
the root already found for the next trial-divisor.
If the expression had been written
16 + 24% —742 —1203+
4 x4,
the square root would have been obtained in the form 4+ 3% — 222,
which is the negative of 242 —3a”—-—4.

298. With the notation of § 296,

2A = 2ZAL2C
In like manner, 2 A" =2 A'+2C’'; and so on.
That is, any trial-divisor, after the first, is equal to the preced-
ing complete divisor with its last term doubled.

SQUARE ROOT OF AN ARITHMETICAL NUMBER

The term ‘‘ number,’ in the following discussion, signifies an integral

or decimal perfect square, expressed in Arabic numerals,

299.
The square root of 100 is 10; of 10000 is 100; ete.
Hence, the square root of a number between 1 and 100 is
between 1 and 10; the square root of a number between 100
and 10000 is between 10 and 100; etc.
That is, the square root of an integer of one or two digits
contains one digit; the square root of an integer of three or
four digits contains two digits; ete,
186 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Hence, if a point be placed over every second digit of an integer,

beginning at the units’ place, the number ofpoints shows the number
of digits in its square root.
. . a :
300. If a is an integral perfect square, then ——, where n is
any positive integer, is also a perfect square.
But Tue is a number whose decimal part contains an even
number of digits, and which differs from a only in the position
of its decimal point.
Hence, if a point be placed over every second digit of any
number, beginning at the units’ place and extending in either
direction, the number of points shows the number of digits in its
square root.

301. Let a, b, and c represent positive integers.

We have, . ‘
Pe = Ae ae =b+e4 Oho,
a a
That is, if the remainder obtained by subtracting a? from
(a+b-+c)* be divided by 2a, the quotient is greater than 0.
In like manner, if the remainder obtained by subtracting a?
from (a+ 0)’ be divided by 2 a, the quotient is greater than b.
302. We will now consider an example.
Required the square root of 10719076.
Pointing the number in accordance with the rule of § 299,
we find that there are four digits in its square root.
Since the number is between 9000000 and 16000000, the
square root is between 3000 and 4000.
That is, the first digit of the root is 3.
Let a represent the number 3000; 6 the second digit of the
root, multiplied by 100; and ¢ the number consisting of the
last two digits of the pot in their order.
Then, a+6-+¢ represents the root; now,
(a+ b+c)*—a* _ 10719076 — 9000000 _ 1719076
== 290.4.
20, 6000 ~ 6000
 INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION 187

By § 301, this is greater than b.

Hence, } is a multiple of 100 less than 286.+.
Assume, then, 6 = 200.
Then, the first two digits of the root would be 32.
Let a’ represent the number 3200; 0! the third digit of the
root, multiplied by 10; and ce! the last digit of the root.
Then, a’ + 6'+c' represents the root; now,
(a'+b'+ 0)? —a” _ 10719076—10240000 _ 479076 _ 74.4
2a! 6400 6400 ei
By § 301, this is greater than 0’.
Henee, 0! is a multiple of 10 less than 74.+.
Assume, then, b'= 70.
Then, the first three digits of the root would be 327.
Let a" represent the number 3270, and 6b" the last digit of
the root.
Then, a!'+ 6" represents the root; now,
(a'' + 6")? — a! _ 10719076 — 10692900 _ 26176 _ fee
2 aq" 6540 6540
By § 301, this is greater than 6"; assume, then, 0” = 4.
Since (3274)? = 10719076, the required square root is 3274.

303. We have with the notation of § 302,

(a'+b'+c¢'P—a?=(a+b+c)?— (a+b)
=(a+b+c)—w—2 ab—b?
=[(a+b+c¢"-—a@]—(2a+d)d.
Similarly,
(a! ai bly? ee glits [(a! Sey ae dys a”) = (2 al + bb!

That is, any remainder after the first may be obtained by

subtracting from the preceding remainder a number which
is formed by doubling the part of the root already obtained,
adding to it the next root digit followed by as many ciphers as
there are digits in the remainder of the root, and multiplying
the result by the latter number.
The numbers represented by 2a, 2a’, etc., are called trial-divisors,
and those represented by 2a+ 0, 2a! + b!, etc., complete divisors
188 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

304. The work of the example of § 302 may be arranged

as follows, the complete divisors and remainders being formed
by the rule of § 303:
10719076 3000 + 200 + 70+4
a? = 9000000
1st Comp. Div., 6000+ 200 |1719076
200 |1240000
2d Comp. Div., 6400 + 70 |479076
70 |452900
3d Comp. Div., 6540 + 4 |26176
4| 26176

Omitting the ciphers for the sake of brevity, and condensing

the operation, it will stand as follows:
10719076 |3274
9
62 |171
124
647 |4790
4529
6544 |26176
26176

We then have the following rule for extracting the square

root of an integral perfect square :
Separate the number into periods by pointing every second digit,
beginning with the units’ place.
Find the greatest square in the left-hand period, and write tts
square root as the first digit of the root ;subtract the square of the
first root-digit from the left-hand period, and to the result annex
the next period. _
Divide this remainder, omitting the last digit, by twice the part
of the root already found, and annex the quotient to the root, and
also to the trial-divisor.
Multiply the complete divisor by the root-digit last obtained, and
subtract the product from the remainder.
 INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION 189

If other periods remain, proceed as before, doubling the part

of the root already found for the neat trial-divisor.
Note 1. It sometimes happens that, on multiplying a complete divisor
by the digit of the root last obtained, the product is greater than the
remainder. In such a case, the digit of the root last obtained is too great,
and one less must be substituted for it.
Note 2. If any root-digit is 0, annex 0 to the trial-divisor, and annex
to the remainder the next period.

305. We will now show how to obtain the square root of a

number which is not integral.
Required the square root of 49.449024.

We have, Vi9Ad9024 = / 19449024

1000000
_ 7032
1000
(§ 293) = 7.032.
The work may be arranged as follows:
49.449024|7.032
49
1403 |4490
4209
14062 |28124
28124
Since 14 is not contained in 4, we write 0 as the second root-digit, in
the above example ; we then annex 0 to the trial-divisor 14, and annex to
the remainder the next period, 90.
Hence, if any number be pointed in accordance with the rule
of § 300, the rule of § 304 may be applied to the result, and
the decimal point inserted in its proper position in the root.
306. After n+1 digits of the square root of an integral
perfect square have been found by the rule of § 304, n more
may be obtained by simple division only, supposing 2 +1 to
be the whole number.
For let a represent the integer whose first n+1 digits are
the first n +1 digits of the root in their order, and whose last
n digits are ciphers; and let } represent the integer consisting
of the last n digits of the root in their order,
Then, a+) represents the root,
190 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

We have, (a+ bP—@=2ab+D?.

: b)? — a? b?
Whence, we =p oe

That is, (a+ 6)? — a’, divided by 2a, will give the last n
digits of the root, increased by y
a
We will now prove that x is less than |; so that, by neg-
a
lecting the remainder arising from the division, we obtain the
part of the root required.
By hypothesis, b contains n digits.
Then, 6? cannot contain more than 2n digits.
But a contains 2n + 1 digits.
2 2
Hence, O” is less than 1; and therefore & is less than =
a a Z
If, then, the (n+ 1)th remainder be divided by twice the
part of the root already found, the remaining n digits of the
root may be obtained.
The method applies to the square root of any number.

Ex. Required the square root of 638.876176.

638.876176 |25.2
4
45 |238
225
502 |1387
1004
50.4) 3.836176 (.076
3528
3081
We obtain the first three digits of the root by the ordinary
method, and the other two by the method of § 806; that is,
by dividing the third remainder, 3.836176, by twice the part of
the root already obtained, or 50.4.
The required root is 25.2 + .076, or 25.276.
 INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION IgM

CUBE ROOT OF A POLYNOMIAL

307. In § 176, we gave a method for finding the cube root

of any expression of the form
a+b
+3 ab? + 6%, or a? — 3a +3 ab? — be.
We will now consider the method of finding the cube root of
any polynomial perfect cube.
Let A and B have the same meanings as in § 294.
By § 135, (A+ BY = 42°43 A7B+3 AB + B'.
Whence, (A+ By — A4=3 A’B+38 AB + B’.
If the expression 3 4°B+3 AB’ + B® be arranged in the same
order of powers of «as A and B, its first term must be three
times the product of the square of the first term of A and the -
first term of B.
Hence, the first term of B may be obtained by dividing the
first term of 3 4°7B+35 AB’ + B® by three times the square of
the first term of A.

308. We will now consider an example.

Required the cube root of
40 x — 6 x — 64 + w® — 96 a,
Arranging the expression according to the descending powers
of x, we are to find an expression which, when cubed, will
produce af — 6 a + 40 a? — 96 @ — 64.
It is evident from § 136 that the first term of the expression
is the cube of the term containing the highest power of « in the
cube root.
Hence, the term containing the highest power of # in the cube
root must be the cube root of «°, or 2”.
Denoting the term of the root already found by A, and the
remainder of the root, arranged in descending powers of a, by
B, we have
(A+ BY — A= a' — 6 2? + 40 a?
— 96 & — 64 — (a)
= —697 + 40 2 — 96 «— 64. (1)
192 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

By § 307, the first term of B may be obtained by dividing

the first term of (1), — 6°, by three times the square of A, or
3x; that is, the first term of Bis —2 2.
Hence, the first.two terms of the root are x — 2 2.
Denoting this expression by A’, and the remainder of the
root, arranged in descending powers of 2, by B', we have
(A'+ B)'— A”

=2° — 6 a + 40 a — 96 a — 64 — (a?
—2 2)8
=v — 6 a? + 40 a? — 96 w — 64 — (2° —6 a + 12 2 — 82°)
= —122'+ 48 2'— 96a—64. (2)
Then, the first term of B' may be obtained by dividing the
first term of (2), — 12 2*, by three times the square of the first
term of A’, or 32; that is, the first term of B'is — 4.
Hence, the first three terms of the root are 7? — 2a” —4.
Denoting this expression by A'’, and the remainder of the
root, arranged in descending powers of x, by B", we have
(ca ab B'yy — Alls

= a — 6a? + 40 a — 96 x — 64 — (a — 2a—4)8=0.
Hence, the required cube root is a —2a—4.

309. Let the last term of A' be C.

Then, A'= A+ C; whence,
(A'+
B"8 — A®? = (A+ BP — AS — 3 APC — 3 AC? — C?
=[(A+ B— A*)— C6 A4?+3AC4 CVC.
In like manner, if C' denotes the last term of A",
(A+ B"P— A'8=[CA'+ Be — AY — (3 Ale Jog A'C' at C\Ge

and so on.
That is, any remainder after the first may be obtained by
subtracting from the preceding remainder an expression which
is formed by adding together three times the square of the
part of the root already found, three times the product of the
part of the root already found by the next term of the root,
and the square of the next term of the root, and multiplying
the sum by the latter term.
 INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION 193

The expressions 3 A?, 3.A’, etc., are called trial-divisors, and 3A? +
38 AC + C?,3A2%+43A'C' + C?, etc., complete divisors.

310. We arrange the work as follows, the complete divisors

and the remainders being formed by the rule of § 309:
a® — 6a + 402° — 962 — 64a? 2a—4
28
3e*—6e+42° — 62° + 402? — 96a — 64
—6e¢ -12¢ = (8a
3 wt—1203 4-122 —122° + 48 2 — 96a — 64
—120¢?4+ 242+4+16
3 at—12 2 + 24a+16| —12ct+48 296% — 64
The last three terms of the first remainder, and the last two terms of
the second, may be omitted.

We then have the following rule for extracting the cube root
of a polynomial perfect cube:
Arrange the expression according to the powers of some letter.
Extract the cube root of the first term, write the result as the
jirst term of the root, and subtract its cube from the given expres-
sion; arranging the remainder in the same order of powers as the
given expression.
Divide the first term of the remainder by three times the square
of the first term of the root, and write the result as the neat term
of the root.
Add to the trial-divisor three times the product of the term of
the root last obtained by the part of the root previously found, and
the square of the term of the root‘last obtained.
Multiply the complete divisor by the term of the root last ob-
tained, and subtract the result from the remainder,
Tf other terms remain, proceed as before, taking three times the
square of the part of the root already found for the next trial-
divisor.

311. With the notation of § 509,

3 A? —=3 (A+ CyY=3 4?7+6AC+3C?
=3 A? +3 AC+C"+(8 AC +2 C”).
194 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

In like manner,
3 Al? =3 AP? 43 A'O'+ OC?4 (8 A'C'+2C"); ete.
That is, if the last term of the expression which is added to any
trial-divisor be doubled, the result, added to the corresponding
complete divisor, will give the next trial-divisor.
Thus, in the example of § 310, if we add to the first complete divisor
32+ — 6x3 + 422, the expression — 6 #3 + 8 #?, the result, 32+ — 1223 +12 x,
is the next trial-divisor.

CUBE ROOT OF AN ARITHMETICAL NUMBER

The term ‘‘ number,’ in the following discussion, signifies a positive

integral or decimal perfect cube, expressed in Arabic numerals.

312. The cube root of 1000 is 10; of 1000000 is 100; ete.

Hence, the cube root of a number between 1 and 1000 is be-
tween 1 and 10; the cube root of a number between 1000 and
1000000 is between 10 and 100; ete.
That is, the cube root of an integer of one, two, or three
digits contains one digit; the cube root of an integer of four,
five, or six digits contains two digits; ete.
Hence, tf a point be placed over every third digit of an integer,
beginning at the units’ place, the number of points shows the num-
ber of digits in tts cube root.

313. If ais an integral perfect cube, then ——, where nis any
positive integer, is also a perfect cube. a
a
Sut is a number, the number of digits in whose decimal

part is divisible by 8, and which differs from a only in the

position of its decimal point.
Therefore, if a point be placed over every third digit of any
number, beginning at the units’ place and extending in gither
direction, the number of points shows the number of digits in its
cube root.

314. Let a, b, and ¢ represent positive integers.

 INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION 195

Then (a+6+c%—a’_3 vb +c)+3a(b+cr+O +)°

f 3a 3a?
\

he et Oa) Or
ow?
That is, if the remainder obtained by subtracting a? from
(a+6+c)' be divided by 3a’, the quotient is greater than b.
Similarly, if the remainder obtained by subtracting a? from
(a+ b)* be divided by 3a’, the quotient is greater than 0.
315. We will now consider an example.
Required the cube root of 9745491456.
Pointing the number in accordance with the rule of § 312,
we find that there are four digits in its eube root.
Since the number is between 8000000000 and 27000000000,
the cube root is between 2000 and 3000.
That is, the first digit of the root is 2.
Let @ represent the number 2000; 6 the second digit of the
root, multiplied by 100; and ¢ the number consisting of the
last two digits of the root in their order. .
Then, a+ +c represents the root; now,
(a+b+c)—a’® 9745491456 — 8000000000
ow 12000000
Es 1745491456 {Ae ae
12000000
By § 314, this is greater than 0.
Hence, } is a multiple of 100 less than 145.+.
Assume, then, 6 = 100.
Then, the first two digits of the root would be 21.
Let a! represent the number 2100; 0’ the third digit of the
root multiplied by 10; and c' the last digit of the root.
Then, a'+ b'+c!' represents the root; now,
(a' +b' +c —a® _ 9745491456 — 9261000000
ae 13250000
ee 484491456 ogre
1382350000
196 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

By § 314, this is greater than 0’.

Hence, b' is a multiple of 10 less than 36.+.
Assume, then, b6'= 30.
Then, the first three digits of the root would be 213.
Let a'' represent the number 2130, and b'' the last digit of
the root.
Then, a’ +b" represents the root; now,
(a! +b")? — al? _ 9745491456 — 9663597000
30 13610700
__ 81894456 _ 6.+
13610700 >
By § 314, this is greater than 6”; assume, then, b! =6.
Then, since (2136) = 9745491456, the required cube root is
2136.
316. We have with the notation of § 315,
(a'+b' +c)—a® = (a+b+c)?— (a+b)
=(a+b+c)—a—38a’b—3ab?—b§
=[(a+b+c)—@]—@6a+38ab+45b%)b.
Sunilarly,
(a"' a phe q's = [(a! cy NA oo) _Gg ee a'b! +b") b!,

That is, any remainder after the first may be obtained by

subtracting from the preceding remainder a number which is
formed by taking three times the square of the part of the root
already obtained, adding to it three times the product of the
part of the root already obtained by the next root-digit fol-
lowed by as many ciphers as there are digits in the remainder
of the root, plus the square of the latter number, and multiply-
ing the result by the latter number.
The numbers represented by 8 a?, 3 a!?, ete., are called trial-divisors,
and those represented by 3 a2+3ab +4 b®, 3a%+3a'b! + b’2, ete., com-
plete divisors.

317. The work of the example of § 315 may be arranged as

follows, the complete divisors and remainders being formed by
the rule of § 316.
ea
~

INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION 107

9745491456 |2000 + 100 +304 6

a® = 8000000000
12000000 | 1745491456
600000
10000
Ist. Comp. Div., 12610000 | 1261000000
13230000 | 484491456
189000
900
2d Comp. Div., 18419900 | 402597000
13610700 | 81894456
38340
36
3d Comp. Diy., 13649076 | 81894456

Condensing the operation, it will stand as follows:

9745491456 | 2136
8
1200 |1745

134199 | 402597 .
13610700 | 81894456
38340
36
13649076 | 81894456

We then have the following rule for extracting the cube root
' of an integral perfect cube:
Separate the number into periods by pointing every third digit,
beginning with the units’ place.
198 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Find the greatest cube in the left-hand period, and write its cube
root as the first digit of the root ; subtract the cube of the first root-
digit from the left-hand period, and to the result annex the neat
period.
Divide this remainder by three times the square of the part of
the root already found, with two ciphers annexed, and write the
quotient as the next digit of the root.
Add to the trial-divisor three times the product of the last root-
digit by the part of the root previously found, with one cipher
annexed, and the square of the last root-digit.
Multiply the complete divisor by the-digit of the root last
obtained, and subtract the product from the remainder.
If other periods remain, proceed as before, taking three times
the square of the part of the root already found, with two ciphers
annexed, for the next trial-divisor.
Note 1, § 304, applies with equal force to the above rule.
If any root-digit is 0, annex two ciphers to the trial-divisor, and annex
to the remainder the next period.

318. With the notation of § 315,

da"=3(a+ bP? =3a + 6ab+ 30?
=3@+3ab+0'+ Bab+ 2b).
In hke manner,
3a’? =3a?+d3a'b' +b? + Bald! + 2b"); ete.
That is, ifthe first number and the double of the second number
required to complete any trial-divisor be added to the complete
divisor, the result, with two ciphers annexed, will give the neat
trial-divisor.

319. We will now show how to obtain the cube root of a

number which is not integral.
Required the cube root of 1073.741824.

We have, ~VI07S TAS24 = |1013741824

1000000 a

—
102
100 i (§
ee
293 293)=1
= 10.24
. °

The work may be arranged as follows:

a INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION 139

1073.741824 10.24
1 is
30000 |73741
600

30604. |61208
600 |12533824
3121200
12240
16
3133456 |12533824
Here the second root-digit is 0; we then annex two ciphers to the
trial-divisor 300, and annex to the remainder the next period, 741.
The second trial-divisor is formed by the rule of § 318.
Adding to the complete divisor 30604 the first number, 600, and twice
the second number, 8, required to complete the trial-divisor 30000, we
have 31212 ; annexing two ciphers to this, the result is 3121200.
Hence, if any number be pointed in accordance with the rule
of § 313, the rule of § 317 may be applied to the result, and
the decimal point inserted in its proper position in the root.
320. After n + 2 digits of the cube root of an integral per-
' fect cube have been found by the rule of § 317, n more may be
obtained by division, supposing 2 n + 2 to be the whole number.
For let a represent the integer whose first n+ 2 digits are
the first n+ 2 digits of the root in their order, and whose last
n digits are ciphers, and 6 the integer consisting of the last n
digits of the root in their order; then, a+0 represents the root.
We have, (a+bf—a@=3 wb+3 ab? +b*
b\3 py 2 3
Whence, (CREA ais ary, when tee“
30 ag oso
That is, (a+ b)'— a’, divided by 3a’, will give the last n
oS
digits of the root, increased by Z ==
a 30
By hypothesis, } contains n digits.
Then, 6? cannot contain more than 2 n digits.
200 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

2
But a contains 2n+ 2 digits; and hence & is less than a
a
Again, 7bo _%BD
3 a
ne since %fi
y 3°a. and and since
5 x
keis —,i an
18 less1eSS than an 10’ and Oo
3
less than 1, .- is also less than =
2 3
. 1
Therefore, ee : 2
ip lessloss thanthan=-
a &
If, then, the (n+ 2)th remainder be divided by three times
the square of the part of the root already found, the remaining
n digits of the root may be obtained.
The method applies to the cube root of any number.

Hx. Required the cube root of 1452648.865311064.

1452648.865311064 |118.2
1 ———-—

300 | 452

Sar) raat
30 |121648
2
36300
990
9
37299 |111897
990 | 9751865
18
3830700
6780
4
3837484 7674968
6780
8
38442.72)2076.897311064(.054
19221360
15476131
 INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION 201

We obtain the first four digits of the root by the ordinary —

method, and the other two by § 320; that is, by dividing the
fourth remainder, 2076.897311064, by three times the square
of the part of the root already found, or 38442.72.
The required root is 113.2 + .054, or 113.254.

ANY ROOT OF A POLYNOMIAL

321. Let A and B have the same meaning as in § 294.

By § 285, if n is any positive integer,
(A+ By" = A"+nA™'B++
Whence, (A+ B)”—A*=nA""B+ «--
If the expression nA"'B + --- be arranged in the same order
of powers of x as A and B, its first term must be n times the
product of the (n —1)th power of the first term of A by the
first term of B.
Hence, the first term of B may be obtained by dividing the
first term of the expression nA” 1B + --- by n times the (n—1)th
power of the first term of A.
322. It follows from § 321, exactly as in §§ 295 and 308,
that the nth root of a polynomial, which is a perfect power of
the nth degree, may be found by the following rule:
Arrange the expression according to the powers of some letter.
Extract the nth root of the first term, and write the result as the
Jjirst term of the root; subtract from the polynomial its first term,
and arrange the remainder in the same order of powers as the
given expression,
Divide the first term of the remainder ien times the (n—1)th
power of the first term of the root, and write the result as the
second term of the root.
Subtract from the given polynomial the nth power of the part of
the root already found, and arrange the remainder in the same
order of powers as the given expression.
Tf other terms remain, proceed as before, dividing the first term
of the remainder by n times the (n —1)th power of the first term
of the root; and continue in this manner until there is no
remainder.
202 ADVANCED COURSE IN: ALGEBRA

ANY ROOT OF AN ARITHMETICAL NUMBER

The term ‘‘ number,’’ in the following discussion, signifies a positive,
integral or decimal, perfect power of the degree denoted by the index of
the required root, expressed in Arabic numerals.

323. It may be proved, as in §§ 299, 300, 312, and 313, that:

If a point be placed over every nth digit of any number,
beginning at the units’ place and eatending in either direction, the
number of points shows the number of digits in its nth root.

324. Let a, b, c, and n represent positive integers.

Gore ?
Gee
nar rs
AE UEna"eo ses
nar(6 + €) +
= 6 +64 ov.
n qr

That is, if the remainder obtained by subtracting a” from

(a+6-+c)” be divided by na”, the quotient is greater than 0,
In like manner, if the remainder obtained by subtracting a”
from (a+ 6)" be divided by na”, the quotient is greater than 0.
325. It is evident, from §§ 323 and 324, that the nth root of
a positive integral perfect nth power may be found by a process
similar to that employed in §§ 302 and 315.
The general rule will be as follows:
Point the number in accordance with the rule of § 323, and let
the number of digits in the root be m.
Find the greatest perfect nth power in the left-hand period, and
write its nth root as the first digit of the root.
Raise the part of the root already found, with m—1 ciphers
annexed, to the nth power, and subtract the result from the given
number.
Raise the part of the root already found, with m—1 ciphers
annexed, to the (n—1)th power, and multiply the result by n.
Divide the remainder by this number. ®
If the quotient is a number whose integral part contains m—1
digits, write its first digit as the next digit of the root; otherwise,
write 0 as the next root-digit.
 INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION 203

Raise the part of the root already found, with m— 2 ciphers

annexed, to the nth power, and subtract the result from the given
number.
The above process is to be repeated until there is no
remainder; the only change being that, in the successive
applications of the rule, m — 2, m— 3, etc., are written in place
of m—1 in the fourth, sixth, and seventh paragraphs.
The rule may be used to find the nth root of any number.
Hx. Find the cube root of 34550.415593.
In this case, n=3 and m=4.
34550.415593 |32.57
3000? = 27000000000
3 x 38000? = 27000000)7550415593 (200 +
3200° = 82768000000
3 X 3200? = 30720000) 1782415593 (50+
3250? = 34328125000
3 X 3250?= 31687500)222290593(7 +
82579 = 384550415593
Hence, the required root is 32.57.
Some of the ciphers may be omitted in practice.
It sometimes happens that, on raising the part of the root already found
to the nth power, the result is greater than the given number; in such a
case, the digit of the root last obtained is too great, and one less must be
substituted for it.

326. Let m and n be positive integers, and a a perfect power

of the degree mn.
By § 157, (A) ahh = or, (1)
and (Van = Va. (2)
Raising both members of (2) to the nth power,

(V/aym = Oh, (8)

From (1) and (8), by § 168,
hd pe Va;

for each of these expressions is the mnth root of a.

 204 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

That is, the mnth root of a (§ 162) equals the mth root of the
nth root of a.
The above is only true of principal roots.
It follows from the above that the fourth root of a perfect
power of the fourth degree equals the square root of the square
root of the expression.
The sixth root of a perfect power of the sixth degree equals
the cube root of the square root of the expression; etc.
In like manner, if m, n, and p are positive integers, and a
_ a perfect power of the degree mnp,

"Va = VV Va);
and so on.

327. Let m, n, and r be positive integers, and a a rational

number whose mth power is positive if n is even.
By § 157, (Vat)* = a”.
Raising both members to the rth power, we have
(Va ae (1)
Also, Co aaa. (2)
From. (1) and (2); (Va")"= Ca")
Taking the nrth root of both members (§ 163),
Va" = Va, and Va" = Va".
This means that the principal nth root of @™ is equal to the principal
nrth root of a”.
(The general theorems of evolution, in §§ 1638, 164, 165, 292, 293, 326,
and 327, were there proved only for principal roots.
That of § 326 is only true for such roots.
The others are true for certain values of the roots which are not prin-
cipal roots ; take, for example, the equation
Vab = Va x Vb (§ 165).
Ifn=2, a=4,b —9, it becomes V4 xX 9=V4 x V9.
The last equation is true when the value + 6 is taken for V4 x 9, —2
for V4, and — 3 for V9; also, when the value — 6 is taken for V4 x 9,
+2 for V4, and — 3 for V9.)
 INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION

EXERCISE 41

Find the values of the following:

le V (25 a2. 2. V6 a8yi2)5, 3. V(— 243 a2b%cl)8,
Find by inspection the values of the following :

\- Sah 41625 a6 5 Imo20

343 08 " V'81 93 " V 32 30°
Find the square roots of :
49 at + 16 bt + 14 ab — 8 ab3 — 55 a@2b?.
16 a? + 9 y? + 25 2? — 24 vy — 40 xz + 30 yz.
eo ge) ola. 2m 8.
Oy By G6Oyt Hy? 25
10. 4a? — 31lat+4— 3045+ 4423 4 2508 — 162.
11. 99729. 64. 12. 64.91041489. 13. .0063138916.

Find the cube roots of:

14. 27 «8 — 27 wy — 99 vty? + 71 3y3 + 132 «yt — 48 ay> — 64 yf,
15. 8a? _12a? , 104 5 OO b2 Ce
b3 b? b 38a 3a? 2748
16. 1224-628 —27 47+ 2° + 62 28 + 947 + 27 — 45 a? + 13 28 — 45 x5.
17. 201.230056. 18. 8831234.763. 19. .537764475968.
20. Find the fourth root of
16 «8 + 82 27 — 72 x6 — 1386 2 + 145 wt + 204 x8 — 162 x2? —108%+ 81.
21. Find the sixth root of
141204 5422
+ 100 «8 + 15 xt — 168 25 — 76 x8 + 168 x7
+ 15 78 — 100 29 + 54 01 — 12 gH 4+ gl?
22. Find the fifth root of
82 x! — 80 x9 + 240 28 — 360 27 + 570 x8 — 661 2° + 570 xt
— 360 23 + 240 a? — 80
x + 32.
23, Find the fourth root of 888.73149456.
Find the sixth root of .009229812275335744,
. Find the fifth root of 8472886.09443.
206 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

XVI. INEQUALITIES
328. An Inequality is a statement that one of two expres-
sions is greater or less than another.
The First Member of an inequality is the expression to the
left of the sign of inequality, and the Second Member is the
expression to the right of that sign.
Any term of either member of an inequality is called a term
of the inequality.
Two or more inequalities are said to subsist in the same sense
when the first member is the greater or the less in both.
Thus, a >b and c>d subsist in the same sense.

PROPERTIES OF INEQUALITIES

329. An inequality will continue in the same sense after the

same number has been added to, or subtracted from, both
members.
This follows from § 23, which is supposed to hold for all
values of the letters involved.
330. It follows from § 329, that a term may be transposed
from one member of an inequality to the other by changing its
sign.
If the same term appears in both members of an inequality affected
with the same sign, it may be cancelled.

331. If the signs of all the terms of an inequality be changed,

the sign of inequality must be reversed.
For consider the inequality a—b>e—d.
Transposing every term, d—c>b—a. (§ 330)
That is, b—-a<d—ce.
332. Let a—b be a positive number.
Then, (a—b)+b> 0; that is, a>.
Again, let a—b be a negative number.
Then, (a—b)+60<b; that is, a<b.
 INEQUALITIES 207

333. An inequality will continue in the same sense after both

members have been multiplied or divided by the same positive
number.
For consider the inequality a>.
By § 332, a—6 is a positive number.
Hence, if m is a positive number, each of the numbers
a—b
(a— 6) and ——ere
mi{a—b)
Ch WO. he
or, ma — mb and — —-—, is positive.
m Mm
Gra
Therefore, ma >mb, and —>—-
mm” m
334. It follows from §§ 331 and 333 that if both members of
an inequality be multiplied or divided by the same negative num-
ber, the sign of inequality must be reversed.

335. Jf any number of inequalities, subsisting in the same

sense, be added member to member, the resulting inequality will
also subsist in the same sense.
For consider the inequalities a > bd, a! > b', al! > b"", «+.
Then each of the numbers, a—b, a'—b', a!’—b", «+, is
positive.
Therefore, their sum
a—b+a'—d'+a"—b"+.-.,
or, atalta'+-.-—(6+b'+b"+.-.),
is a positive number.
Whence, ata tale. >b40' +b" 4-5.

336. If two inequalities, subsisting in the same sense, be

subtracted member from member, the resulting inequality does
not necessarily subsist in the same sense.
Thus, if a> 0 and a’ > D', the numbers a — 0b and a! — b' are
positive.
But (a —b) — (a'—b’), or its equal (a — a’) — (6 — B’), may
be positive, negative, or zero; and hence a — a! may be greater
than, less than, or equal to b— 0’.
208 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

337. If a>b6 and a’ >4’', and each of the numbers a, a’,

b, b', is positive, then aa! > bb!.

For since a— 6, a' — b', a, and b! are positive numbers, each

of the numbers a (a! — b') and b'(a—b)
is positive.
Then, aa'>ab', and ab!>bb!.
Then by § 335, aa'+ ab! > ab' + bd'.
Whence, aa’ > bb.

338. If we have any number of inequalities subsisting in

the same sense, as a>), a'>b', a''> 5b", ---, and each of the
numbers a, a’, a’, -+-, b, b', b", ---, is positive, then
aa'a'!... > bb'b!'... «

For by § 387, ac! > bb'.

Also, te
Whence, aa'a'' > bb'b" (§ 337).
Continuing the process with the remaining inequalities, we
obtain finally aalall s+. > BBB... «

339. It follows from § 338 that, if @ is > b, and a and 0 are

positive numbers, and n a positive integer, then
aa be

340. If n is a positive integer, and a and 0 perfect ntl

powers such that a is > b, then
Va> Vb.
For, if Ya were < +/b, raising both members to the ntk
power, we should have a< 0. (§ 339)
And, if Va= Vb, a would be equal to b.
Both of these conclusions are contrary to the hypothesis
that ais > b.
Hence, Va> Vb.
 INEQUALITIES 209

341. Examples.
1. Find the limit of 2 in the iy ps
23
Te — % a83eit

Multiplying both members by 3 (§ 333), we have

21a — 28 <2a+15.
Transposing (§ 330), and uniting terms,
19% < 38.
Dividing both members by 19 (§ 333),
a2,
2. Find the limits of # and y in the following:
ee ees (1)
24+ 3y=33. (2)
Multiply (1) by 3, 9e+6y>111.
Multiply (2) by 2, 4e+6y= 66.
Subtracting (§ 329), bas 45, and «> 9.
Multiply (1) by 2, 6a+4y>TA4.
Multiply (2) by 3, 6u+9y=99.
Subtracting, —dy>—
Divide both members by —5, y<5 (§ 334).
3. Between what limiting values of wis w—4a< 21?
e—Agvis< 21 if e—4e2—21 is<0.
That is, if (w+ 3)(#—7) is negative.
Now («+ 3)(#—7) is negative if a is between — 3 and 7.
Hence, 2? —42is <21ifwis > —3, and <7.
4. Prove that if a and b are positive numbers,
Geo:
i
We have (a— b)? £0; or, a? —2ab+0°£0.
Transposing —2ab, @+b0°¢2 ab.
Dividing each term by ad,

S4742,
210 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

5. Prove that, if a and b are unequal positive numbers,

a+b? > a*b + ba.
We have (a—b)?>0; or, a? —2ab+0?>0.
Transposing —ab, a—ab+b?>ab.
Multiplying both members by the positive number a + 8,
Pe WSs GNSS 0.

6. Prove that, if a, b, and c are unequal positive numbers,

218 +0? +c) >ab+a+ Ve+cb+ Ca+a’e.
By Ex. 5, a+ 6? > a7b + b’a,
b+ o> be + cd,
and CSE SSC as Ge
Adding, 217 ++) >a°b+0a+b'e+cb+ca+ar.

EXERCISE 42

Find the limits of x in the following:

1. Q@e%—3)§—71>42(2a
— 5)(a@ — 2).
2. (2—824)(8 —w)+4xe%+4+39>3424382)(@4
3).
8. (@—1)(@ — 2)(@ — 38)<(a — 5) (x + 6) (@ — 7).

|
4. @@ —1)< 2022 — 1) — ab, if a — 2b is positive.

ao so—m e+n
bo Ras
. m and n are positive
if 4 and m <n.
m
Find the limits of « and y in the following:
5a+6y< 46. Tx —4y>A4l1.
ema : (80+ 7y = 3865,
8. Find the limits of « when
38e—11<24— 11a, and 5%+4 23< 20%+3.
9. If 6 times a certain positive integer, plus 14, is greater than 13
times the integer, minus 63, and 17 times the integer, minus 238, is greater
than 8 times the integer, plus 31, what is the integer ?
10. If 7 times the number of houses in a certain village, plus 38, is
less than 12 times the number, minus 82, and 9 times the number, minus
43, is less than 5 times the number, plus 61, how many houses are there ?
 INEQUALITIES 211

11. A farmer has a number of cows such that 10 times their number,
plus 3, is less than 4 times the number, plus 79 ; and 14 times their num-
ber, minus 97, is greater than 6 times the number, minus 5. How many
cows has he ?
12. Between what limiting values of « is 724+ 38”<4 2
13. Between what limiting values of x is 242 + 13” > 24?

14. Between what limiting values of x is 622< 19% —10?

Prove that, for any values of «,

15. 9a2+25
u+25 £¢ 302.380% 16.
(Hae =B) Meertes 16 49,
Prove that, for any values of a and b,
if (4a +3b)(4a—3b)£ 6b(4a—380).
18. at+ bt £ 2 ab(a2
— ab + D).
Prove that, if all the letters represent unequal positive numbers,
19. a@ + ab + ab? + B83>2ab(a+ bd).
20. a+ 62+ ¢2>ab+
bc + ca.
21. ab? + 2c? + c2a2 > a®be + b2ca + c2ab.

22. (a+ b—c)?+(b+e—a)? +(c +a — b)*>ab + be + ca.

23. ab + ab? + b2c + bc? + c2a + ca? >6 abe.
24. (a? + b2 + 0?) (a? + y? + 22) (au + by + cz).
212 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

XVII SURDS. THEORY OF EXPONENTS

342. Meaning of V2.

It is impossible to find a rational number (§ 51) whose
square shall equal 2; but we can find two rational numbers,
which shall differ from each other by less than any assigned
number, however small, whose squares shall be less, and greater
than 2, respectively.
For, writing the squares of the consecutive integers 1, 2, etc.,
we have 1?=- 1, 2*= 4; ete.
Hence, 1 and 2 are two numbers which differ by 1, and
whose squares are less and greater than 2, respectively.
Again, 1?=1.21.0 P1441 3169 1 1 bl
2.25, etc.
Hence, 1.4 and 1.5 are two numbers which differ by .1, and
whose squares are less and greater than 2, respectively.
Again, 1.41?= 1.9881, 1.42? = 2.0164, etc.
Hence, 1.41 and 1.42 are two numbers which differ by .01,
and whose squares are less and greater than 2, respectively.
By sufficiently continuing the above process, we can find two
numbers which shall differ from each other by less than any
assigned number, however small, whose squares shall be less
and greater than 2, respectively.
343. The successive numbers, in the illustration of § 342,
whose squares are less than 2, are 1, 1.4, 1.41, ete.; and the
numbers whose squares are greater than 2, are 2, 1.5, 1.42, ete.
If each series be continued to r terms, the difference between
the rth terms of the two series is
reel
10
which can be made less than any assigned number, however
small, by sufficiently increasing 7.
Therefore, the rth terms of the two series approach the same
limit (§ 245), when r is indefinitely increased.
* SURDS. THEORY OF EXPONENTS 213

This limit is taken as the definition of 2.

344. In general, if n is any positive integer, and aa rational
number (§ 51), which is not a perfect power of the nth degree,
and which is positive if n is even, it is impossible to find a
number whose nth power shall equal a.
We can find, however, two rational numbers which shall dif-
fer from each other by less than any assigned number, how-
ever small, whose nth powers shall be less and greater than a,
respectively.
345. If n and a have the same meaning as in § 344, and a,
My, ls, ete., is a series of rational numbers whose nth powers
are less than a, and a’, a’, a's, etc., a series of rational num-
bers whose nth powers are greater than a, such that a’!)}~ a,=
1, a',~ a,=.1, a';~a,;=.01, etc., we may show, as in § 343,
that the rth terms of the two series approach the same limit,
when r is indefinitely increased.
This limit is taken as the definition of Va.
The expression Va is called a Surd.
The symbol ~ signifies the difference of the numbers between which
it is placed.

346. In the illustration of § 342, we also have (—1)?=1,

(—2)=4, ete.
It is therefore possible to find two negative rational numbers,
which shall differ from each other by less than any assigned
number, however small, whose squares shall be less and greater
than 2, respectively.
This is also the case with every surd of the form ~/a, when
n is even.
347. If a is positive, and a, ds, ete., and a, a's, etc., be taken
with positive signs, we shall call the limit approached by the
rth terms of the two series of § 345, when r is indefinitely
increased, the principal nth root of a.
If a is negative, we shall call the negative limit approached
by the 7th terms of the series, when r is indefinitely increased,
the principal nth root of a.
214 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

OPERATIONS INVOLVING SURDS

348. It is necessary to define Addition and Multiplication,

when any or all of the numbers involved are swrds.
Let n and p be positive integers.
Let a be a rational number which is not a perfect power of
the nth degree, and is positive if n is even.
Let 6 be a rational number which is not a perfect power of
the pth degree, and is positive if p is even.
Let ay, Gy, +++, G,. +++, be a series of rational numbers whose
nth powers are less than a, and a@;, a’, +++, a',, ++, a series
whose nth powers are greater than a, such that
OO 1, @e~ ds ="1, =, Oa Le
Let 0,, be, +++, 0. +++, be a series of rational numbers whose
pth powers are less than b, and 0’, b', +++, b!,, +++, a series
whose pth powers are greater than 6, such that
bind, SL bo 6, SL, ey Ope OF = Le
Then to add +/b to Va, is to find the limit, when + is indefi-
nitely increased, of a, + 0,.
To multiply Va by */b is to find the limit, when r is indefi-
nitely increased, of a, x 6,.
349. A meaning similar to the above is attached to any
expression, which is not a rational number, and which is the
result of any finite number of the following operations per-
formed upon one or more rational numbers, provided that, in
any indicated root, the number under the radical sign is posi-
tive if the index of the root is even:
Addition; Subtraction; Multiplication; Division; raising to
any positive integral power; extracting any root.
350. We will now show how to prove the laws of $$ 12 and
14, when any or all of the letters involved represent swrds.
Let it be required, for example, to prove the Commitative
Law for Multiplication (§ 14) with respect to the product
of two surds, Wa and 4/0, where n, p, a, and b have the same
meanings as in § 348.
_°%

SURDS. THEORY OF EXPONENTS 215

Or, to prove Vax Vo=V/b x Va.

With the notation of § 348, Va x +/b is the limit, when r is
indefinitely increased, of a, x b,.
Also, ~/b x Va is the limit, when r is indefinitely increased,
Dro. X Gi,
By § 14, since a, and }, are rational numbers,
The SS105 = (6h
Then, a, x b, and b, X a, are functions of r which are equal
for every positive integral value of 7; and, by § 252, their
limits when r is indefinitely increased are equal.
Hence, VaxvVb=V7b
x Va.
This simply means that the product of the principal nth root of a
(§ 847) by the principal pth root of 6 is equal to the product of the princi-
pal pth root of } by the principal nth root of a. (Compare § 162.)
A similar interpretation must be given to every result involving surds.
In like manner, the remaining laws of §§ 12 and 14 may be
proved to hold, when any or all of the letters involved repre-
sent surds.
351. Since the remaining results of Chap. I, and the results
in Chaps. II to XVI, inclusive, are formal consequences of the
. laws of §$ 12 and 14, it follows that every statement or rule,
in these chapters, in regard to expressions where any letter
involved represents any rational number, holds equally when
the letter represents a surd.
This is also the case when the letter represents any number of the
form described in § 349.

APPROXIMATE ROOTS

352. Any one of the successive numbers, in the example of

§ 342, is called an approwimate square root of 2.
In general, any one of the numbers q, a, etc., or a), a',, etc.,
in § 3845, is called an approwimate nth root of a.
353. The successive numbers, in the example of § 342, whose
squares are less than 2, may be obtained by regarding 2 as a
perfect square, and applying the rule of § 304.
 216 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

2.000000 | 1.414
af
24 |100
96
281 | 400
281
2824 | 11900
11296
604
The process may be continued to any desired extent.
In like manner the rule of § 317 may be used to find an
approximate cube root of a number (Note, § 312) which is not
a perfect cube; and the rule of § 525 may be used to find an
approximate mth root of a number (Note, § 323) which is not a
perfect power of the nth degree.
The considerations in §§ 306 and 320 apply equally to ap-
proximate square and cube roots.
354. To find an approximate root of a fraction whose terms
are positive integers expressed in Arabic numerals, whose
denominator is, and whose numerator is not, a perfect power
_ of the degree denoted by the index of the required root, we
may divide the required approximate root of the numerator by
the required root of the denominator (§ 293).
If the denominator is not a perfect power of the degree
denoted by the index of the required root, the fraction should
be reduced to an equivalent fraction whose denominator is a
perfect power of this degree.
Thus, let it be required to find the square root of % approxi-
mately, to four decimal places.

i
\2=\/5= (8 298) = Sern cre = 6128 i -.
EXERCISE 43
Find the approximate value of each of the following to five decimal
places:
Th, HVA 2. V18. 8. V.851. 4. vV.003.
 SURDS. THEORY OF EXPONENTS 217

11 5 Wiss Hil
5. AE 8. ee 1bE
16 28 a Waite So ; i
AE
aa =
9. V4.
3/74
12, V.02.
3
15. Vo
a bts p
aa
Biore
10) WIT.
Van ; 13. eo
- : 16.
isey

THE THEORY OF EXPONENTS

355. In the preceding portions of the work, an exponent

has been considered only as a positive integer.
Thus, if m is a positive integer,
a"=axXaXaxX--
to m factors. (§ 60)
356. We have proved the following results to hold when m
and n represent positive integers, and a any rational number:
a"xa’= intr (§ 85). (1)

(OP exo 128): (2)

357. It is necessary to employ exponents which are not posi-
tive integers; and we now proceed to define those forms of ex-
ponent which are rational numbers, but not positive integers.
In determining what meanings to assign to the new forms,
. it will be convenient to have them such that the above law for
multiplication shall hold with respect to them.
We shall therefore asswme equation (1), § 356, to hold, what-
ever number is represented by a, for all rational values of m
and n, including the case where either m or n is zero; and find
what meanings must be attached in consequence to fractional,
negative, and zero exponents.
358. Meaning of a Fractional Exponent.
Pp
Required the meaning of a’, where p and q represent positive
integers.
If (1), § 356, is to hold for all rational values of m and n,
we have
z z Beast g terms —Xq
atxa’x--- to g factors = a? 4 th
218 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

P
That is, (=a.
& ——<

Whence, by § 157, ai= V/a?. ;

P

We shall then define a? as being the gth root of a’.

— 5 pad: a ye
For example, ot = Vai; a? = Vai; a? = Va; ete.
P.
We shall throughout the remainder of the work regard a/ as being the
principal qth root of a”.

359. Meaning of a Zero Exponent.

Required the meaning of a’.
By § 356, (1), if m is any rational number
a" x@ aaa a".

Whence, Ga am
=a

We shall then define a’ as being equal to 1.

360. Meaning of a Negative Exponent.

Required the meaning of a~‘, where s represents a positive
integer or a positive fraction.
Byes 006, (1), a a at = a" oe 15359),

Whence, Coma ae - aé

We shall then define a-* as being equal to 1 divided by a’.

eons al a?=—; 38a-y 1
For example, a —

361. It follows from § 360 that

Any factor of the numerator of a fraction may be transferred
to the denominator, or any factor of the denominator to the
numerator, if the sign of its exponent be changed.

Thus, ©Fey
243
be written in the forms
OP abe) Gdte
ete.
aed? d# ? be’
 SURDS. THEORY OF EXPONENTS 219

362. We will now prove that, with the definitions of §§ 358

and 360, equation (1), § 356, holds for all rational values of m,
n, and a, provided that a” and a” are rational numbers or surds.
It will be understood that, in all fractional exponents, the
results are limited to principal roots.
I. Let mand n be fractions of é the form 2g and 7,
A respectively,
where p, g, 7, and s represent positive integers.

By § 358, a x a = Va? x Vel

=~ oF A/a (§ 327)
= Var x a (§ 165)
— Var (§ 85)

We have now proved that (1), § 356, holds when m and n

represent any positive rational numbers.
II. Let m be rational and positive, and let n =— q, where q
is rational, positive, and less than m.
Ibyss> OD, OF 062, 1, a? x a= a" art = a.
™

Whence, a™-t* ="at =a"x a7 (8 360).

That is, OP Ot Qe
In like manner, the law may be proved to hold when n is
rational and positive, and m =— p, where p is rational, positive,
and less than n.
III. Let m be rational and positive, and let n = q, where q
is rational, positive, and greater than m.
By § 361, a” x a7? = Ue SEea 62, Th) os
anal aamta
In like manner, the law may be proved to hold when n is
rational and positive, and m =— p, where p is rational, positive,
and greater than n.
220 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

IV.. Let m=—p, and n =—gq, where p and g are rational

and positive.
Bi 1
eu, a" <6 Ot aat e qets
(§§ 85, or 362, I) =a".

Hence, a” x a" =a" for all rational values of m and n.

For example, CLG AG 2-5 == — gas 3
5 5 a
axa?=a't?=a?; ete.
363. We have for all rational values of a, m, and n, provided
that a” and a” are rational numbers or surds,
a" x ata” (§§ 85, 362) =a™.
a”™

Whence, — ES ge",
q”

a <: 3 z
For example, —=a? =a;
a
a $ at?28
—=
ae — a2; ete

364. We will now prove that equation (2), § 356, holds for
all rational values of a, m, and n, provided that a” and a™ are
rational numbers or surds.
In all fractional exponents, the results are limited to princi-
pal roots.
I. Let n be a positive integer.
Then, *(a")* =a" x a™ a” 3©::« tom tacvors
= yma oe to n terms (S§ 85, 362) = qn,

Il. Let n=, where p and q are positive integers.

> m
Then, (a)'=V(a"? =Va™ (§ 364, He cn
Ill. Let »=—~s, where s is rational and positive.
NON a(Ue sa phe et (§ 864, I or IT) =a-™.
(a) a
Hence, (a”)” = a” for all rational values of mand n. *
For example, (a2)s =qh3 = a’;
(oy baat = of;
(ar) OS ee rote.
 SURDS. THEORY OF EXPONENTS 221

365. To prove (abc---)" = a"b"c" +.» for all rational values of

a, b, ¢, +++, and n, provided that a”, b”, c”, +++, are rational numbers
or surds.
The theorem was proved in § 129 for any positive integral value of n,
and in § 165 for any value of n of the form —, where m is a positive
integer. a

I. Let n = where p and q are positive integers.

By § 364, [(abe ft 7 = (abe +--)? = a?b%c? --. (§ 129). (1)

By § 129, (arbret t= (a*)*(b4)¢(ct)2 o 26 = QPOPCP oes, (2)
From (1) and (2),
[(abe --ahs
= (atbict ».o>),

Whence, (abe ...)f= albict «.. (§ 163).

This means that the principal gth root of (abc---)? is equal to the
product of the principal qth roots of a”, b”, cP, -

Il. Let n=—s, where s is rational and positive.

1
Then, (abe vee)os _ oe

= 8 idbs sp)
(§§ 129, or 365, T)

SU id eel Cat SP
Hence, (abc ---)"=a"b"c” --- for all rational values of m and n.

366. Examples.
In the following examples, every letter is supposed to represent a
rational number such that every expression of the form q@” is a rational
number or surd.
The value of a number affected with a fractional exponent
may be found by first, if possible, extracting the root indicated
_ by the denominator, and then raising the result to the power
indicated by the numerator.
1. Find the value of (—8)*.
(—8)§=V(— 8)*= (W/—8)? (§ 292) = (—2)?=4
 >.

222 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

2. Multiply a+2a!—3a? by 2-40 ?%-6a-4.

a+2as eo ae
94a t— 6a?
2a+4ai — 6a3
4 ot = Bal 12
= 6a — 12 7 iba
2a —20 a3 418473.
3. Divide 18 xy-?—23 + a 2y4 6 a7?
by 3 ayo +o 2 aunty,
18 ay-?— 23 + aby +6 a ty|3 vty 4 at —2aty
18 wy-? +6 aty-}— 12 6 atyn 9243 a ty
—6 aty} —11+ aby +6a7y/
—6 aty- = Bat a ty

— 9—8aty+ 6a?
— eo =a aby +6 a7}y?

It is important to arrange the dividend, divisor, and each remainder

in the same order of powers of some common letter.

4. Expand eae ni) by the Binomial Theorem.

mé*

(= - Vint) = [m7* +(- mi)

m* 8 3 4 3 4
= (m™*)’ + 5 (m™*)*(— m8) + 10 (m™4)3(— m8)?
+10 (m=*)(— mis +5 (m-*)(— mi
+(-— més
=m? —5m-3. ms +10 mt. m= —10 m2. aut

+5m2.ms —m*
Bi 5 5 5 55 20
=m *—5m*?+10 mit? —10 m?+5mi2?—m?s,.
 ~

SURDS. THEORY OF EXPONENTS 223

EXERCISE 44

Tt will be understood, in the following set of examples, that every

letter used as the index of a root represents a positive integer, and every
other letter a rational number, such that every expression of the form
a” or Va is a rational number or surd,
Express with radical signs:

Te WRG i! 2. xsySzt.ite] 3. 6 taim7n8. 4. aay".

Express with fractional exponents:

5. VmiVn. 6. 5VEVE. 7. Vatvieve. 8. Vxevyr.
Express with positive exponents :
34 is =v.
9. aty-4, 10. 407203. ll. men? 18. a-mbre 2,
In each of the following, transfer all literal factors from the denomi-
nator to the numerator :
—2
ax 2 m* : 5a ° 1
ae 14. 16. 16.
bey? 3 nip-3 4 yse = ?

a™b—Ne} ¢
In each of the following, transfer all literal factors from the numerator
to the denominator :
m
_3 _4 5 =

17. soy i. 19 20, oe

22 4 5 ney 3

Find the values of the following:

Q1. (ate), 23. (xt) 17, 25. 1258. a7. (— 1024)5,

22. (a-8)-9. 24. (a 8)1%, 26. 164. 28, 7298,
Multiply the following:
8 8 _3 Fg3 nea 9
99. x2 -—40%—-5+62% * by 2a 4+u 2-384 £,
, ee. 4
— 80. a) +2m-1n1 + 3 mtn? by 2m $y —4m §n-2+4+ 6 n-3,
ee | 2 al dliglpeel oe ea 23
—81. 30203 +4ab3 —a2b by 6atb ?—8a *b F—2a F.

Divide the following :

32. m-2n — 5 n-1+ 4 m2n-3 by mtn? — m-8n — 2 m=.
3] 2 at
— 33. ay 8 — 10 ay 3 +9 by w2y% + 2 ay? — 3 wry.
4 : 3 ALD
= 34, ab? = Dipper as arb? by abt — 262 + @ 8b.
224 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

(In the following ten examples, use the rules of Chap. VII.)
Find the value of :

85. (2 at +3 b2)2, 86. (5 m-2n3 — 8 m2n-8)?. .

a7. (4ady 2+ 72-2) (4aty? — 72-2).
38. (3084 —4y°2)8.
=
40. (ab? — 2a? — a108)?,a

39. (a-2b8 + 2 a3b-2)3. 41. (a — 308 420°8)8,

25 a-6 —49 m2
42. oe. Bat+ 27 y2
43. re. 44. @ et=
5 a3 — 7 m* Qa343y8 a+b
45. Factor a? — 8 b-® by the rule of § 177.
46. Factor a3 + asb-# ~ pe by the rule of § 172.

Expand the following by the Binomial Theorem :

a7. (a? +30 *)4, 49. (a 8V8 — 08 V/a)s,

48. (274 a = 4s 50. = a ik
28 \ w (in =e4
Find the 2
51. 6th term of (Va™ + Va)". 52. 7th term of a byt = a):

58. 10th term of (24% - =1 \"

54. Find the square root of atb-3 —6§ asb-2 0,00 4 12 at +4 a 'b.
55. Find the cube root of

at — Gas +2106 — 4408 4 6808 — 4a 8 4 O72,

I as = = 5 psa &

Simplify the following:

5 it} ) 3 ee:
56. [Y/(aty-2) = (a Sys). 60. (VOWnr-2) pa.
10 ends wie wie
51. SUC9 EN Wielie
8 y 61. ee2 be 2n +1
VVC Vas =
gen ale 1
=
geen oy

58, (Urtn\ )2m iS

qn
/q@2m\ m=n
qn
Boe a AE be x
ail mat
an ae bs
ot
Gee = b:s a?ite — 3eS

so, ttyt ety, gg, H20) —talot +608

ab 1 1

Peek ge ay oe ey ae
oe —y a>—2b8 as’—abi—6b
 SURDS. THEORY OF EXPONENTS 225

REDUCTION OF SURDS

It will be understood, in §§ 367 to 398, inclusive, that every letter used

as the index of a root, represents a positive integer, and every other letter
a rational number such that every expression of the form Va is a surd.

367. If a surd is in the form )V/a, where a and bd are rational

expressions (§ 198), 6 is called the coefficient, and n the indea ;
and the surd is said to be of the nth degree.

368. A quadratic surd is a surd of the second degree.

369. Similar Surds are surds which do not differ at all, or
differ only in their coefficients; as 2\/aa® and 3V/aa*
Dissimilar Surds are surds which are not similar.
370. Reduction of a Surd to its Simplest Form.
A surd is said to be in its simplest form when the expression
under the radical sign is rational and integral (§ 63), is not a
perfect power of the degree denoted by any factor of the index
of the surd, and has no factor which is a perfect power of the
same degree as the surd.
371. Case I. When the expression under the radical sign is
a perfect power of the degree denoted by a factor of the index.
Ex. Reduce ¥/8 to its simplest form.
We have, V8 =V2 =V2 (§ 327).
372. Case IT. When the expression under the radical sign is
rational and integral, and has a factor which is a perfect power
of the same degree as the surd.
1. Reduce 54 to its simplest form.
We have, V54=V27 x 2=V27 x V2 (§ 165) =3-V2.
We can use § 165 in the above; for we know by § 351 that it holds
when Va, Vb, Vc, ---, are surds.
2. Reduce V3 a’) — 12 ab? + 12 ab’ to its simplest form.
V3 ab — 12 a®b? +12. ab? =-V(a?— 4 ab + 4b)3 ab
= Va?
— 4ab +40? V3 ab= (a — 2b) V3.ab.
226 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

We then have the following rule:

Resolve the expression under the radical sign into two factors,
the second of which contains no factor which is a perfect power of
the same degree as the surd.
Extract the required root of the first factor, and multiply the
result by the indicated root of the second.
If the expression under the radical sign has a numerical
factor which cannot be readily factored by inspection, it is
convenient to resolve it into its prime factors.
3. Reduce ~\/1944 to its simplest form.
V1944=V2x FB= V2 x B x VBI=Z2xX 3x VI=6V9.
4. Reduce V125
x 147 to its simplest form.
WILD SCIAT =O KS KT SOR Pe Veany 1S.
373. Case III. When the expression under the radical sign
is a fraction.
In this case, we multiply both terms of the fraction by such an
expression as will make the denominator a perfect power of the
same degree as the surd, and then proceed as in § 3872.

Ex. Reduce see to its simplest form.

a .

Multiplying both terms of the fraction by 2a, we have

9x2a Ne . [9 fee
Ve5== isg@ eo NIGge NT a ae
— x 42e 2a= Zak

374. Reduction of Surds of Different Degrees to Surds of the

Same Degree.
Ex. Reduce V2, V3, and V5 to surds of the same degree.
The lowest common multiple of2, 3, and 4 is 12.
By § 327, V2 = N28
= 64. .
V3 =V8I=V81.
VB = VB = */ 125.
 SURDS. THEORY OF EXPONENTS 227

We then have the following rule:

Make the index of each surd the L. C. M. of the given indices ;
and raise the expression under each radical sign to a power whose
exponent is obtained by dividing this L.C. M. by the given index.
The relative magnitude of surds may be determined by reducing them,
if necessary, to surds of the same degree.
Thus, since V64 < V/81 < 4/125, it follows that V2 < V3 < V5.

ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION OF SURDS

375. To add or subtract similar surds (§ 369), add or sub-

tract their coefficients, and multiply the result by their common
surd part.
ik Required the sum of 20 and 45.
Reducing each surd to its simplest form (§ 372),
904+-V45=V4X54V9 X56 =2V54-8V5 =5V5.

2. Simplify fate oa

Tet
Vit?
Lg (ik
he qxer
ee 5 X
a To bey
ea
Dey
Seena Ah heeA rae 1ON) Oe ee
Per. ae Deeave Zee

MULTIPLICATION OF SURDS

376. 1. Multiply V6 by V15.

By s 165, V6xVIb=V6x1s=VW=3v10.
2. Multiply V2a by V4’.
Reducing to surds of the same degree (§ 374),
V20xV48 =V2ai x V Lat = 203 x Bat
= 1/08
x 2a=2av2a.
3. Multiply V5 by V5.
V5 xXV5 HVE x V5 = V5
= VB? (§ 827) =V25.
228 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

We then have the following rule:

To multiply together two or more surds, reduce them, if neces-
sary, to surds of the same degree.
Multiply together the expressions under the ‘radical signs, and
write the result under the common radical sign.
The result should be reduced to its simplest form.

4. Multiply 8V1+2—4V« by Vieov a.

8V1ite—4V2
Vite 2a
8d +2) —4Vere
+6Va+e7—8%
8(1 +2) + 2Ve+?—8e2=3—5a42Vata.

377. If a surd is in the form ba, where a and D are rational

expressions, the coefficient may be introduced under the radical
sign by raising it to the nth power, and multiplying the ex-
pression under the radical sign by the result.
Ex. Introduce the coefficient of 2 a \/3 a2 under the radical
sien. :
2 aN/3 PM HNV8 N38 BP HNB EX 8 MH Oe,

378. A rational expression may be expressed in the form of

a surd of any degree by raising it to the power denoted by the
index, and writing the result under the corresponding radical
sign.
DIVISION OF SURDS

379. 1. Divide /405 by V5.

By § 293, we = =81 =3-3.
We can use onin the above; for we know by § 351 that it holds
when Va and V® are surds.

2. Divide V4 by V6.
 SURDS. THEORY OF EXPONENTS 229

Reducing to surds of the same degree (§ 374),

V4 Va
i —
6f 2 —
Seat — od
iy
54.

ee ND NS) Ne Bee 8
We then have the following rule:
To divide two surds, reduce them, if necessary, to surds of the
same degree.
Divide the expression under the radical sign in the dividend by
the expression under the radical sign in the divisor, and write the
result under the common radical sign.
The result should be reduced to its simplest form.

3. Divide V/10 by V/40.

V10
_ VIG _ of?x5_ ep _ 8B (§ 327).
Van ap NBS
4. Divide /6 —2V3 by V3.
V6—2V3_V6_2V8
WE eee
=V/2-2V5.
INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION OF SURDS

380. 1. Raise »/12 to the third power.

(¥/12)? = (124)? = 12% (§ 364) = 12? = V12 = 23.
2. Raise \/2 to the fourth Ws
Qa Chiat FAVE
Then, to raise a surd to any power whose exponent is a
positive integer,
Tf possible, divide the index of the surd by the exponent of the
required power ; otherwise, raise the expression under the radical
sign to the required power.

3. Extract the cube root of \/27a’.

VY(8/27 @) =(/ Bay) =[(3 2) = Ba)' =V3a.
230 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

4. Extract the fifth root of /6.

VWV6)= (6h)=6 = V6.
Then, to extract any root of a surd,
Tf possible, extract the required root of the expression under the
radical sign ; otherwise, multiply the index of the surd by the index
of the required root.
If the surd has a coefficient which is not a perfect power of the degree
denoted by the index of the required root, it should be introduced under
the radical sign (§ 377) before applying the rule.
Thus, V(4V2) = V(V32) = v2.

SPECIAL METHODS IN MULTIPLICATION

381. The rules of Chap. VII should be used to find the value
of any product which comes under them.
1. Expand (V6 — -V3)*.
By § 131, W6— os Sap 2V6 x V3 + (V3)?
IVFeo a= 9—6V2,
2. Expand (4+ pee Ge ne
By § 182, (44+-V5)(4—V5)=4? —(VW5)? =16—V5 (§ 380).

SURD FACTORS

382. The methods of Chap. VIII may be employed to

separate an expression into surd factors.
1. Factor 2Vx—6a by the method of § 155.
2Va—6
w= 2Vx%—
6 (V2)? =2V2(1 —3-V2).
2. Factor a—b by the method of § 171.

a—b=(Va)'— (vb) = (Va+ Vb) (Va — Vi).

We may also factor a — b by the method of § 177; thus,
a —b = (Va)? — (Vb) = (Wa — Vb) [(Va)? + Vad + (Yb)2]
= (Va — Vb)(Va + Vab + VO).
 SURDS. THEORY OF EXPONENTS 231

REDUCTION OF A FRACTION WHOSE DENOMINATOR IS

NOT A RATIONAL EXPRESSION TO AN EQUIVALENT
FRACTION HAVING A RATIONAL DENOMINATOR

383. Case I. When the denominator is a monomial.

The reduction may be effected by multiplying both terms of
the fraction by a surd of the same degree as the denominator,
having under its radical sign such an expression as will make
the denominator of the resulting fraction rational.
Hx. Reduce ;/
to an equivalent fraction having a rational
Ni a2
denominator.
Multiplying both terms by 9a, we have
5 __bV9a_ _ 5V9a_5V9a
V3e VW30V9a V2T2 34
384. Case II. When the denominator is the sum of a
rational expression and a quadratic surd, or of two quadratic
surds.
—V2
1. Reduce 5 = to an equivalent fraction having a rational
denominator. 9+ V2
Multiplying both terms by 5 — V2, we have
5B-V2_ (5 — V2)?
5+V2 (6+ V2)(5— v2)
25 om=10V2
919 +2 (¢¢ 434 139) 27 bi=10V2
25 — 2 23
3\/a—2Va—b
2. Reduce to an equivalent fraction having
IiG—BV a=
a rational denominator. is
Multiplying both terms by 2Va+3Va—6,
3Va—2Va—b _ (8Va—2Va—b)(2Va+3Va—)
2Va—38Va—b (2Va—8Va—b)(2Va+3Va—b)
: _6a+5VaVa—b—6(a—b)_6b45Vae—ad,
2 4a—9(a—b) 9b—5a
We then have the following rule.
232 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Multiply both terms of the fraction by the denominator with the

sign between its terms reversed.
If the denominator is the sum of a rational expression and
two or more quadratic surds, or the sum of three or more
quadratic surds, the fraction may be reduced to an equivalent
fraction having a rational denominator by repeated applications
of the above rule.
Thus, #2 V8 - Vi_ 4- V8 -—VI(4+ V84+V7)
2 — —~— = <= =
44+V38-V7 (444 V3—V7)(4+V3+ V7)
_ #-(V3+ v7) (§ 132) —8= 2V21 _3—V21
(4+ V3)?— (V7)? 12+8V3 6+44V3
Multiplying both terms of the latter by 6 — 4-V3,
4—V3—v7_(8—V21)(6—4Vv3)
44+V3—V7 Ga avysy
_18—6V21 —12-V34+12-V7
—12
_—9+8V21+6V3—-6V7_
6
The example may also be solved by multiplying both terms of the
given fraction by 4— V3+ V7, or by 4— V3 — v7.

385. Case III. When the denominator is the sum of a

rational expression and a surd of the nth degree, or of two
surds of the nth degree.

1. Reduce i >= to an equivalent fraction having a rational

4 enominator.
vo 24a
We have, (a + b)(a? — ab + b’) = a® + B®.

Then, (2+ ~/3) [22 —2-V3 + (W/3)?] = 23 + (3)

Then, if we multiply both terms of the fraction by
2? — 2/34 (V3)%,
the denominator will become rational.
 SURDS. THEORY OF EXPONENTS 238

igre _2—2V3 +4 (V3) _ 4-234 V9

OE 28 + (/3)8 11
= to an equivalent fraction having a
rational denominator.
We have, (a — b)(a* +a’) + ab? + 5°) = at — dt
Then, if we multiply both terms of the fraction by
(V7) + (VT)2VB) 4 (VT) (V5)? + (YB),
the denominator will become rational; thus,
PVT AVIAN) + VYID(V 5+ BY
Vi — V5 (W7)* — (V5)
_ V843 + 245 + 175 + V/105
2
The method of Case III can be applied to the cases where
the denominator is of the form V/a+ Vd, or Va— Vb.
3. Reduce a to an equivalent fraction having a
V2— V5
rational denominator.
The lowest common multiple of the indices 3 and 2 is 6.
Now, (a — b)(a’ + a*b + a®b? + ab? +-ab* + b°) = a — B%.
Then, if we multiply both terms of the fraction by
(V2)° + (W2)(-VB) + (V2)°(-V5)? + (V2)-V'5)* + (V2)-V5)
+ (v5)',
the denominator will become rational.
Multiplying both terms by the above expression, we have
A 2 V4 4 2V2V5 4104 5-V4EV5 + 25 V2 + 255
V2 —/5 C2 =O/by
_ 2N/4
4 2/4125 4104.5 V16-V 1254 250/24 25-5
sa A=A195
1042-4 42V500 45-2000 4.25 V2.4 25-5.
121
234 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA
pet
4. Reduce vee
— to an equivalent fraction having a
V3
rational denominator.
The lowest common multiple of the indices is 4.
Now, (a + b)(a? — a’b + ab? — b°) = at — BF.
Multiplying both terms of the fraction by

we have
(V2) = (V2)(-V3) + (V2)(-V3)? = (V3)
V2—V3_(VW2—V3)(2V2—2V3 4+ V2V9— V27)
VE4 V3 (V2) (¥/3)!
=A 22784259 —-V2 27
22 Vo4 2 Oye aT +3
=7 AWE V3 +49 —2W4V/27
= 4/19 An/8 2 1/108,
386. The methods of §§ 383 to 385 are often advantageous
in finding the approximate value of a fraction whose denomi-
nator is not rational.
il
Ex. Find the approximate value of . = to three places
of decimals. eran
in yee 5) a 2tV2 _ 241414. _4 797
2—V2 (2—V2)\(24+V2) 4-2 2

387. In like manner, a fraction whose numerator is not

rational may in certain cases be reduced to an equivalent frac-
tion having a rational numerator.

PROPERTIES OF QUADRATIC SURDS (§ 368)

388. A quadratic surd cannot equal the sum of a rational

expression and a quadratic surd.
For, if possible, lets Wa=b+4+-Ve,
where is arational expression, and Va and Vc quadratic surds.
 SURDS. THEORY OF EXPONENTS 235

Squaring both members, a=0°?+ 2bVc+e,

or, 20Ve=a—B—c.

Whence, Ve= va.

That is, a quadratic surd equal to a rational expression.
But this is impossible; whence, Va cannot equal b +-Ve.
389. Jf a +Vb=c Penis where a and ec are rational ex-
pressions, and Wb and Vd quadratic surds, then
a=c, and Vb =Vad.
For, transposing a, Vb =c—a+va.
Then, c—a=0; for, by § 388, a quadratic surd cannot
equal a rational expression plus a quadratic surd.
Therefore, a =c, and consequently Vb = Vd.

390. If Va+vo =Vx+vy, where a, b, %, and y are

rational expressions, and a greater than Vb, then

Va—Vb=Va—Vy.
Squaring both members of the given equation,
at+Vb=2+
2Vay + y.
Whence, by § 3589, a=«e+y,
and Vb = 2V
ay.
Subtracting, a—Vb =x —2Vay + y.
Extracting the square root of both members,
Va—Vb =Va—Vy.
391. The preceding principles may be used to find the
square root of certain expressions which are in the form of
the sum of a rational expression and a quadratic surd.
Ez. Find the square root of 13 —-V160.
Assume, V13 —V160 =Va —Vy. (1)
Then by § 390, V13+V160 =Va+vy. (2)
236 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Multiply (1) by (2), V169 — 160 = a —y.

Or, x—y=3. (3)
Squaring (1), 13 —-V160 = «— 2Vay 4+ y.
Whence, by § 389, e+y=13. . (4)
Adding (8) and (4), 20 =: 16, or r= 8.
Subtracting (3) from (4), 2 == 10,08 yf = 5.
Substitute in (1), V13 —V160 = V8 — V5 = 2V2 — V5.
392. Examples like that of § 391 may be solved by inspec-
tion, by putting the given expression into the form of a tri-
nomial perfect square (§ 167), as follows:
Reduce the surd term so that its coefficient may be 2.
Separate the rational term into two parts whose product shall be
the expression under the radical sign of the surd term.
Extract the square root of each part, and connect the results by
the sign of the surd term (§ 168).
1. Extract the square root of 8 +-V48.
We have, V48= 2 V 12.
We then separate 8 into two parts whose product is 12.
The parts are 6 and 2; whence,

V8 4+V48 =V642V12+2=V64-V2.
2. Extract the square root of 22 —3-/32.
We have, 38-V382=V9x8x4=2V72.
We then separate 22 into two parts whose product is 72.
The parts are 18 and 4; whence,

V99'— 85/39 = V1B 9. 7o a ese a ee

393. It is sometimes possible to find, by the methods of
§$ 391 and 392, the square root of an expression which is the
sum of two quadratic surds.
Ex. Required the square root of 392 + V360.
 SURDS. THEORY OF EXPONENTS 237

V(V392 + -V360) = V[-V2 (V196 + -V180)]

=V (V2) V1442V5
=V2V9 +245 +5 (§ 392)
V2 (3+ V5).

394. It may be proved, as in § 390, that if Vat Vb=a2+vVy,

where a and « are rational expressions, and Vb and Vy quad-
ratic surds, then
Va—Vb ="—Vy.

EXERCISE 45

Reduce each of the following to its simplest form :

1. Vi21. 3. V/128 a7b2. 5. V480. 7. 7 VI112 xyiZ,

2. V343. 4. V625al%yiz8 6. V4116. 8. V80 x 108 x 120.
9. V96 ab +240 ab? +150 ab%. 10. V(Q22+a—15) (222—192+4+35).
1. NC 12. ae at 13. ora
a? — .e+e
w+ 72.
8 16 be?

Reduce to surds of the same degree:

14. V3, V7, and V15. 15. V2a%, V6 b30, and V4 cia’.
16. Arrange in order of magnitude V3, V5, and VII.
Simplify the following: a x4 4
17, 320 — W/135 + V625. 112018 eee27 +46
19. 5 V294 — 9 V150 + sy 24 ae
20. V63 a> + -V175 a8b7 + ab? V63 ath — 210 ath? + 175 abd.

21. (m+ nyynte —(m — nym

ar —(mn — 8 n?oe!
m? — n2

Multiply the following: es

V4 ab® and V8 b408. 23. 24, 2, and Ve
4. 5Vmtn—8Vm—n and 6Vm+n—7Vm—n.
2. 7V8+3
V27 —2 V20 and 7 V2—3
V3 —4 V6.
238 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

In the following, introduce the coefficients under the radical signs:

5 WSIS 4! 6 02
26. : 2V5 : 1. 4 4x2y8V/3
27. a%yBV3 aty
xty?. 28. 5 a a%bt Nise :
gat ae 39, @ a lai eae.
a+ Vat+2ax—822 x2 —2 (a —1)2
Divide the following :
3; 6/z> VET vaca] 3/9 59
31. V144 by V12. 32. V14 ab? by V7 a3b2. 33. 1 OY Ve
)

34, 7/243
+ -V48 by V3. 35. Vx2+2a—3 by Va?—62+49.
36. Va2— 6? by Va2b? + abe. *
Simplify the following :
37. (V54)3. 39. (V11 #y)>. - 41. V (243 ab").
38. (V3 atb)4, 40. V(v12). 42. V(82V30°).
Expand the following by the rules of Chap. VII:
43. (5V2
+ 2V6)2. a7. V442V3 x V4—2V3.
44. (6V5+7V3)(6V5—TV3). 48. V3V5 —2V7 x V3V5
4 V7.
45. (8Vxe+y—4Va%—y)*. 49. (Va+vb4Vc)(Va+vb-—Vve).
46. (3V5
— 2V10)3. 50. (V4.4
V9)( V4 — V9).
Bl. (2V38 + 5V2—V5)(2V8 —5V2 + V5).
52, (V10 — 4V5 + 5-V2)2, 58. (2V2 + V6 — v3)8.
Factor the following :

54. V2a+vV3a. 55.4—-Vx—20. 56. ac-+avd—cvb—Vod.

57. Factor V9 — V4 by the rule of § 171.
58. Factor a — b by the method of § 178, taking Va — Vb for the first
factor.

Reduce each of the following to an equivalent fraction having a

rational denominator :
59. eeEG ane ee 62. © ot f= Vaet— 65 ibis 4.
V27 abies Vert y+ Ver — YP " Va+vo
60, Vetvy, 63. — See PP
Va —Vy VV/Ti +8 V VIL 8 m—Vn
g1, 2V5-v3, gg VO +V8-3Vv2. 1
4V64+5V8 . V6—V348v2 eetoal
—™
oo
SURDS. THEORY OF EXPONENTS 239
ats We
a an HE (glee
3+ V2 Va—vb Vi+v3
Find the approximate value of each of the following to five places of
decimals :

ie ae 72. Vo=v8
Me Mage eee
3-—Vv3 V6 45 38V7 —5V3
Extract the square root of each of the following:
74. 2442140. 76. 38 —5V52. 78. V343 + V168.
75. 87 —V2240. 77. 61 + 28-V3. 79: V1058 — V896.
80. 20 —8y —2Vx?
—38 ay. Slag 22 y cae dee
Expand by the Binomial Theorem :

82. («+Vyz)). 83. (y"-3

nm 2°m
ny? 84. (Ge).
Vb 8Va
Find the
= a e\ 16
85. 5th term of (24 + 8Vy)!2. 86. 9th term of (VE 2 | :
& a

SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS INVOLVING THE UNKNOWN

NUMBERS UNDER RADICAL SIGNS

395. To solve an equation involving the unknown numbers

under radical signs, we transpose the terms so that a surd term
may stand alone in one member, r}
and then raise both members
to a power of the same degree as the surd.
If surd terms still remain, we repeat the operation.

396. We will now prove that

If both members of an equation be raised to the same positive
integral power, the resulting equation will have all the solutions
of the given equation, and, in general, additional ones.
Consider the equation A= B. (1)
Raising both members to the nth power, n being a positive
integer, we have AE Bor A*— Bra, (2)

Factoring the first member (§ 178),

(AB) CAS An B eee 4 BY) ==, (3)
240 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

By § 182, (3) is equivalent to the equations

| A—B=0, or A=B, and
Am 4 AmB +. + B= 0.
Thus, equation (2) has not only the solutions of (1), but also
the solutions of
TAB hs VORB} i Ae Se IB ==(),

which, in general, do not satisfy (1).

Take, for example, the equation
pooh (1)
Squaring both members, we have
C2 =O) OTe —.0 10. (2)
Factoring the first member, and placing the factors separately equal to
0 (§ 182), we have % +820, OF eeeRs

and H—
3 — 0, ore =.
Thus, equation (2) has the root 8, and, in addition, the root — 3.

397. It follows from § 396 that all solutions obtained by

raising both members of an equation to any positive integral
power should be verified ; only such as satisfy the given equation
should be retained.
In verifying solutions of equations involving the unknown
numbers under radical signs, it should be carefully borne
in mind that only principal values of the roots are considered
(§ 162).

398. Examples.
1. Solve the equation V2?—5—#=—1.
Transposing — @, Ver —b 5 =a —1.
Squaring both members, e—h=o—2e+1.
Transposing, 2%=6; whence, # = 3.
Putting « = 3, the given first member becomes
VvO—5—8=2—3=-1,
Thus, the solution « = 3 satisfies the given equation.

-
 SURDS. THEORY OF EXPONENTS 241

2. Solve the equation V2a—1+4+V22e2+6=7.

| Transposing V2 a — 1, V2e0+6=7T —V2e—1.
Squaring, 2@4+6=49 —14/2e—1+2¢—1.
Transposing, 14V2a—1=42, or V2x%—1=3.
Squaring, 2%2—1=9; whence, x= 5.
Putting x = 5, the given first member becomes V9 + V16 =3+4 4 =7.
Thus, the solution « = 5 is correct.

3. Solve the equation Va —6 —V2 =

Va —6
Clearing of fractions, « —6 —V2?—62=3.
Transposing, —V2*—6e=9—~2@.
Squaring, e—b6e=81—18 24 27.
Then, 12%—=81; whence, w= tae",
12 4
Putting « = a the given first member becomes

ie y=}5: V3 -~3V3 =aye,

The second member becomes —- = a =2 V3.
V2 IV
doe

Thus, the solution «= ll does not satisfy the given equation ; in this
case there is no solution.

4. Solve the equation V2—3e+v14+42=V34+o.

Squaring both members,
ES ILS 5 8 Tae Led ee
Whence, 2V2—3aV1+4e=0;
or, V2—3av1+4e2=0.
Squaring, (2—32)1+42a) =0.
Solving as in § 182, 2—32=0, or amd;

and 14+4e=0,ore=—F-
Both values satisfy the given equation.
242 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

EXERCISE 46
Solve the following :
V3 0+ Levee F
1, V828— 362743 = 22,
Vieti_voz =
; 5 °
9 V/Ga-l-Viet uss 4&4 Vie-vo2—il=
vV6%—11
5. Vax + be + Vax — be = V4 ax —2 be.
6. Vn—90
—Ve ne VG Ve Pe =e.
x—2a

8. Ve2?—5e —24V9?432+6=4.
9. V4xe+1—Va2—8=V9a—
83.
10. V2%—6a4+v324+4b=V5«e—5a4
40.
ll. Vie + a)(@+b)4V@— a)@—b)=V222 + 2 ad.
12. V2e4+54+V8x—2=V(524+84V24
22 + 15).
1g, SV2e—14+4_ vV2e=146 |
62 eS = 1 92a
14. Vx? + 10” + 244 V2? + Ta + 12 =V4024 17244,
15. V2%+14V8e242=Ve4+24V4e41.

IRRATIONAL NUMBERS
399. Consider the series
Qi Gla 2, Gy os (1)
and (yy Cgy 8%) Ay 2895 (2)
in which the terms of (1) continually decrease, and the terms
of (2) continually increase; and let a’. — a, approach the limit
0, when 7 is indefinitely increased.
Then, any expression which is not a rational number, and
which is greater than the terms of (1), and less than the terms
of (2), is called an Irrational Number.
The common limit of the rth terms of (1) and (2), when r is
indefinitely increased, is considered the value of the above
irrational number.
A surd is one form of irrational number.

Rational and irrational numbers are called Real Numbers.

 SURDS. THEORY OF EXPONENTS 243

400. Consider, for example, the expression a”.

a’? lies between the two series (compare § 343),
a2, a5, qi, os, (1)

and Om Taig Ciego ; (2)

If we represent the rth term of (2) by a-!, the 7th term
nh
of (1) will be aw".
Then, the difference between the rth terms will be
n+1 n n 1

qnor—* — qo} — quo? (qr! — 1), (3)

n

Now, a" is always less than a?.

1

And, by § 343, aw! approaches the limit a°, or 1 (§ 359),

when 7 is indefinitely increased.
Therefore, the expression (3) approaches the limit 0 when r
is indefinitely increased.
Hence, aY” is the limit of the rth term of either (1) or (2),
when 7 is indefinitely increased.
A meaning similar to the above will be attached to any form
of irrational exponent.
401. The definitions of Addition and Multiplication, given
in § 348, hold when any or all of the numbers involved are
irrational.
402. It may be shown, as in § 350, that the fundamental
laws of §§ 12 and 14 hold when any of the letters involved
represent irrational numbers.
Then, every statement or rule, in the remaining portions of
Chap. I, or in Chaps. II to XVI, inclusive, in regard to
expressions where any letter involved represents any rational
number, holds also when the letter represents any real number.
Also, the theorems of §§ 165 and 293 may be proved to hold
when any or all of the letters a, 0, c, etc., represent irrational
numbers which are positive if n is even; and the theorem of
§ 327 may be proved to hold when a is any irrational number
whose mth power is positive if n is even.
244 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

403. We will now prove that equation (1), § 356, holds when
m is a positive rational number, and 7 a surd of the form V/ b,
where p and b have the same meanings as in § 348.
By § 399, a" xa” is the limit, when r is indefinitely in-
creased, of a” x a’, where b, has the same meaning as in § 348.
Also, a™*¥® is the limit of a™+%, when r is indefinitely
increased.
But since m and b, are rational,
a™ x a'r =a™*® (§§ 85 or 362).
Then, a” x a and a”*® are functions of 7 which are equal
for every rational value of 7; and, by § 252, their limits when
r is indefinitely increased are equal.
Pz P,-
Hence, a Ot
In like manner, we may prove
q™ x a” = qr,

in every case, not previously considered, where a, m, and n are

any real numbers, provided a” and a” are real numbers.

404. It may be proved, as in § 408, that

am
os= Charts

(a™)” = ann.

Ono i
a”
and (abe a — "hrc

in every case, not previously considered, where a, B, ¢, «+, M,

and mn represent any real numbers, provided a”, a”, a™, b",
c”, +++, are real numbers.

405. It follows from §§ 402 to 404 that every result in

§§ 367 to 398 inclusive holds when any letter involved, except
when the index of a root, represents any irrational number,
such that every expression of the form Va is an irrational
number.
ere

SURDS. THEORY OF EXPONENTS 245

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF IRRATIONAL NUMBERS

406. It was shown, in § 348, that 2 was intermediate in

value between the series
OFT 5142 em andeie latte:
and that /2 is the limit of the rth term of either series
when r is indefinitely increased.

Let A, Aj, Aj, ---, A,, «+» be the points in the scale of § 57,
corresponding to the numbers 1, 1.4, 1.41, ---; and B, B,
B,, ---, B,, ++» the points corresponding to the numbers 2, 1.5,
1.42, «+.
The distance between A, and B, approaches the limit 0,
when r is indefinitely increased; that is, O.A, and OB, approach
the same limit.
If OP is this limit, OP represents V2.
In like manner, a point exists whose distance from O repre-
sents any irrational number whatever.
246 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

XVIII. PURE IMAGINARY AND COMPLEX

NUMBERS
It will be understood, in §§ 407 to 414, inclusive, that every letter
represents a positive real number (§ 399).

PURE IMAGINARY NUMBERS

407. We define ~/— a, where a is any positive real number,

and m an even positive integer, as an expression whose nth
power equals — a.
That is, (V—a)*=—a.
The symbol ~/—a is called a Pure Imaginary Number.
It is, of course, impossible to find any real number whose
nth power equals —a; but there are many advantages in in-
cluding in the number-system of Algebra the result of any finite
number of the operations addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division, involution, and evolution, with rational numbers.
The pure imaginary number —1 is called the imaginary
unit; it is usually represented by the letter 7. |

OPERATIONS WITH PURE IMAGINARY NUMBERS

408. In deriving the rules for operations with pure imaginary

numbers, we shall follow the method employed in Chap. II;
that is, we shall assume that the fundamental laws of §§ 12 and
14 hold for such numbers, and find what meaning must, in con-
sequence, be attached to the operations. (Compare § 50.)
It follows from this that every statement or rule in the
remaining part of Chap. I, or in Chaps. II to XVI, inclusive,
in regard to expressions where any letter involved represents
any rational number, holds equally where the letter represents
a pure imaginary number. (Compare § 301.)

409. ‘l'o prove that, if a is any positive real number,

V-a=Vav—1.
By § 407, (V—a)=—a. (@.
 PURE IMAGINARY AND COMPLEX NUMBERS 247

And since the result of § 129 holds when any of the letters
a, b, ¢, ++» represents a pure imaginary nuinber (§ 408),
(Vav —1)?= (Va)? (V— 1)
=a x (—1)=—a. (2)
From (1) and (2), (V—a)?=(VaV—1).
Then by § 163, V—a=Vav—1.
410. By § 409, Wis 27 can27 \/ 1
=8V3 V—1 (§ 372)
=38V/—3 (§ 409).
It is evident from this that the methods of §§ 372, 375, and
377 hold for pure imaginary numbers.

411. Powers of /—1.

By § 407, (V—1)?=—1.
Then,
QOtx V1 =) 1 ve
(V—1)t= (V—1)? x (V=1)? =(-D) x (—- 1) = 1; ete.
In general, if n is any positive integer,

(Va = [VDP == 1;
(V—1 = (V— 1)"
x V-T=Vv-1;
(VT)? = (V1) x(V1 =(V= 1 =
(v-1 18 — (V/—1)*
x (V—1% =W—1= Beyse
Le

412.Addition and Subtraction.

Two pure imaginary numbers may be added or subtracted
by the method of § 375.
Ea, Add /—4 and V— 36.
By § 410,
V=44V— 36 =2V—-14+6V-1
= (24+6)V—1 (§ 14, IIT) =8V—1.
248 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

413. Multiplication.
The product of two or more pure imaginary numbers may
be obtained by aid of the principles of §§ 409 and 411.
1. Multiply V—2 by V—3.
By
§ 409, V—2 xV—8=vV2V-1xv3vV-1
= V2 V3 (VW —1)2, by § 14, Land IT,
=V6 x (—1) (§ 411) =— V6.
2. Multiply together V—9, V—16, and V— 25
Vi OKA 16 a eya ey
= 60 (V—
1)? =60(—V—J) (§ 411) =— 60V—1.
35 Multiply 2V/—2 4\/— 5 by Vv 2 ay —o,
Since all the rules of Chap. IV hold for pure imaginary
numbers, we can multiply as in § 88,

2(—2) + MZ iby Nes

Ee

4 Sa e aa ae

414. Division.
1. Divide V—40 by V—5.
By § 409, V—40_ V40V—1_ V40
Vb VN a
Since the rule of § 96 holds for pure imaginary numbers,
/—1 is cancelled in the same manner as a real factor.

2. Divide V15 by V—3.

By § 411,

Vib _ —V15(V=T) _ “
Ve8 0 ENE T
 PURE IMAGINARY AND COMPLEX NUMBERS 249

3. Reduce 2V3 — 3V—2 to an equivalent fraction having

2V3+3V—2
a real denominator.
This may be effected by multiplying both terms of the
fraction by the denominator with the sign between its terms
changed.
Multiplying both terms by 23 —3-V/—2,
2V3—-38V—2_ (2V3—3V/— 2) s 132)
2V8+3V—2 2/3" -6vV—-2)
_12—12V3
=e V2 DeriV—1+9(—2)
Ae. (§ 131)
12 —9(—2)
_—6-12V6V—-1__ 14+2V—6.
30 i 5
EXERCISE 47

In the following examples, every letter occurring under a radical sign

is supposed to represent a positive real number.
1. What is the value of (V—1)18? of (V—1)8!? of (V—1)#?

Simplify the following :

ZV = Byes 3. (v= o)t 4: by 0-2ab,
5. TV — 80 — 8V— 125 — V— 245.
ot .
1
a
27
16
ipa 49
12
16
27

Muitiply the following:

7. V—5 and v— 45. 9. Va—b and Vb—a.
Sey 7, v= 14, and V—21. 10.7 V6.8, and, 10:
fee say 27,04 = 32, and. =46.
doeaGon/— 5 and % = 61
= o:
ioaey —1-—5\/— 6 and 4/— 7+ 3V 26:
Divide the following :
14-9y/= 108 by V— 6. 16. 1/120 by V=5. 18. V84 by V—7.
15. V=441 by V—8. 17. V—224 by V—2. 19. V—160 by v8.
250 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Expand the following by the rules of Chap. VII:

20. (4V—8+5V—2)% 22 (8V—5 + 2V— 6)(8BV— 5 — 2V— 6).
WoC = b= Vv = 6) 98. (8V— 24 V— 32 2V 5)
4. (V—7—-V—54V—3)(V—7+V—5—-V-—8).
Reduce each of the following to an equivalent fraction having a real
denominator :

OF oa = 9g (ON owe ee 97) 1 <

of yi 7 Mi = SB Qa NO a
Expand the following by the Binomial Theorem :
28 — 5 oy — 2)? 29. (Va —V— b)5.
Simplify the following :
30. age — 91, 2Vb4+8V—6 _2V5—8V—6
6—-4V—5 742V—5 2V5-38V—-6 2V54+3V—6

COMPLEX NUMBERS

It will be understood, throughout the remainder of the present chapter,

that every letter represents a real number.

415. The expression a + bi (§ 407), where a and } are any

real numbers whatever, is called a Complex Number.
In operations with complex numbers, we shall assume the
laws of §§ 12 and 14 to hold.
It follows from this that the statement in the last paragraph
of § 408 is equally true of complex numbers.

416. Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division of

Complex Numbers.
1, Add a-+ Ot and c-+ di.
Since the laws of § 12 hold for complex numbers,
(a+ bt) + (e+ di)\=ad+ce+bi4+di
=a+e+(b+d)i, by § 12, IT, and § 14, III.
2. Subtract ¢+ di from a -— bi.
(a + bi) — (c+ di) =a bi —¢— ai (§ 81)
=a—c+(b—d)i, by § 12, and § 24, (7).
 PURE IMAGINARY AND COMPLEX NUMBERS 251

3. Multiply a+ bi by e+ di.
By §$ 88, (a+ bi)(e + di) = ac + adi + bei + bd?
= ac — bd + (ad + be)i, by § 411.
4. Express the quotient of a+ bi by c+di as a complex
number.
Multiplying both numerator and denominator by ¢— di, we
have at bi es (a+ bij(e—dt) ac —adi+ bei — bdr?
c+di (¢+di)(c—di) Oo Ee

_ ae +bd + (be —ad)i _ ac + bd 4 bead,

e+ da @+@' @+@82—

417. It follows from § 416 that the result of any finite num-
ber of additions, subtractions, multiplications, and divisions,
performed upon complex numbers, is a complex number.

418. By the definition of 0,

ix 0=i(a—a) =ia— ia(§ 24, (7)) = 0.
It follows from this that the complex number a + 07 becomes
a real number when 0 is 0.
It also becomes a pure imaginary number when a is 0.
Hence, a + bi cannot equal 0 unless both
a= 0, and b=,

419. Ifa+bi=c-+ di, where a, b, c, and d are real numbers,

then a= ¢, and b=.
Transposing the terms of the given equation, we have
a—ce+(b—dji=0.
Then, by § 418, a—c=0, andb—d=0.
Whence, a= ¢, and b= d.

420. Square Root of a Complex Number.

We will now prove that Va+i, where a and 6 are real,
can be expressed in the form Vx+?Vy, where Va and Vy
are real,
252 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Squaring both members of the equation

Vat bi=Va+ivy, (1)
we have a+bi=a+2ivay—y.
Then by § 419, a="2—Y, (2)
and bi = 21 Vay.
Subtracting, a—bi=a—2ivay—y.
Extracting the square roots of both members,
Va—bi= Va—ivy. (3)
Multiply (1) by (3), Vet P= ety. (4)
Add (2) and (4), Va? +0? + a=2a, or go Oo ee
2 2
Subtract (2) from (4), Va? +0? -a=2y, or y sue.
See)

It is evident from this that a and -Vy are real.

421. It follows from (1) and (8), § 420, that

If Va+bi=Va+ivy, where a, b, x, and y, are real num-
bers, then Va — bi= Va —i vy.

422. The preceding principles may be used to find the

square root of a complex number.
1, Find the square root of 7 —6>/ — 2.

Assume, V7 —6V—2=Va—VyV~—1. (1)

Then by § 421, V746V—2=Ve4+VyV—1L (2)
Multiplying (1) by (2), we have

VP=B(—D=0+y,
or, e+y=11. (3)
Squaring (1), 7—6V—2=20—2VayV—1-y.
Whence by § 419, e—y=T. (4)
Add (3) and (4), 2 = 18, Ore =O:
Subtract (4) from (8), 2 y = 4, OF Yee 2:
 PURE IMAGINARY AND COMPLEX NUMBERS 253

Substitute in (1), V7 —6V—2=V9 —-V2V—1=3-V—2.

The example may also be solved by the methoa of § 392.
We have 6V— 2=2V9 x (— 2).
We then separate 7 into two parts whose product is 9 x (— 2).
The parts are 9 and — 2; then, Vib) ota Vo Vv 28 ee
We may also find by the above methods the square root of an
expression of the form a + Vb, or a—~Vb, when a is negative.
2. Find the square root of — 35 + 12-6.
We have V— 35+ 12V6=V/—1V35
— 2v216.
Separating 35 into two parts whose product is 216,
M384
19V6 =V—1V07T— 227 x8 +8)
=V—1(-V27 —-V8)=8V—3—2V—2.
EXERCISE 48

Extract the square roots of the following:

dee 19 yer 09), $.. =88='8v/—
80; 5. — 52 —2V640.
OMS = bv —= 28. 4, — 26 + V/480. 6. 2V— 16

423. Putting a=0 and b=1, in § 420, we have n=y=5

Substituting these values in ms we have
zoel + aes
—=- ( +i)v2.
/2

424. Cube Root of a Complex Number.

We will now prove that if Va+ bi=c+ di, where a, b, C,
and d are real, then Va— bi=c— di.
Cubing both members of the equation
Va+bi=e+ di,
we have, by § 411,a+ di=0+3 Cdi—3 cd’ — du.
Then by § 419, a=c—d3ed’,
and b=S edi — dai.
Subtracting, a— b= — 3 cdi —3 ca? + a’,
254 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Extracting the cube root of both members,

Va—bi=ce—di.
425. The complex numbers a+0i and a—bi are called
Conjugate.
We have (a+ bi) x (a—bi) =e —b7P =a +b’.
Also, (a+ bi) + (a — bi) =2 a.
Hence, the sum and product of two conjugate complea numbers
are real.
It will be shown in the Appendix (§ 804), that any even root of a
negative number, or any root of a pure imaginary or complex number,
can be expressed as a complex number.

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF PURE IMAGINARY AND

COMPLEX NUMBERS

426. Let XX' be a fixed straight line, and O a fixed point

in that line.
It was shown in §§ 57 and 406
that any positive real number, +a, X- At ik, OG a
could be represented by the dis-
tance from O to A, a units to the right of O in OX; and any
negative real number, —a, by the distance from O to A’,
a units to the left of O in OX".

427. Since — ais the same as (+ a) x (— 1), it follows from

§ 426 that the product of + a by — 1 is represented by turning
the line OA which represents the number +a, through two
right angles, in a direction opposite to the motion of the hands
of a clock.
We may then regard — 1, in the product of any real number
by — 1, as an operator which turns the line which represents
the first factor through two right angles, in a direction opposite
to the motion of the hands of a clock.

428. Graphical Representation of the Imaginary Unit.

By the definition of § 407, —1=ix i.
 PURE IMAGINARY AND COMPLEX NUMBERS 255

Then, since one multiplication by ty

followed by another multiplication by j,
turns the line which represents the first
factor through two right angles, in a direc-
tion opposite to the hands of a clock, we
may regard multiplication by 7 as turning
the line through one right angle, in the
same direction.
Thus, let XX’ and YY’ be fixed straight
lines, intersecting at right angles at O, the letters being
arranged as in the figure of § 270.
Then, if +a be represented by the line OA, where A is a
units to the right of O in OX, + ai may be represented by
OB, and — ai by OB', where B is a units above, and B’ a
units below, O,in YY".
Also, + ¢ may be represented by OC, and — i by OC", where
C is one unit above, and C”’ one unit below, O, in YY".
It will be understood throughout the remainder of the chapter that,
in any figure where the lines X_X! and YY’ occur, they are fixed straight
lines intersecting at right angles at O, the letters being arranged as in the
figure of § 270; that all positive or negative real numbers are repre-
sented by lines to the right or left of O, respectively, in XX’; and all
positive or negative pure imaginary numbers by lines above or below O,
respectively, in YY’.

429. Graphical Representation of Complex Numbers.

We will now show how to repre-
sent the complex number a + bi.
Let a be represented by OA, to the
right of O if a is positive, to the left
if a is negative.
Let bi be represented by OB, above
O if b is positive, below if 0 is
negative.
Draw line AC equal and parallel to OB, on the same side of
XX' as OB, and line OC.
Then, OC is considered the result of adding bi to a; that is,
OC represents a + bi.
256 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

This agrees with the methods already given for adding a real or pure
imaginary number, if either @ or b is zero.
The figure represents the case where a and b are both positive ; if a is
positive and b negative, OC will lie between OX and OY’; if a is nega-
tive, OC will lie between OY and OX’ if b is positive, and between OX’
and OY’ if b is negative.
In accordance with §§ 57 and 406, — (a + 67) may be repre-
sented by line OC’, where OC’ is equal in length to OC, and
drawn in the opposite direction from O.
430. The modulus of a real, pure imaginary, or complex
number is the length of the line which represents the number.
The argument is the angle between the line which represents
the number and OX, measured from OX in a direction opposite
to the motion of the hands of a clock.
If, for example, in the figure of § 429, Z XOC = 30°, the
argument of the complex number represented by OC is 30°,
and the argument of the complex number represented by OC"
ig 210°.
The modulus is always taken positive, and the argument
may have any value from 0° to 360°.
The real numbers + a and — a have the modulus a, and arguments 0°
and 180°, respectively ; the pure imaginary numbers + ai and — ai have
the modulus a, and arguments 90° and 270°, respectively.

431. In the figure of § 428, OC=V04?4 AC’ =Ve@ +B;

that is, the modulus of the complex number a+ bi is Va? + 0;
this is also the modulus of the complex numbers a—bi, —a+bi,
and — a — bi.
432. Graphical Representation of Addition.
We will now show how to represent the result of adding b
to a, where a and b are any two real, pure imaginary, or com-
plex numbers.
Let a be represented by OA, and b by OB. ie ee ¢C
Draw line AC equal and parallel to OB,
on the same side of OA as OB, and line OC.
Then, OC is considered the result of add-
ing b to a; that is, line OC representsa+b. 0 @ A
 PURE IMAGINARY AND COMPLEX NUMBERS 257

This agrees with the method of § 429, which is a special case of the
above.

In like manner, the sum of any number of real, pure imagi-

nary, or complex numbers may be represented by a straight
line drawn from O.

433. Graphical Representation of Subtraction.

Let a and b be any two real, pure imagi-
nary, or complex numbers.
Let a be represented by OA, and b by
OB; and complete parallelogram OBAC.
By § 432, OA represents the result of
adding the number represented by OB to
the number represented by OC.
That is, if 6 be added to the number
represented by OC, the sum is equal to
a; hence, a — b is represented by line OC.

434. Graphical Representation of Multiplication.

Since + ai may be written (+1) x (+a7), the product of +1
by + ai is represented by turning the line
OA, which represents the number +1,
through one right angle, in a direction
opposite to the motion of the hands of a
clock, and multiplying the result by a.
And since — ai may be written (+1) x
(— ai), the product of +1 by — ai is repre-
sented by a line equal in length to that
which represents the product of +1 by
+ ai, but drawn in the opposite direction from O.
This suggests the following:
The product of any real, pure imaginary, or complex number
by + ai may be represented by turning the line which repre-
sents the number through one right angle, in a direction oppo-
site to the motion of the hands of a clock, and multiplying the
result by a.
258 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

The product of any real, pure imaginary, or complex number

by —ai may be represented by a line equal in length to the
line which represents its product by +a, but drawn in the
opposite direction from O.
435. Since a+ bi may be written (+1) x (a+ 02), the prod-
uct of +1 by a+ bi is represented by
turning the line OA, which represents
the number +1, through an angle
equal to the argument of a+ (§ 430),
in a direction opposite to the motion
of the hands of a clock, and multi-
plying the result by the modulus of
a+ bi.
And since — (a+ 0?) may be written (+ 1) x (—a— Di), the
product of + 1 by — (a+ bd) is represented by a line equal in
length to that which represents the product of +1 by a+ bi,
but drawn in the opposite direction from O.
This suggests the following:
If a and } are any real numbers, the product of any real,
pure imaginary, or complex number by a+ bi may be repre-
sented by turning the line which represents the number through
an angle equal to the amplitude of @ + bi, in a direction oppo-
site to the motion of the hands of a clock, and multiplying
the result by the modulus of a + bi.
The product of any real, pure imaginary, or complex number
by — (a+ bt) may be represented by a line equal in length to
the line which represents its product by a+ bi, but drawn in
the opposite direction from O.
436. Let a and b be any two real, pure
imaginary, or complex numbers, repre-
sented by the lnes OA and OB, respec-
tively.
The result of multiplying a by 6 is
represented by line OC, where angle
XOC is the sum of angles XOA and
XOB, and OC= OA x OB (§ 435).
 PURE IMAGINARY AND COMPLEX NUMBERS 259

That is, ab is represented by OC.

In like manner, the product of any number of real, pure
imaginary, or complex numbers may be represented by a
straight line drawn from O.

437. Graphical Representation of Division.

Let a and b be any two real, pure imaginary, or complex
numbers.
Let a be represented by OA, and b
by OB.
Draw line OC, making 7 XOC=
ie . 7 OA
ZXOA— Z XOB, and OC= OB’
Then, 7 XOA=Z XOC+ Z XOB,
and OA= OC x OB.
Whence, by § 456, OA represents the product of the number
represented by OC by the number represented by OB.
Then, OC represents a number which, when multiplied by 3,
' a
gives a; and hence OC represents x
Therefore, the quotient of any two real, pure imaginary, or
complex numbers can be represented by a straight line drawn
Birom 0.

438. Graphical Representation of Roots.

Let a be any real, pure imaginary, or complex number,
represented by line OA.
_ Draw line OB making Z XOB= =A XOA,
and having its length equal to the nth root
of the modulus of a.
Then, 7 XOA=nx Z XOB, and the
modulus of a is the nth power of the length
of OB.
Then, by § 436, OA represents the nth power of the number
represented by OB.
Whence, OB represents Va.
260 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

439. It follows from §§ 432, 433, 436, 437, and 438 that any
number which is the result of any finite number of the follow-
ing operations performed upon one or more real, pure imaginary,
or complex numbers, may be represented by a straight line
drawn from O:
Addition; Subtraction; Multiplication; Division; raising to
any power whose exponent is 2 rational number (§ 51); extract-
ing any root.
This is a graphical representation of the fact that any such
number can be expressed in the form a+ i, where @ and b
are real numbers, either of which may be zero. (Compare
§§ 417 and 804.)
We shall limit ourselves in the present work to numbers of the above
form.
The discussion of complex exponents requires a knowledge of Higher
Trigonometry.
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 261

XIX. QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

440. A Quadratic Equation is an equation of the second degree

($ 113), with one or more unknown numbers.
In the present chapter we consider only quadratic equations
involving one unknown number.
The principles demonstrated in §§ 116 to 119, inclusive, and § 122, hold
for quadratic equations.

441. By transposing all terms to the first member, any

quadratic equation, involving one unknown number, x, may be
reduced to the form Pe ay a eet

If neither 5 nor ¢ is zero, this is called a Complete Quadratic

Equation.
A Complete Quadratic Equation is sometimes called an Affected Quad-
ratic Hquation.

If either or both of the numbers 0} and ¢ are zero, the equa-

tion is called an Incomplete Quadratic Equation.
An incomplete quadratic equation of the form aa + c= 0, is
called a Pure Quadratic Equation.
In § 183, we showed how to solve quadratic equations of the forms
av+ba=0, az2+c=0, a +ax+60=0, and az?+ bea+c=0,
when the first members could be resolved into factors.

442. Consider the equation

A? — B’,

where A is a rational and integral expression involving the

unknown numbers.
We may write the equation,
A?— B?=0, or (A+ B)\(A—B)=0.
By § 182, the latter is equivalent to the set of equations
A+B=0, and A—B=0.
262 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Or, to the equations A=+ B, and A=— B, which may be

written together in the form
Aer DB,
The sign +, called the double sign, when prefixed to a number, indi-
cates that it may be either + or —.

Thus, the given equation is equivalent to an equation which

is obtained by equating the positive square root of the first
member to + the square root of the second.

PURE QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

443. A pure quadratic equation may be solved by reducing

it, if necessary, to the form #’=a, and then equating x to +Va
(§ 442).
; ‘ 5x?
1. Solve the equation 38¢4+7= ay + 35.

Clearing of fractions, 12 47+ 28 = 5 a7 +140.

Transposing and uniting terms, T e112.
Dividing by 7, 2g = 16.
Equating to + the square root of 16, c=+4 4.
2. Solve the equation T#—5=52e7—18.
Transposing and uniting terms, 2a? = — 8,
Or, a? = —A,
Equating a to + the square root of —4, x =+V—4
~ +2V—1( 409).
In this case, both values of a are imaginary (§ 407) ; it is impossible to
find a real value of « which will satisfy the given equation.

EXERCISE 49
Solve the following :
1. 208% —5)?+ 38(@ + 10)? = 434, 2. (@+1)3 —(@ —1)8 20.
3, 5a? 9 72 Tees ike.
6 16 12 12 8
4. (2%+7)(62—6)—4e—38)(74+4
5)— 2424 59 =0.
5. (@+2a)@438b)4+(@—-—2a@—8b)=224+
4024902,
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 268

ge be £8 4a = 102 5
i 14 Soar
7. (@+1)(@—2)@— 38)—(@—-1)(@+2)@43)=— 82.

COMPLETE QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

444. First Method of Completing the Square.

By transposing the terms involving x to the first member,
and all other terms to the second, and then dividing both mem-
bers by the coefficient of 2, any complete quadratic equation
can be reduced to the form
x? + pe= q.
A trinomial is a perfect square when its first and third terms
are perfect squares and positive, and its second term plus or
minus twice the product of their square roots (§ 167).
Then, the square root of the third term is equal to the second
term divided by twice the square root of the first.
Hence, the sguare root of the expression which must be added
to 2? + px to make it a perfect square, is 2”, or 2
2% 2
Adding to both members the square of z we have
, 2 2 Ped Al
vtpettaqt+ t=" 1 a

By § 442, this is equivalent to an equation which is obtained

by equating the positive square root of the first member to +
the square root of the second.
Then, it is equivalent to

w+ta+ Vira
2
,ortorw= —ptvp+4q
iy)
Fa;

Adding to both members such an expression as will make the first

member a perfect trinomial square, is called Completing the Square.

445. We derive from § 444 the following rule for solving a

complete quadratic equation.
264 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Reduce the equation to the form x? + px = q.

Complete the square, by adding to both members the square of
one-half the coefficient of x.
Equate the positive square root of the first member to + the
square root of the second, and solve the linear equations thus
formed.

446. 1. Solve the equation 3 2 —8x=—4.

Dividing by 3, pee ena

Adding to both members the square of 7 we have

a Sa. fy
2 \ A ee
lei
) ae eye
Equating the positive square root of the first member to +
the square root of eS A 2
9 £—-—-= ae sate

3 3
; 4 42
Transposing — 9 Drs + er 2 or ..

If the coefficient of x is negative, the sign of each term must

be changed.

2. Solve the equation —9a?— 212=10.

Dividing by — 9, 4 oe _ _ 10)
3 9
Adding to both members the square of 4,
6
tired
(eee
—
Ray
— =
10,49".
—_—_=—
9
ss 3 a G 9 36 36
Equating the positive square root of the first member to +
the square root of —2
; eer EMOTES :
6 6
Whence a be ee
UTR G Sse
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 265

447. By § 167, a*w’+ bx will become a perfect haleevatell square

ba b
byy Bdding
adding tovo 1bit th the square of f —-,
—— or 5

Hence, we may complete the square by adding to both mem-

bers the square of the quotient obtained by dividing the coefficient
of x by twice the square root of the coefficient of x’.

This is usually a more convenient rule than that of § 445,

when the coefficient of x is a perfect square.

1. Solve the equation 92?—5a=4.,

Adding to both members the square of 5 5
aS
5\? 25 _ 169
ea @ 1 36 36
9 n2— 5 nae = 4 —_-_ = --_

Extracting square roots, 3 « — == 2

Then, 3% Ae ye
Dede 4
ee

Dividing by 3, ea 1 or — ;

If the coefficient of # is not a perfect square, it may be

made so by multiplication.

2. Solve the equation 8 2?—15%=2.

Multiplying each term by 2, 16 a’? — 30 a= 4.
Adding to both members the square of sp or a

16 2?— 202+(715 ii=4 +22

225 _ 289
——,

Extracting square roots, 4 « — » = 7

Then, banter
tee fs > lag
1
266 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Whence, x= 2 or — z

If the coefficient of x? is negative, the sign of each term must be

changed.

448. Second Method of completing the Square.

Every complete quadratic equation can be reduced to the
form ax’ +ba+c=0, or av + be = —c (§ 441).
Multiplying both members by 4 a, we have
4 ae’? +4 abu = —4 ac.

Completing the square by adding to both members the

square
t
of ase
2x2 ‘ (§ 447), or b, we obtain
4 aa? +-4 abu + 6? = b?—4 ae.

Extracting square roots, 2ax#+b= + Vb?—4ae.

Transposing, > ans —b+ VP 4 oe.

Whence, e= =b+ VO—4 a0.

Za
We derive from the above the following rule for completing
the square:
Reduce the equation to the form ax + ba+c=0.
Multiply both members by four times the coefficient of 2°, and
add to each the square of the coefficient of x jn the given equation.
The advantage of this method over the preceding is in
avoiding fractions in completing the square.

449. 1. Solve the equation 2 a2°—Taw=—3.

Multiplying both members by 4 x 2, or 8,
16 a’ —56e%= — 24, "
Adding to both members the square of 7,
16 # — 56x%+7?= —24+449= 25.
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 267

Extracting square roots, 4a—7T= +5.

Whence, ge: o Or

If the coefficient of w in the given equation is even, fractions

may be avoided, and the rule modified, as follows:
Multiply both members by the coefficient of x, and add to each
the square of half the coefficient ofx in the given equation.

2. Solve the equation 15 2 + 28 #=382.

Multiplying both members by 15, and adding to each the
square of 14, we have
15°a? + 15(28 w) + 14? = 480 + 196 = 676.
Extracting square roots, 157+14=+ 26,
15 « =—14+4+26=12 or —40.
Whence, ian 4 OP es Ss
8
2
vo

The method of completing the square exeinplified in the present section

is called the Hindoo Method.

EXERCISE 50

The following may be solved by either of the preceding methods,

preference being given to the one best adapted to the example under
consideration.
La? — 7 = 12, 8, 497'—
124 = 23.
2. 342—172=—
10, 9. 802.+-7%+2=0.
8. 522+
17% = 12. 10: 3642
+ 32—=5.
4. 10024 27x%+14=0. 11. 2822+ 29%+6=0.
5. 3602
— 242=77. 12. 10 — 387% =— 30 2?.
6. 4902+ 214—4=0. 13. «(52 + 22)+ 35 =(24+5)2
7. 6+23a” —1822=0. 14. (2%+1)§—-(2%+38)8=
— 386,
15. (8% +2)(24 —38)=(44—1)2—-14. *
16. («@+4)(2e—1) + (2e—1)(8%4 2)— (824+2)(442—-1)
=—49..
17.-(@ + 1)(#@ + 8)=(@ + 7) V2 + 12.
18. (5 + 2V3)x2 —(4 + 14V3)z = 9 — 143.
268 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

450. Solution of Complete Quadratic Equations by Formula.

It follows from § 448 that, if
ax’ + be+c=0,

ie bee Ory
Ue aae (1)
2a
This result may be used as a formula for the solution of any
complete quadratic equation in the form aa’ + be+ce=0.
1. Solve the equation 22?+5e2—18=0.
Here, a= 2, b=5, and c=— 18; substituting these values
in (1), we have

c=
—54V254+144_ —54+13_,
eae OL —
4 4 bolo
2. Solve the equation 1102?— 21¢a%=—1.
Hote, a= 110, }b=—21l oa 1
ol AAT = 440 SB ed 1
Then, « - — =— or —-
22 220 10 11
Dividing both terms of the fraction in equation (1) by 2,
bea ge b Dera
ot Loe (§ 877) =Ts
@ = ——_________ (5) -
—___+__.._ (2)
a a
This is a convenient formula in case the coefficient of « in
the given equation is even.

3. Solve the equation —5a?+14%4+3=0,

Here, a=—5, b=14, c=3; substituting in (2),

x
T+
pea 4
v49
C
4+ LE5Eiieaak Re heron ee ye)
—65 —5 5
Particular attention must be paid to the signs of the coefficients ir
making the substitution.

The student should now work the examples of Exercise 5(

by formula.
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 269

451. Fractional Equations involving Quadratics.

In solving fractional equations which involve quadratics, we
reject any solution which satisfies the equation obtained by
equating to zero the L. C. M. of the given denominators (§ 222).
a 2
1. Solve
olve th the equation
t “$_——“_=1.
<=
Multiplying each term by (# — 6) (w— 5), we have
Big i gp es wi villa se BHO),
Or, eo?—12¢%=—
33.
Completing the square, # —1274+6=3.
Extracting square roots, e—-6=+ V3.
Whence, 2=6+V3.
Since neither 6+-V3 nor 6—-V%3 satisfies the equation
(« — 6) (w — 5) = 0, both roots may be retained.
: il
2. Solve the equation ie ee 1a aera
2#+3%2—6
ae

1 1 o+3a—6
We may write it ex fey eee

Multiplying each term by x? — 4,

2 Dee ge Bole— 0,
Or, +o = 6.
Multiplying by 4, and adding 1° to both members,
Aig as DEAE Ilm 5),
Extracting square roots, 2e+i=+ 5.
Then, 2e¢=—-1+5=4o0r
—6.
Whence, x=2or —3.
Since 2 satisfies the equation 7? —-4=0, it must be rejected,
and the only solution is «= — 3.
452. Literal Equations involving Quadratics.
In solving literal equations which involve complete quad-
ratics, the methods of § 449 are usually the most convenient.
270 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Ex. Solve the equation aca* — ada + bea — bd = 0.

We write the equation aca’? — (ad — bc)a = bd.
Multiplying by 4 ac, and adding (ad — be)’ to both members,
4 aca? — 4 ac(ad — be) a + (ad — be)?
=4abed + wd? — 2 abed + 0°?= a?d?+ 2 abed + b’c?.
Extracting square roots,
2 ace — (ad — be) = + (ad + be).
2acex
= ad — be + (ad
+ be) = 2 ad or — 2 be.

. Whence, geet nee:

c a
If several terms contain the same power of «, the coefficient of that
power should be enclosed in parentheses, as shown above.

The above equation may be solved more easily by the method of § 183;
thus, by § 156, the equation may be written
(ax + b)(cx — d)=0
Then, az+b=0, or%=—-;
a
and eo—ad=0, ors =
Ale

Several equations in Exercise 51 may be solved most easily by the

method of § 183.

As a general rule, literal quadratics are best solved by formula.

453. Equations leading to Quadratics, having the Unknown

Number under Radical Signs.
In solving equations of this kind, only solutions which
satisfy the given equation should be retained.
In verifying solutions, only principal values of the roots are
considered (§ 397).
1. Solve the equation V5+a+~V5—a2= —
5a
5

Clearing of fractions,
ne z . id
./95— 2 te hae | D
Transposing, V25
— a =a +7.
Squaring, 25 —e =a? +1404 49,
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS ; 271

Or, 24-144
= — 24,
Multiplying by 2, and adding 7? to both members,
42°+
28 ¢+49=1.
Extracting square roots, 2e+7=+1.
2¢e=—7+1=—6 or —8.
Whence, x=—3 or —4.
Putting « =— 3, the given first member becomes
V24+V8=V24+2V2=3
v2.

The second member becomes = = 3x2 x2 =3 v2.

8 2x)
Then, the solution « = — 8 is correct.
Putting « =— 4, the given first member becomes 1 + V9 = 4.

The second member becomes = = 4,

9
Then, the solution x = — 4 is correct.

2. Solve the equation Va—1+ V30e+3=4.

Transposing Vz—1, V3e2+38=4-—Va2—1.

Squaring, S443 =16=8Ve— le 1
Transposing, 8Ve—1=12—22. |
Or, 4V/e—1=6—=2.
Squaring, 16 %—16=36—-12¢7+42".
Or, x”? — 28 «= — 52.
Completing the square,
ve? — 28 2+147= 144.
Extracting square roots, #—14=+412.
Whence, ge 14 12 => 26ror 2.
Putting x = 26, the given first member becomes 5 + 9, or 14.
Then, the solution « = 26 is not correct.
Putting « = 2, the given first member becomes 1 + 38, or 4.
Then, « = 2 is the only correct solution.
272 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

EXERCISE5!
Solve the following :

eb tee 21 14. V522-—32—41=82—7.

Siig he | AT eae
5 1 1 15. 6-vi2-9=

62 9a 18 16. Vic +8—Vob2—4=2.

4 4%
_ _ 80 17, —3@. __*+5b _g,
4% 3 18 x—5b 8a—106
. 2 +2me=1— m2 yge bee bt Se eee
—2ar=—60+9. +3 “4-5 w-—2x—-—15
il (Ee 15
5 ae bx =— ab. 19. = :
Enel Ae 2-2 24(24+2) w—4
a?—(n—l)x=n. ir?
ad ee
64+5 44+4_9 TS a ee ae
Bee 91, 22 a@_et+a_@—5a?
. 2 — mnx + mn2x = min, (ea 2a x?—@
—4
eed — 10¢7=—
Bae .
22. V(a+2b)n—2ab—x—4b.
1022-8 52746 6a2-1 - a
? 18 9 Qg2—Q 2. 2%+4+V4a?-—7 = ——_.
V4a2—7
. 6a? +4 ax — 156% = 10 ab. A an a _4
. ama + ane + bmx + dn = 0. 2 ae Seta 3

9. 2Veeee+overs
1=—
V380+4
1 il 14
. (@+%)3+(6—2)3 = bjs. = 82. = = 5
Oe aati 2a 123 e@—3e2 +4" 15a?
. Ve—-at+v2e+38a=Vba. gg, 22+1,38e-2_17
8e2—2 22%+1 4

(ON Goes Ey 34. 1 aye e+

Ve —1 a—b+x a b
wie A ee 2 2 aE es -3)= a(5
a+b % a? — b? 8\4a—-1
o2—1 4 ab 1 1 3
30. = = SQN ee eee ee
% a? — b? ev—4 38(@+42) gs%

31.
4—54
ER ORSed3aee, 6
3 —
87. 8Vet a +2Ve4
6g =e
x-+a
38 8027-4 40743 9a?— 128
e4+56 202-1 2et+9e2—5
as

QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 273

go, 5 4 7 _8a?—185—
64,
(Gas Se—-4 Gate
e 12
40 Ca 4a 34% —-2a_ 30 ax — a? ;
2%—8a 32+4a 62?—T7ar—3¢2
a b =o 45. 3 eae’ = Dr ae,
41.
e+a—c “£+b-c¢ 2-1 ¢-+-e4+1 eal
. Vna+V(m—njz+mn=2m. gg SP +eH-2 3807+ 4e—1_
28 (3.@ + 10) 25 eGDi aS Th.
43.
2°07, Tomas
228 8y MT ete Bah eo
2%—3n, 8¢+n
_ 10 48. 241 2071 |
82+n 2x—3n 8 Vell Vn

:
49 Vi¢etvi-w 1 v2,
Vite Vion
50 a a fe i i Nod Po
“244 x o=6 x :
51. V6—524+ V2—Txz=VvV12+6¢.

52. ee = ae tb eg sb, 58. Va? + bz — Vb? + ax=a—D.

x-a “x+a a—-b at+b
54. («-2a+30)?4+
(«+38a—2 6)? = 25 a? — 30 ab + 13 02.

55, VE
t1+
VP 1 Ve t1-VeRW1 =2V16 x? —1.
Ver t1i-ve—1 ve?+14vV2—1
56. (@a—b+2c)e?—-(2a+b+e)x=—a-2bd+e.

57. Va? + ax +a? + Vo? — ax + 2? =a(vi + V18).

ees eS 9 59, (t5_ 4-7 i a Peg
58.
x—-1l x-2 x-8 x—-4 x£x+6 x-8

60. Vlt+ae+¢+ VIi—-2+22=2(1+4+ V3).

61. @+a—2b)?-(@—2a+4 b)?=9(a— D)8

62.
ie Pe ee eee
e383 ¢—5 w+ «—-9

638. V322+ 424 10 — V80? +22 —8 =2.

1 i) 1 1 1 1 1 1
64. 0.
zr+a a re a eg Coat eae
66. (8mn + n?) x? —(6 m? — 7 mn — 2 n?)e+2mn—3n?
=0.
g7, ZHL_@4+38_ 442 444.
Ga 1 wb wis v6
274 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

68. (8a?+ 10 ab — 3b?) a? — (16a? + 6B?) x + 8a? —10ab—-30°=0.

ON
eee =Paine 70, t=! ay ee
Sa emae b na ROMANE tee aigGe
1. Vee + 2n—3— V22?—2e
—8 = V2x7 —6.
12. V2 +Tax + 1202+ Ve? — Tax + 12 a = V2 22 + 24 a.
3. -
il 1 ee Se
1 SS
1 =
i en ea a Sa Ssh i oe oe LED
2 2 Des, — 9 x2 _ =
7, et6e+l, sa%+ l2e4+1_20 12¢ 1,32 = 1
x+6 x+3 x—6 x—3
95, tL et? ~e+8__ og.
g—1 x-—-2 x-—8

76. («-2)
x
(«-2)
x
(«-Z)=@+2)@+@44).
x

77. (@+1)(a2 — 0 — 2 4+2bc) =22(a2 +02 —2be +c).

THEORY OF QUADRATIC EQUATIONS

454. A quadratic equation cannot have more than two different

roots.
Every quadratic equation can be reduced to the form
ax? 07-6
— 0.
If possible, let this equation have three different roots, 7, 72,
and 73; then, by § 110,
ar’ + br, +c¢=0, (1)
are + br, +c=0, (2)
and ar, + br, +c =0. (3)
Subtracting (2) from (1),
a(n? — 727) + b(7, — 1) = 0.
Then, (7 + 12)(%) — Te) + O(7; — 72) = 0,
or, (7) — 7) (ar, + ary +b) =0.
Whence, either 7, —7,=0, or else ar, + a7, +b =0 ($ 49).
But 7,;— 7, cannot be zero, for, by hypothesis, 7, and 7, are
different.
Hence, ant ar,+b6=0. (4)
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 275

In like manner, by subtracting (8) from (1), we have

ar, + ar; +b = 0. (5)
Subtracting (5) from (4), ar, — ars = 0, or ry — 73 = 0.
But this is impossible, for, by hypothesis, 7, and 7, are
different.
Hence, a quadratic equation cannot have more than two
different roots.

455. Sum and Product of Roots.

Let 7, and 7, denote the roots of ax’?+ba+c=0.
Then, by § 450,
he a b+~Vb ras ee RU Tie
NE 2 —4 ac.

2a 2a
: = 2
Adding these values, 7, +7,=—— es
2a a
Multiplying them together,
b? — NE
LES (b? — aE
4 ac)
tt 132 ;
dac_¢
Tr, =
4 @? ‘ Na a)
Hence, if a quadratic equation is in the form aa’ + ba+ce=0,
the sum of the roots equals minus the coefficient of x divided
by the coefficient of x, and the product of the roots equals the
independent term divided by the coefficient of x.

1. Find by inspection the sum and product of the roots of

38a°—Tex—15=0.

The sum of the roots is i and their product — ue or — 5.

2. One root of the equation 62? + 31a=— 35 is 5; find

the other.
The equation can be written 6a? + 312+ 35=0.
Then, the sum of the roots is — * and their product a.
— >.
Then, the other root is — 2 +5 or ~ ee _2 f; that is,
276 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

EXERCISE 52

Find by inspection the sum and product of the roots of:

iL, GA Wa SS Ga) Sed ee
2, 2 —x+12=0. 6. 9x —2127+7=—0.
Sh ge ae — Il sO %. 6372 -o +4=0.
4, 322-2-—6=0 8. 6ax?+
7 abx = 20 02.
9. One root of «27+
7% =98 is 7; find a other.
10. One root of 28%2—%—15=0 is -2; find the other.

11. One root of 2?— 92+2V34+2-—7V3=0 is 5+2V38; find the

other.
12. If vr; and re are the roots of ax? + bz + ¢ = 0, express the following
in terms of 7; and ro:

(@) ttrmtee ©) HEM.T 112

@ Let. 72 122
@ nttnt
%

456. Discussion of General Solution.

By § 448, the roots of aa’?+be+c=0 are

ne a...
b+~Vb?—4ac
phage
ete —b-— im.
Vb 2 —44ac.
ae
2a 2a
We will now discuss these results for all possible real values
of a, b, and e.
I. 0°’ —4ac positive.
In this case, 7, and 7, are real and unequal.
Il. 6 —4ac=0.
In this case, 7, and 7, are real and equal.
Ill. 6,—4 ac negative.
In this case, 7, and 7, are imaginary (§ 407), or complex
(§ 415).
Vee == 0;
In this case, the equation takes the form
ax’?+c=0; whence, tees
a

If a and ¢ are of unlike sign, the roots are real, equal in

absolute value, and wnlike in sign,
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 277

If a and ¢ are of like sign, both roots are imaginary.

Wo CS.

In this case, the equation takes the form

ax + bx =0; whence, «=0, or ao}
a
Hence, the roots are both real, one being zero.
i= 0 ang ¢= 0.
In this case, the equation takes the form az = 0,
Hence, both roots equal zero.
The roots are both rational, or both irrational, according as
b?— 4 ac is, or is not, a perfect square.
Ex. Determine by inspection the nature of the roots of
22°—5x—18=0.
Here a=2, b=—5,c=—18; andb?—4ac= 254144=169.
Since 6?— 4 ac is positive, the roots are real and unequal.
Since 6?— 4 ac is a perfect square, both roots are rational.

EXERCISE 53

Determine by inspection the nature of the roots of:

1. 6224+72—5=0. 6. 1622-90.
2 422—2=0. ee 0s ele
3. 10224+172+3=0. 8. 2522+ 302+9=0.
4. 4a? 20x +425=0. 9. 722432 =0.
5. 22 — 21a + 200=0. 10.. 41 2 — 20 2? = 20,

FACTORING
457. Factoring of Quadratic Expressions.
A quadratic expression is an expression of the form
ax’ + be+e.
In § 174, we showed how to factor certain expressions of this
form by inspection; we will now derive a rule for factoring any
quadratic expression.
278 . ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

We have,
cat + be tom a(at+E +2)
ee

b\? &—4ac
=< (*+3.) msea
foe ie we b oe see
=o(n4 2+ 2a ue 2a :
by $171. (1)
But by § 450, the roots of az®+bx+c=0 are

F OeVERE G0 gy oa OeOe ae
2a 20 2a 2a
Hence, to factor a quadratic expression, place it equal to zero,
and solve the equation thus formed.
Then the required factors are the coefficient of x in the given
expression, « minus the first root, and x minus the second.

1. Factor 6a?+7a—53.
Solving the equation 6 a? +7 «—3=0, by § 450,

Piel fa OE Rea otBat Stee 8

ie ie = 2

Then,
2
6e74+7x—38=6 os
il ets
3

4 3
(2-5) *2(2+9)
= 3/ @w— = 2| v- =

= (3 e—1)(2%+4+3).
The example may also be solved by using (1) as a formula.

2. Factor 4+13 a — 12 a’.

Solving the equation 4 + 13 x —12 2*=0, we have
ypoe 18 +-V169 192 | 18 19 uy 4
— 24 — 24 PRS
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 279

Whence, 44132 —120'=—12(0+7)( -§)

m(e#5)<-)(-4
=(14+42)(4—32).
3. Factor 2a°—3ey—2y—Taw+4y+4+6.
We solve the equation

2a°—a(3y+7)—2y+4y+6=0.
By § 450, pam AR ieee eee eS

_dytTtV25y¥+10y+1
4.
ee Aat t(O Yate)
4
Oda
= eeoe ae
A Oe:
=2y+2 or —y+3
9

Then, 20°—3ay—2y—Tx+4y4+6

=2[2— @y +2] 2——555)

ae —yt+3

=(«—2y—2)(2e%+y—3).

458. If the coefficient of x? is a perfect square, it is prefer-

able to factor the expression by completing the square as in
§ 447, and then using § 171.
1. Factor 92?—9a—4.
By § 447, 9 2°92 will become a perfect square by adding
9 3
to it the square of Ie or 53 then,
8 2
9 9D
92 2 9O97—4— a 2'— 9 »+(3)
e—4=9 att) ae es

3\?_ 25
= boa ee
(32 5) 4
280 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Then, 90—92— 4=(82—3+5)(32-3-5) (§ 171

=(3a+1)(3a¢—A4).
If the x term is negative, the entire expression should b
enclosed in parentheses preceded by a.— sign.
2. Factor 3-12 «¢—427.
38—12%—4e¢=— (40°4122—3)
=— (42?+12%+9—9-—3)
=—[(2e+3)?—12]
= (2e+3+4-V12) x (—1)(22+3—Vvi12)
= (2V8 +3422) (2V3 —3— 22).
In certain cases, the factors of a quadratic expression involv
complex numbers.
3. Factor «—42+ 9.
e—4e4+9=(7—4e4+4)4+5

=(w—2)*—(—5)
= (#—24+V—5)(@—2—V—5).

EXERCISE 54

Factor the following by the method of § 457:

To xt 14. 3-338: 10. 8%74+182%-—5.
2. x2—182%-+
40. Ik 622-2 72-2:

32 — a — 42 LO Ig 4s

4, 4o2? 4382 —7. 18. 1422 — 23 2a + 3 a2.

5. 32-112
— 20. 14. 2442-17
ay + 3 y?.
6. 247+927+9. 15. 28 x? — mx — 2 m?.

7. 5x2 — 36a + 36. 16. 5 — 26% — 2422.

8. 9-—8a
— x. 17. 8+14%—1522,
9. 20+19%—622. 18. 2142+
23 ay? + 6 yt.
19. 22—ay —6y?-—6x+18y
+5.
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 281

20. «2-—S8ay—4y2?4+6u4—4y+8.
21. «2?@-—6ay+5y2?-2u4—2y—-—8.
22. 2a%7+5ab420+7a+5043.
23. 3224 Tay —6y?—10az—8yz2+822
24. 2—Ty-—Tx+3y+ay—402

Factor the following by the method of § 458 :

25. 402—12%2—7. 30. 14+2x%—22
26. 32 —12”%—922, 81, 1622-16241.
27. 1642+
66% + 33. 82. 25 22 — 25-46.
28. 92+
24% —2. 33. 8622+
72% + 29.
29. 427+ 20x44 19. 34. 11+ 10a — 25 x2.

459. We will now take up the factoring of expressions of

the forms «*+ aa’y’+ y*, or a*+y*, when the factors involve
surds. (Compare § 172.)
deeHactor a> 2 a7b- -— 2) b*.
at + 2 a?b? + 25 bt = (at + 10 a’? + 25 b*) — 8 a’b?
= (a? + 5 b?)? — (abvV8)?
= (a? +50? + abV8)(a? + 5b? — abv8)
=(a’?+2 abV2+45 b°)(a? — 2 abV2 +45 BY),
The above expression may also be expressed as the product of two
factors involving complex numbers.

2. actor a 4-1.
ott 1 = (at + 20°+1)
—2 2?

= (a +1)?— (@v2)"
= (02 + 2V2 +1)(2? —a2V2 +1).

EXERCISE 55

In each of the following, obtain two sets of factors, where this can be
done without bringing in imaginary numbers :
1. et—72?4+4. 4. 4a*+6a?+4+9.
2. at + b4. 5. 36 at — 92 a? + 49.
8. 9mt—11m?+1. 6. 25 m4 + 28 m2n?2 + 16 nf.
282 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

460. Solution of Equations by Factoring.

In § 183, we showed how to solve equations whose first mem-
bers could be resolved by inspection into first degree factors,
and whose second members were zero.
We will now take up equations whose first members can be
resolved into factors partly of the first and partly of the second,
or entirely of the second degree.
1. Solve the equation 2 —1=0.
Factoring the first inember, (w—1)(a@’?+a-+41)=0.
Then, oie Dorn == Ls)
and x’ +a+1=0; whence, by § 450,
ppSprie5
leviTd eevee
eke oe cee eer

2. Solve the equation a*+1=0,

By Ex. 2, § 459,
af 1 = (9? + oV/2 +1) (2? — 2-2 +1).
Solving a+ a/2+1=0, we have

x
ee
= ; ee =ee eS
‘ :

Solving 2 — #/2+1=0, we have

_V2tV2—4_V24+V—2
‘ 2 2
EXERCISE 56

Solve the following equations :

1. 8223-2724 152%—10=0. 2. tt4on?
— 32=—0.
3. «8 —64=0. 5. 2748 +8=0. 7. 642% —125=0,
4. o$+2162=0, 6. 16x%4—81=0. 8. x6 — 729 a8 = 0.
g @t2r+4_4 _ (e+ 4a)— 908 a —2a?, 9
w—2e—4 a(a—4a)—9a3 w+2q2 ©
11. x4 81=0. 13. x$+4+2%7+25=0. 15. 28 — 256 a8 = 0.
12, af—5a?+1=0. 14. 2t—182274+9=0. 16. 9at— 2244-0,
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 283

461. Maxima and Minima Values of Quadratic Expressions.

The greatest or least value of a quadratic expression may
sometimes be found by the artifice of completing the square.
1. Find the minimum value of 2?—5a+7.

We have bell = a= sere

‘ 9 5 3 3

B\2
Since (=—3) is positive for every real value of a, the least
a

ENS BY
value of {a =) ay is when «=
“a bo]
Or
Thus, the minimum
value of the expression is =:
‘ 4
2. Find the maximum value of 4—3e—2 2.
We may write the expression

Bear 3 era Ol eee8 hee

97) 41 Og 3\?
galas ; 3
Ge ey.
The greatest value is when «=—--.
Thus, the greatest value of the expression is e

EXERCISE 57

Find the maxima and minima values of the following, and determine
which :
lL, Bese Bee AL, 8. 402-82 —5. By 8 02 - Oe 4s
Os CGS Sh eh 4. 3+” —2. a iy, 0",
% 622—7x%+8. 8..—7T+22—5x2.

PROBLEMS INVOLVING QUADRATIC EQUATIONS WITH

ONE UNKNOWN NUMBER

462. In solving problems which involve quadratic equations,

there will usually be two values of the unknown number; only
those values should be retained which satisfy the conditions of
the problem.
The considerations of §§$ 261 and 262 hold for equations of
any degree.
284 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

1. A man sold a watch for $21, and lost as many per cent
as the watch cost dollars. Find the cost of the watch.
Let x = number of dollars the watch cost.
Then, a = the per cent of loss,
2
and x x —-, or ~~ = number of dollars lost.
‘< 100’ 100
2
By y the the conditions
condi ‘ 100
ere ge 21:

Solving, x = 30 or 70.
Then, the cost of the watch was either $30 or $70; for either of these
answers satisfies the conditions of the problem.

2. A farmer bought some sheep for $72. If he had bought

6 more for the same money, they would have cost him $1
apiece less. How many did he buy ?
Let % = number bought.

Then, te number of dollars paid for one,

x
and us -=number of dollars paid for one if there
eee had been 6 more.
By the conditions, 72 = @ +1
x «£+6
Solving, e=18 or — 24.
Only the positive value of x is admissible, for the negative value does
not satisfy the conditions of the problem.
Therefore, the number of sheep was 18.
If, in the enunciation of the problem, the words ‘‘6 more’? had been
changed to ‘‘6 fewer,’? and ‘$1 apiece less’? to ‘‘$1 apiece more,’’
we should have found the answer 24. (Compare § 261.)

EXERCISE 58

1. What number added to its reciprocal gives 24 ?

2. Divide the number 24 into two parts such that twice the square o!
the greater shall exceed 5 times the square of the less by 45.
8. Find three consecutive numbers such that the sum of theif square;
shall be 434.
4. Find two numbers whose difference is 7, and the difference o:
whose cubes is 1267.
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 285

5. Find five consecutive numbers such that the quotient of the first
by the second, added to the quotient of the fifth by the fourth, shall

6. Find four consecutive numbers such that if the sum of the squares
of the second and fourth be divided by the sum of the squares of the first
and third, the quotient shall be x

7. The area of a certain square field exceeds that of another square

field by 1008 square yards. And the perimeter of the greater exceeds one-
half that of the smaller by 120 yards. Find the side of each field.
8. A fast train runs 8 miles an hour faster than a slow train, and takes
3 hours less to travel 288 miles. Find the rates of the trains.
9. The perimeter of a rectangular field is 184 feet, and its area 1920
square feet. Find its dimensions.
10. A merchant sold goods for $22.75, and lost as many per cent as
the goods cost dollars. What was the cost ?
11. A merchant sold two pieces of cloth of different quality for $ 40.25,
the poorer containing 28 yards. He received for the finer as many dollars
a yard as there were yards in the piece; and 7 yards of the poorer sold
for as much as 2 yards of the finer. Find the value of each piece.
12. A merchant sold goods for $50.69, and gained as many per cent
as the goods cost dollars. What was the cost ?
13. A has five-fourths as much money as B. After giving A $6, B’s
money is equal to A’s multiplied by a fraction whose numerator is 15,
_and whose denominator is the number of dollars A had at first. How
much had each at first ?
14. A and B set out at the same time from places 247 miles apart,
and travel towards each other. A travels at the rate of 9 miles an hour;
and B’s rate in miles an hour is less by 3 than the number of hours at the
end of which they meet. Find B’s rate.
15. A man buys a certain number of shares of stock, paying for each
as many dollars as he buys shares. After the price has advanced as many
dimes per share as he has shares, he sells, and gains $722.50. How many
shares did he buy ?
16. The two digits of a number differ by 1; and if the square of the
number be added to the square of the given number with its digits reversed,
the sum ts 585. Find the number.
17. A gives $336, in equal amounts, to a certain number of persons.
B gives the same sum, in equal amounts, to 18 fewer persons, and gives
to each $6 more than A. How much does A give to each person ?
286 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

18. The telegraph poles along a certain road are at equal intervals.
If the interval between the poles were increased by 22 feet, there would
be 8 fewer ina mile. How many are there in a mile ?
19. A merchant bought a cask of wine for $45. Having lost 3 gallons
by leakage, he sells the remainder at $1.50 a gallon above cost, and makes
a profit of 334 per cent on his entire outlay. How many gallons did the
cask contain ?
20. The men in a regiment can be arranged in a column twice as long
as itis wide. If their number were 224 less, they could be arranged in a
hollow square 4 deep, having in each outer side of the square as many men
as there were in the length of the column. Find the number of men.
21. The denominator of a fraction exceeds twice the numerator by 2,
BA
and the difference between the fraction and its reciprocal is ~—. Find
the fraction. 24
22. A man started to walk 3 miles, intending to arrive at a certain
time. After walking a mile, he was detained 10 minutes, and was in
consequence obliged to walk the rest of the way a mile an hour faster.
What was his original speed ?
23. A regiment, in solid square, has 24 fewer men in front than when
in a hollow square 6 deep. How many men are there in the regiment ?
24. A rectangular field is surrounded by a fence 160 feet long. The
cost of this fence, at 96 cents a foot, was one-tenth as many dollars as
there are square feet in the area of the field. What are the dimensions
of the field ?
25. A crew can row down stream 18 miles, and back again, in 7} hours.
Their rate up stream is 14} miles an hour less than the rate of the stream.
Find the rate of the stream, and of the crew in still water.
26. A man put $5000 in a savings-bank paying a certain rate of in-
terest. At the end of a year he withdrew $75, leaving the remainder at
interest. At the end of another year, the amount due him was $ 5278.50.
Find the rate of interest.
27. A square garden has a square plot of grass at its centre, surrounded
by a path 4 feet in width. The area of the garden outside the path ex:
ceeds by 768 square feet the area of the path; and the side of the garden
is less by 16 feet than three times the side of the plot. Find the dimen:
sions of the garden.
28. A merchant has a cask full of wine. He draws out 6 gallons.
and fills the cask with water. Again he draws out 6 gallons, and fill
the cask with water. There are now 25 gallons of pure wine in the cask.
How many gallons does the cask hold ?
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 287

29. A and B sell a quantity of corn for $22, A selling 10 bushels more
than B. If A had sold as many bushels as B did, he would have received
$8,; while if B had sold as many bushels as A did, he would have received
$15. How many bushels did each sell, and at what price ?
30. Two men are employed to do a certain piece of work. The first
receives $48 ; and the second, who works 6 days less, receives $27. If
the second had worked all the time, and the first 6 days less, they would
have received equal amounts. How many days did each work, and at
what wages ?
31. A and B run around a course, starting from the same point, in
opposite directions. A reaches the starting-point 4 minutes, and B 9
minutes, after they have met on the road. If they continue to run at
the same rates, in how many minutes will they meet at the starting-
point ?
32. <A carriage-wheel, 15 feet in circumference, revolves in a certain
number of seconds. If it revolved in a time longer by one second, the
carriage would travel 14400 feet less in an hour. In how many seconds
does it revolve ?

DISCUSSION OF PROBLEMS INVOLVING QUADRATIC

EQUATIONS WITH ONE UNKNOWN NUMBER

463. Interpretation of Complex Results.

Prob. Let it be required to find two real numbers whose
sum shall be 10, and product 26.
Let x = one number.
Then, 10 — x = the other.
By the conditions, 2 (10 — «%) = 26.
Solving, od ge Se
We conclude that the given conditions cannot be satisfied, and the
problem is impossible.
Hence, imaginary or complex results show that the problem is
impossible.

464. The Problem of the Lights.

To find upon the line which joins two lights, A and B, the
point equally illuminated by them; it being given that the
intensity of a light, at a certain distance, equals its intensity
at the distance 1, divided by the square of the given distance.
288 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Ce A oO B 0
Let B be ¢ units to the right of A.
Let a and b denote the intensities of A and B, respectively,
at the distance 1.
Let the point of equal illumination be x units to the right
of A.
Then it will be ¢ — 2 units from B.
By the conditions of the problem, the intensity of 4A at the
distance « units, is gq”
“; and the intensity of B at the distance

c— 2 units, is pessilchel
mee)
a b
Then, Sara Caan

Solving this equation, # = eis or <2VER

Vat+vVe Va—vo
Since there are two lights, c must always be positive; then,
neither a, 6, nor ¢ can equal zero.
The problem then admits of only three different hypotheses :
We, (0) SS50%
In this case, EE
NDisaks is < 1, and = ;
Va+~vb
Then, the first value of wis < ¢, and > --
Thus, the first point of equal illumination is at C, between
the lights, and nearer B, the lesser light.

Again,
Va ice
Va—wvb
Then, the second value of a is > ¢.
Thus, the second point of equal illumination is at C', in AB
produced, to the right of the lesser light.
Wars TOR 10 .

In this case, Va —-is < = and the first value of 2 < 5

Va+vb 2
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 289

Then, the first point of equal illumination is between the -

lights, and nearer A, the lesser light.
Again, the second value of & is negative.
Then, the second point of equal illumination is at 0", in BA
produced, to the left of the lesser light.
B. dies D,

In this case, tiaey thee SL , and the first value of # = ©.

Vatwvb 2 2
Then, the first point of equal illumination is midway between
the lights.
Ben ee oe (6 247)
Va— Vb
Then, there is no second point of equal illumination in AB,
or AB produced.
In this case, as Va — Vb approaches the limit zero, the second value
of x increases without limit.
That is, as the difference between the intensities of the lights approaches
the limit zero, the distance from A to the second point of equal illumina-
tion increases without limit.

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF QUADRATIC EXPRES-

SIONS WITH ONE UNKNOWN NUMBER

465. The graph of a quadratic expression, with one unknown

number, may be found as in § 279.
Ex. Find the graph of 2 —2a—3.
Put y= 2? —22¢—3.
i230, 9 y=—3. (A)
Ife=1, ye—4. (B)
liga 2, y=—3. (C)

tig=3,. -y=0. GD)

ILE Ap 4, Y= 5. (£)

liga —1,.4=0. —()

Tig==2,y=5. - (4)
The graph is the curve GBE.
290 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

By taking other values for 2, the curve may be traced beyond

£ and G.
It extends in either direction to an indefinitely great dis-
tance from XX!.
To determine the lowest point of the curve, we must know
what negative value of y has the greatest absolute value; this
may be found as in § 461.
We have, we —2e—3=(e@—1)?—4.
The latter expression has its negative value of greatest abso-
lute value when « =1, being then equal to — 4.
Then, the lowest point of the curve has the co-ordinates
(1, —4); and is therefore the point B.

466. The principle of § 280 holds for the graph of the first
member of any quadratic equation, with one unknown number.
Thus, the above graph intersects X X' twice; once at x=3,
and once at w= —1; and the roots of the equation 2°—272—3=0
are 3 and —1.

467. Graphs of the First Members of Quadratic Equations

having Equal or Complex Roots.
1. Consider the equation 2—47%+4=0.
By § 183, the two roots are 2 and 2.
To find the graph of the first member,
put y= (@— 2)”
If «=0, y=4. If a=2, y=0.
Tepe, ya. eS, viewIe eus
The graph is the curve ABC, which
extends beyond A and C to an indefinitely great distance
from XX’.
Since y cannot be negative, the graph is tangent to XX' at
the point whose co-ordinates are (2, 0).
It is evident from this that, if a quadratic equation, with
one unknown number, has equal roots, the graph of its first
member is tangent to XX’.
 QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 291

2. Consider the equation a?+a+2=0. y

Solving, «= SEEN
a

To find the graph of the first member,

put y=? +a+2.
HNfro) Ye 2. If x=—1, y= 2.
Xl.

geting =4, li2——2, y>4;. etc:

y’

The graph is the curve ABC, which

extends beyond A and C to an indefinitely great distance
from XX’.
To find the point B, where the curve is nearest to XX', we
have a é 1\? 7

The latter expression has its least value, Z , when «= =

Then, B has the co-ordinates e * a)

It is evident from this that, if a quadratic equation, with

one unknown number, has complex roots, the graph of its first
member does not intersect XX’.
The equation a2x? — b2=0 may be written (ax + b)(ax — b)=0.
‘ The graph of the first member in this case is a pair of straight lines
parallel to YY", respectively, - to the right and 2to the left, of that
line.

EXERCISE 59

Find the graph of the first member of each of the following, determine
its lowest point, and verify the principles of §§ 280 and 467 in the results :
l. a —624+4=008. 4024+ 72 =0. ‘6. 4024+ 12249=0.
2. a2+te—6=0. 04. 822?-14e7—-—15=0.°6. 222+42745=0.

Find the graphs of the first members of the following, and verify the
principle of § 280 in the results :
Thy WP? NG 05 8. 9a? -—25=0.
292 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

XX. EQUATIONS SOLVED LIKE QUAD-

RATICS

468. Equations in the Quadratic Form.

An equation is said to be in the quadratic form when it is in
the form ax” + ba” +c=0,

where n is an integer or fraction; as,

x —623—16=0,
and co oo 12.
Such equations are readily solved by the methods of the pre-
ceding chapter.
1. Solve the equation 2 — 62°? = 16.
Completing the square by the rule of § 445,
oe —6e+9=164+9=25.
Extracting square roots, e—3=+5.
Then, e=3+5=8 or —2.
Extracting cube roots, a=2 or —V2.
There are also four imaginary roots, which may be found by the method
of § 460.

2. Solve the equation 2% +3 -Va = 27.

Since Va is the same as at, this is in the quadratic form,
Multiplying by 8, and adding 3” to both members,
162+ 24-Vx+9
= 2164+ 9 = 225.
Extracting square roots, 4V/a+3=+ 15.
Then, 4Ve=—34+15=12 or 18.
Or, Vax
= 38 or —3.
But only principal roots are considered.
 EQUATIONS SOLVED LIKE QUADRATICS 293

Therefore, /z cannot be negative, and the only solution is

Vx =38, or «=9.
In solving an equation of the form
20 P
axt + but+¢=0,
2
any value of x which is not a principal root, should be rejected.
For example, if at =— 2, the corresponding solution should be
rejected.
:
3. Solve the equation 2a?4 —1107°$412=0.
=

By formula (1), § 450,

basae: ae 4 or 3.
In this case, neither value is rejected.
1
Extracting square roots, a? = +2 or + ee

- : - 3\3
Raising to third power, «1=+8 or + oh
8
Inverting, w= + :or + aie
P
To solve an equation of the form «= 4, first extract the root corre-
sponding to the numerator of the fractional exponent, and afterwards
raise to the power corresponding to the denominator ; careful attention
must be given to algebraic signs.

469. An equation may sometimes be solved with reference

to an expression, by regarding it as a single letter.
1. Solve the equation (7+ 5)? —3(@+ B)E = 40.
Completing the square,

@+oyt—3@ +o a = 104520".
+(5

Extracting square roots, (# + 5)E — :=+ e.

Then, (w+ 5)t= 3 13

o*
294 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

We reject the value (#+ 5)t =—5; the only solution is

| (@+5)i=8
Extracting cube root, (# + 5) =
Raising to fourth power, « + 5= 16, and «= 11.
Certain equations of the fourth degree may be solved by the
rules for quadratics.

2. Solve the equation a + 12 a°+4 34a?—12¢%—35=0.

The equation may be written
(ot + 12 x + 36 a) — 2a? — 12 %=35.
Or, (2? + 6 x)? — 2(a?+ 6 w) = 35.
Completing the square,
(2? + 6 #)? —2(a°+
62) +1= 36.
Extracting square roots, (#’+62)—-1=+6.
Then, v4-6e=7 or —5,
Completing the square, 2?+6x2+9=16or4.
Extracting square roois, ve+3=+40r 42.
Then, «=—3+4 or —342=1, —7, —1, or —5.
In solving equations like the above, the first step is to complete the
square with reference to the w* and a? terms ; by § 447, the third term of
the square is the square of the quotient obtained by dividing the 23 term
by twice the square root of the «* term.

3. Solve the equation 2? — 6 2+ 5V2?—6x-+20 = 46.

Adding 20 to both members,
(a? —6 & + 20) 4+5-V a? —6 a+ 20 =66.
Completing the square,
(« —6 e+ 20) +5Ve— e420 + =6642 = 782.
Extracting square roots, Va? — 6 a+ 20 + >Tee
= te

Then, Vx —6 24+ 20 =6 or —11.

 EQUATIONS SOLVED LIKE QUADRATICS 295

The only solution is V2? —6x+20=6.

Squaring, x’? —6 2+ 20 = 36.
Completing the square, x —6ae+9= 25.
Extracting square roots, w—3=+5, and «=8 or —2.
In solving equations of the above form, add such an expression to both
members that the expression without the radical sign in the first member
may be the same as that within, or some multiple of it.

4. Solve the equation 229+ 5a—2aV2+52—3=12.

The equation may be written
+5 e—2aVe+5e—3+2°=12,
Subtracting 5 from both members,
(2? +5 2 —3)—2aVe+5e2—3+2°=9.
Extracting square roots, Va?+5e—3—a#=+3.
Or, Ve+5a—8=04+8.
Squaring, v’+5e—8=074+624+9.
12
Then, —# or 11a2=12, and x=—12 or i
Neither value satisfies the given equation.

5. Solve the equation e—3

— ,ae—a5
a PH we
Representing — ” by y, the equation becomes
ao — @
eee or 2y°+2=5y.
Ur a

Solving this, y =5 or 2; that is, — :=5 or 2.

Taking first value, 2a?—6=2?—~@.

Or, e+e 6,
Solving, x=2 or —3.
Taking second value, 7? —3= 2 2?—2,
Or, —v+2e=3.
Solving, e=1+V—2.
296 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

A EXERCISE 60
Solve the following:
1. at — 29 x? =— 100. 9. 6x2 —2=11Vvz.
2. a-6 a. ae -3 =— 206; 10.
oe fk ee
8. 23 +10274+9=0. 11 , 20-8 — 352-44 48=0.
4. of — 33.0%
=— 82. ~ | 27 28+ 46 28 = 16.
5. 644 63a 2 — 2-8 =0, x18 $98 — 98 = ot.
6. 8e77%+ 144-1 = 5.
14. 16 «8 — 33 x — 243 = 0.
%. 6% 51+7¢ 5=—2 ~
. 16145
+5 =— 82410,
8. 42°18 —_ 21,
fae 16. 81 2 2 — 308 — 64 22 = 0.
17. (2024 3%)?-4(22?+4
32) = 46.
18. «+1203
+ 1422 — 182% —185=—0.
19. 5%+12—5vV52+4+ 12=—4.
x — 3 1 YG
20 Bie 4
21. 802 +24+5V322+2+46=380.
22. 822-1462 V822—1 =— 822
28. «4 — 2 ax — 17 2a? + 18 a8a2 + 72 at =0.

24. 18(# 7) +21(2—2) es he

x x

e429 Be—B_ 35
Qa—5 22742 6
26. 22 -—6 —444+11=42—-19.
Va?
Q7. 224382+4—-Ve24+
38244 =—2.
28. (492422 —7)24+42242”—189=0.
29. Vx? —32 —3=22—
382 —23.
30. (222-82 —1)8—6(222 = Ba 1s aly
31. 8V22— 122 —7Ve— 122=- 2.
32. xt —18 23 + 109 22 — 252% +180 =0,
338. V30?—2a¢4+ 1642V322—24416-—15=0,
. 7(a® — 28)-§ + 8(a3 — 28) =~ 1,
(8% +15)? + 978% + 15)# = 29.
602 +564¢—165 =4eVe2 452-8.
 EQUATIONS SOLVED LIKE QUADRATICS 297

37. 10(1 — 22)— 12%-—V52?+64%—2=0.

38. at + 28 a2 + 190 22 — 84% — 135 = 0.
39. 9(« + a)® — 22 02x + a)? + 84 = 0,
40. 2274+1+4+V2?
—82 + 37 = 8(a + 12).
41. 25(x + 1)-1 — 15(2 + 1)? = 2.
42. (3%—2a)?—-40(8e%-—2a)=4(4+4a)?+8u4(~+4a).
43. we—ba+l1l «w-2¢74+2 8

44. 9a(7 —24)+9Va2—-—Txe—5=— 48,

3822 +2¢—5 fe — 14-1 _ 8!
45.
4y2—Te—1 8H7+207-—5 2

46. 9a2* — 30 «3 — 185 22 + 350% + 1176 = 0.

41. ln2 + 34+ aes"

10 26.
v—5xe2+2 o+352+10 5

2 Be _3
48. Noe+ ig
2 = 3° 2
298 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

XXI. SIMULTANEOUS QUADRATIC

EQUATIONS

On the double signs + and =.

If two or more double signs are used in an equation, it will be under-
stood that the equation can be read in two ways; first, reading all the
upper signs ; second, reading all the dower signs.
Thus, the equation a+ 6 = +c can be read either
a+b=c, ora—b=—ce.
And the equation a + b= +c can be read either
at+b=-—c, or a—b=c.
The same notation will be used in the case of a system of equations,
each involving double signs.
Thus, the equations x = +2, y = +3, can be read either
= +2, y= +s, Or B= —2, y= — 8:
And the equations «= + 2, y= +3, can be read either
C= 2) y=— 38, Of P=— 2, y=.

The principles demonstrated in §§ 233 to 236, inclusive, hold for simul-

taneous equations of any degree.

470. The following principle is of frequent use in solving

simultaneous equations of higher degree than the first:
The system of equations
Ax B=, (1)
Cx D=0, (2)
where A, B, C, and D are rational and integral expressions
which involve the unknown numbers, is equivalent to the
systems
0. (aan eee pe
as D0
a
BEST Nea Pon eed,
Ske©)
For any solution of (1) and (2) makes 4x B and Cx D
identically equal to 0.
 SIMULTANEOUS QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 299

It then makes at least one factor of A x Band C x D identi-

cally equal to 0, and hence satisfies some one of the systems (8).
Again, any solution of any one of the systems (3) makes
either A or B, and also either C or D, es equal to 0;
and hence satisfies (1) and (2).
Then, the system (1) and (2) is equivalent to (8).
The principle holds for any number of equations, with any number of
factors.

471. Two equations of the second degree (§ 113) with two

unknown numbers will generally produce, by elimination, an
equation of the fourth degree with one unknown number.
Consider, for example, the equations
|e+y =a. (1)
e+y=b. (2)
From (1), y=a— 2’; substituting in (2),
e+a?—2ae+2e=b);
an equation of the fourth degree in a.
The methods already given are, therefore, not sufficient for
the solution of every system of simultaneous quadratic equa-
tions, with two unknown numbers.
In certain cases, however, the solution may be effected.
472. Case I. When each equation is in the form
ax’ + by? =e.
In this case, either 2 or 7” can be eliminated by addition or
subtraction.
a
‘Z e
1. Solve the equations |::a i

Multiply (1) by 3, 9 aw? +12 y? = 228.

Multiply (2) by 4, 127’?—44e¢’?= 16.
Subtracting, 53 2? = 212.
Or, je ee, (3)
Whence, = +2,
300 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Substituting #= + 2 in (1), 12+47’=76.

Then, = 16. (4)
Whence, yas +4,
The solution
is a=2, y= +4; or, a=—2,y=44. (5)
It follows, precisely as in Ex. 1, § 238, that the given system is equiva-
lent to the system (8) and (4).
Now (8) and (4) may be written
(x + 2)(# —2)=0, and (y+ 4)(y—4) =0.
And by § 470, these are equivalent to
(e+2=0, x+2=0, x—2=0, xz—2=0,
4 f { and {
ly+4=0, \ly—4=0, y+4=0, y—4=0;
which are the same as (5).
The method of elimination by addition or subtraction may be
used in other examples.
38a°—4y= 47.
2. Solve the equations . : ®
Tw’ +6y= 33. (2)
Multiply (4) by 3, — 9a? —12y= 141.
Multiply (2) by 2, 1427+12y= 66.
Adding, 23 7 = 207.
Then, oe = 9, and a= +S.
Substituting x= +3 in (1), 27-4 y = 47.
Then, —4y= 20, and y =— 5.
It is possible to eliminate one unknown number, in examples (1) and
(2), by substitution (§ 239), or by comparison (§ 240).

Solve the following: ma bat

‘h ee 4424 9 y2 = 13.
9 a? + 5 y2 = 189, (8 a2— 27 y2= 6.
Do a 5 yea Y= (Oy ¢
Ta+4y2 = 121. : ry — 8 y? =— 95.
Pen a a ee, 6 y? = 84.
4a%— 5 ay = 46. 7 2? + 15 y? = 204,
 SIMULTANEOUS QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 301

ee: ee thes:
e+ ey + 3 y? = 27. v2 — 2 y2 = 17.
nae a+b)(a+3b). | yr+4ay—38y = 42.
47y?—2?=(8 a—b) (a—3 db). 2y— w+5y=—10.
Se+2y,3e—2y_ 41
in, |Be Ol7 ~ Sees 20)
| 8 y+ 32? = 29.
(sect ok al y)(6u%+5y) = 57.
((6%—2y)?—4(@—4y)(2e4
By) = 225.

473. Casz Il. When one equation is of the second degree,

and the other of the first.
Equations of this kind may be solved by finding the value of
one of the unknown numbers in terms of the other from the
first degree equation, and substituting this value in the other
equation.
Ex. Solve the equations |se NO (1)
eZ 7, (2)

From (2), y= St (3)

Substituting. in (1),f 2a? — (7 =2 *)= ( ==

2
*). (4)
Clearing of fractions, 4a°—Tw+a’?=42—62.
Or, 5a? —a# = 42. (5)
5 14
Solving, v= 3 or — —
14
(ete:
Substituting in (3), y= ES or isea
‘ 2 2 10
‘The solution is # = 3, y= 2; or, e=— he (6)

By § 236, the given system is equivalent to (3) and (4) ; or, since (4)
is equivalent to (5), to the system (3) and (4).
Now, (5) can be written (« — 3)(5a% + 14) =0.
Then, by § 470, the system (5) and (5) is equivalent to the systems
(3) and # —3=0, and (8) and5a~+ 14=0; that is, to (6).
 302 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

EXERCISE 62
‘ Solve the following :
: a2 + 3y2 = 37. poe.
a 1. y b
yy —2y =9. 2: ]
vy =2a?+38a-2. y 230
oye si #
=lla+2. fae 4yty—3ay=-—6.
2ay +e =— 36. 10.
; ~—5y+2ey=10.
sy —3y=— 5. 40
x a
a z2 Leh
D a2
Aeae 8. 1: Jay =
= ——
31 rs

a ree rea Net see oe

2 2 y? = 8.
ty Oe seed 2 Sees Dees
5 [30% — ay —y =— 3. tyes es
= Soyo
i - aoe {3 a®+4ay = 13.

Sar tek " (Qay + 9y? =87.

Geerase
a Ba oe3 gitLat
2
Ep oee. 144 Bs
J e—y ya
2% 5,—H, Ges 15 0.

8. | Y 2 '
x2y? — 24 o 9b =02
[304
Lg
4y a2.3 1g es ae ae 18.
38a—2y=—
ie |e te ee eae
; £+y=3(a—D).

474. Case Ill. When the given equations are symmetrical

with respect to x and y; that is, when x and y can be inter-
changed without changing the equation.
Equations of this kind may be solved by combining them in
such a way as to obtain the values of «+y and w—y.

1. Solve the equations - ad3 4 15. (1)

(2)
Squaring (1), C+2eyty= 4, (3)
Multiplying (2) by 4, A ay =— 60. r (4)
Subtracting, e—2eyty’= 64, 6)
Extracting square roots, x — ¥ = 8. (6)
 SIMULTANEOUS QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 803

Adding (1) and (6), 2e=2+8=10 or —6.

Whence, x=5 or —3.
Subtracting (6) from (1), 2y=278=—6or 10.
Whence, y=—S8ord.
The solution is r=5, y=—38; or, x=—3, y=5. (7)
In subtracting + 8 from 2, we have 2 + 8, in accordance with the nota-
tion explained on page 298.
In operating with double signs, + is changed to +, and = to +, when-
ever + should be changed to —.
Equation (4) is equivalent to (2); but (8) is equivalent tow+y=2
and«+y=—2.
If, then, we use only the value +2 for x+y, the given system is
equivalent to (3) and (4).
By § 254, the system (8) and (4) is equivalent to (8) and (5).
Then, the given system is equivalent to the positive value of «+ yin
(8), and (5) ; that is, to (1) and (5).
Now (5) may be written (@ —y —8)(a—y+8)=0.
Then, by § 470, the system (1) and (5) is equivalent to (1) and
x —y—8=0, and (1) andx —y+8=0; that is, to (7).

The above equations may also be solved by the method of Case II; but
the symmetrical method is shorter and neater.

2. Solve the equations |sd ee Se ot

Multiply (2) by 2, 2 aey=—14. (3)

Add (1) and (3) e+ 2 ay +y’ = 36. (4)
Whence, ot+y=+ 6. (5)
Subtract (3) from (1), 2 —2 ay + y= 64. (6)
Whence, xe—y=+8. (7)
Add (5) and (7), 2n=6
+8, or —6+8.
Whence, Cal, —hy dg OR et
Subtract (7) from (5), 2y=6 + 8, or —6 $8.
Whence, y=, 7, —T, or 1.
The solution is <=+7, y=F1; or, e=4+1, y= FT.
304 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

The given system is equivalent to the system (4) and (6).

Now (4) and (6) can be written
(a+y+6)(a@+y—6)=0, and @—y+8)@—y—8)=0.

Then, the system (4) and (6) is equivalent to (5) and (7), with every
possible combination of signs.

We may solve by the method of Case III other systems in which the
equations are symmetrical, except in the signs of terms; as, for example,
the system
e-—yr=a.
{ xy = b.

We may also solve certain non-symmetrical systems; as, for example,

the system
( ata? + by? = c.
ax + by =d.

EXERCISE 63
Solve the following:
1. uv 24 +yY y2 — 29, t+ ny + yea Zl,

; =
fe-y=U. 2? 2 — xy + y2?a= Wi
—-
2. 4
xy = — 28.
flier es
4, [ety
=180. ETc
‘ =~—==12,
% fe+y=2a-1, ce sy
cy=a—a-2. Wo th NY)

a? + y2=%
me me 11. J
ey 86
B. ab? eel
xy = ab. sf
6. pees ey PEN Oes 12. [e+ 9y? = 50.
L %—y=3. a—8y=—0.

y=— 16.
ee SBE ree alge
Nic 19 x 3 2e+y=14.
x—y=l1. oa

5 0? — vy + y? =a? 4 3 0% 14. ay
rial ety=2a. eens
 SIMULTANEOUS QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 305

11 1igg . fen tag

ee a 6a + Sy =11.
La ey ude:
ee) 18
eee bees
a? — oy +y2_ 7 eatace oat
a xy? 324 5224+ 4ay + 54? = 161.
e—y_ 1 Ks pie ae
vy 18 ; e-yo=—2,

Ply 18 ek 2 C0 a
oI fe Gaye. OP: a*(a — b)?
Lt, 2G tt
la? ay y2 a®(a—b)?
475. Case IV. When each equation is of the second degree,
and homogeneous ; that is, when each term involving the unknown
numbers is of the second degree with respect to them.
Certain equations of this form may be solved by the method of Case I
or Case III. (See Exs. 1, § 472, and 2, § 474.) The method of Case IV
should be used only when the example cannot be solved by Cases I or III.
—2ay=5.
Ex. Solve the equations (es. : * a

Putting in the given equations UY = 0, (1)

we have oe —2ve= 5; or, ta (2)

and ae + v°o® = 29; or eats dew (3)

pie 1+?
; B= Ski
229 4
Equating values of 2’, my oe (4)

Or, bv? + 58 v= 24. (5)

Solving this equation, v =3 or — 12.

Substituting these values in (2), we have

5 5 of it
a ee
red or eee
14 24 2D or 5
=; the wh =+5
se or r +—-
We
306 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Substituting the values of v and & in the equation y = va,

2 1 12
or FS
5) or —12(4a)= 2?
Apes
=—=(+
Vi V5
move: 00 Oe 1 12
NS Fae
The solution is e=+5,y=+2;

The given system, and (1), are three equations with three unknown
numbers ; by § 236, they are equivalent to the system (1), (2), and (8).
Then, precisely as in Ex., § 240, the system (1), (2), and (8) is
equivalent to (1), (2), and (4), or to (1), (2), and (5).
We may write (5) in the form (5 v — 2)(v + 12)=0.
Then, the system (1), (2), and (5) is equivalent to the systems (1),
(2), and 6v — 2 =0, and (1), (2), andv+12=0.
Then, the given system is equivalent to the systems
5 5
y= pr, 2 = rt and y=—129, 2?=
t= 1+ 24
5
In finding y from the equation y = va, care must be taken to multiply
each value of « by the value of v which was used to obtain it.

Solve the following: Bette

1 x2 + y® = 25. 7 fw?—2ay —4y?=— 41.
La? — wy = 4, ” la®— 5 ay + 8y? = 58.
9. {e+ 8ay =— 5, (20+ Tey +4y?=2,
2ay — y2 =— 24, (38a2+
8ay —4y? =— 72.
3 {e+ ay + y? = 19, flla— ay— y*=46.
; 20? + ey = — 2. "| 72 +8 ay — 24? = 20.
re pee eae UN 5a2?+ ay —8y?
= 27.
3 ay + y? = 28, 402 —4ay+
3y2= 72.

sees
ay? Reng
ae ns ayVk
Au Soe ee eet we
5 ae \ | ty een

6 ie we ee iB (4a?—Qay— y2—-#16,
x2 + 42 = 40, = elie a oii 3 98 tO
1 aa xy — 40 22 = 80 x2y2,
5 y? — 8 xy — 72 x = 38 wy2,
 SIMULTANEOUS QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 307

476. Solution of Simultaneous Equations of Higher Degree by

Factoring.
(w— y)(@+ 2y—1)=0.
1. Solve the equations |
(e+y)(@—8y
+2) =0.
By § 470, the given system is equivalent to the systems
x—y=0, x«—y=0,
cana og aeen
v+2y—1=0, (et+2y—1=0,
{ ey = 0, ieeen ee oe
The solutions of these are
ee 0 1, y=), esl, yal. eo
ee
xv +aey—2y=0. (1)
2. Solve the equations C #4 Sy 6 0,

We may write (1) in the form (w+ 2y)(@—y) =0.

Then the given system is equivalent to the systems
( x+2y=0, ari ( x—y=0,

lee 36-20, [9e-03 26 = 0:

Solving these, x=—12, y=6; or, gu”, pete

5 5
The example can be solved by the method of § 473; but the above
method is shorter.
Bap ysT x. (1)
3. Solve the equations |
ay +ypa2o. (2)
Multiplying (1) by 2, 60?4+2y’=142.
Multiplying (2) by 7, 7ay+7Ty=142.
Subtracting, 6 a’ —7 ay—5 y’=0, or (2e4+-y)(8e—5 y) =0.
Then, the given system is equivalent to the systems
ieeaeeabe ea es y=To,
20@ +y =0, 3a —d5y
=0.
5
Solving these, x=0, y=0; w=1, y=— 2; on, w=, ak
308 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

: w= 2+Y.
4. Solve the equations { 5
y=sy—e.
Subtracting, a — y=2xe—2y, or (w—y)(x+y—2)=0.

Then, anes
e=at y, an d ieee weer
e=a+y,

Solving these, 7=0, y=0; w=2, y=2; or, e=£VZ

: EXERCISE 65
Solve the following:
iL. on ee A [@+2y)4z—8y)=0.
Bat4y=23. ° | PS Soa ame
mie yGBr-—4y+5)=0. 9 te ik Se ca
( @—8y)\(2e+5y—8)=0. ry + 8y? =x.
aie 0. 10. | cee ees =—4y.

8a—5y = 46. 6a2-2Qeytyr=3y.

Nee 2

322+ 8 y2?=10 ay.

202 —ay —15y2?=—0. ee -
4. Ded
eee
eA) caw
11. |
eden’;3°
“ts

(ant antes. y? = 0. i. One = a

j Te—3y=— 6. = 2a—5y+1=0.
(20% — ay =0. m7 (2o3+4
5 a2y —8 xy? — 2078
=0.
" (at@4+2y2=9. wh 8a+4y=7.
f aw? —2ey = 0. 14 a = mene
— ny.
ge pe eeee Mar ; = ne — my.

477. Solution by Division.

: AX B=axd il
Consider the equations ; (1)
Bab; (2)
where A and B are rational and integral expressions which
involve the unknown numbers, and a and b any numbers.
s

By § 236, the given system is equivalent to

{ho ae eee (3)
r, to
B= 153—19)
 SIMULTANEOUS QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 309

Here the first member of (3) is obtained by dividing the first

member of (1) by the first member of (2), and the second mem-
ber by dividing the second member of (1) by the second member
of (2).
Ex, Solve the equations |patie t)
ev — y = 3. (2)
Divide (1) by (2), #@+ay+y=3. (3)
Squaring (2), ve —2ey+y=9. (4)
Subtract (4) from (3), 3 xy = —6, or vy= — 2. (5)
Add (8) and (5), #’+2ay+y=1.
Extracting square roots, w«w+ty=+1. (6)
Add (2) and (6), 2e=38+4+1=4 or 2,
Then, e= 2 orl:
Subtract (2) from (6), 2y=—341=—2 or—4.
Then, y= —1 or—2.
The solution is v7=2, y= —1; or, e=1, y= — 2.
The equations (2) and (3), though not symmetrical, are solved as in § 474.

eeMab ms. aD.

_ 478. Consider the equations
153==)10
where A, B, CO, and D are rational and integral expressions
which involve the unknown numbers.
By § 236, the given system is equivalent to
AX B= Cx DB, (B(A—C)=0,
| poe ee R=
By § 470, the latter is equivalent to the systems
(B=0, A—C=0,
inet Ba :
Then, the given system is equivalent to the systems
sage eas
es\), Vasey 8
310 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

e—pP=2T Fe +8. (1
Ez. Solve the equations
e—y=se2x+ 2. (2

Dividing (1) by (2), the given system is equivalent to th

systems
x—y=0, i ire ators (3
an
32+2=0, e—y=3x4+2.

The solution of the first system is «= — y= 2

3 3
To solve the second, add (2) and (8); then,
20 =92?—32+46, or 92?—527+6=0.

By § 450, 2 DEV
25 — 216 re ts
191
18 18
By (2), y=—2n—2=—S2V—NI _p
_ — 23+: V—191

Tf we try to solve by substituting the value of y from (2) in (1), we sha

have an equation of the third degree in a.

EXERCISE 66
Solve the following :

‘ x3 — y3 = 26, Jf hex
o—y = 2, 6 oe
a8 + y8 = 280, a
ee
2. oP ey oP
a2 — xy + y? = 28,
a4 2 — 56.
2 a + y = 35. %. | eo
: = & eal
Vi +Vy = 5 u
2y2 = 481.
x3 — 8 y? = 189, 8. eeiad iia
ee savby pay
fag eit
ee y ee Ceat
at ae. (a +4) (3 y —2) = 50.
5. 25 w2 — 25 y? = 24 oy,
ae ee 10. { : 2 fy
Oi betby=—4
ay.
 SIMULTANEOUS QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 311

A | 8 a8 + 27 y8 = 91. oe yt 08
“4 6ayp9y2=18. , 1a iy @ 16
# fet—y = oy? 1. | *—y=2.
"(a2 — y2 = ay — 1. 5. 4 e— y+ 8e—sy= 12.
ot| y_ 19 L(@—y)(Be—5y—4)
=-9.
“up ap AS} ( x2y + y2e = 42.
Ll 162 edhesal 22%
ae leh ery
479. Special Methods for the Solution of Simultaneous Equa-
tions of Higher Degree.
1. Solve the equations Se fZ mt S

Multiply (2) by 3, 3 ay — 3 wy’ = 18. (3)

Subtract (8) from (1), 2 —38a°y +3 ay’? — y=1.
Extracting cube roots, e—y=1. (4)
Dividing (2) by (4), yji== 6: (5)
Solving equations (4) and (5) by the method of § 474, we
And P= 3, yYo2z; or, cx=—2, y=— 8.

2. Solve the equations |ee Nae

|e +y =6.
Putting vc=u+ v and y=u—2,
(utvy+ w—vyP=Iut+v) (u—v); (1)
and (utv) +(u—v) =6. (2)
Reducing (1), Qu? + 6 uv? = 9(u?— v”), (3)
Reducing (2), 2% = 6, OF Y=,
Putting w=3 in 3), 54418 v=99—v’).
Whence, 0 = 1) oy wee 1:
Therefore, e=u+v=3+1=4 or 2;
and ys=u—v=3F1=z2
ord.
The artifice of substituting w+ v and w—v for x and y is advantageous
in any case where the given equations are symmetrical (§ 474) with
respect to « and y. See also Ex. 4.
312 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

3. Solve the equations

ety
Lentini
+2e+2y=23. (1)
ry = 6. (2)
Multiplying (2) by 2, 2 xy =12. (3)
Add (1) and (8), e+ 2aey+y+2e+4+2y= 365.
Or, (e+y)+2(e@+y) =35.
Completing the square, («+y)?+2(@+y)+1=36.
Then, (@+y)+1=+6; ande+y=5
or —T. (4)
Squaring (4), w+ 2ay+y?= 25 or 49.
Multiplying (2) by 4, 4 wy = 24.
Subtracting, xe —2eyty = 1 or 25.
Whence, e—y=+1or +5. (©)
Adding (4) and (5), 2¢e=5+1, or —7+65.
Whence, “=, 2, —1, or —6.
Subtracting (5) from (4), 2y=5 1, or —7 $5.
Whence, . y= 2, 3, —6, or —1.

4. Solve the equations |pe ee

e+ty=—l.
Putting e=u+v and y=u—2,
(u+v)*+ (u—v)* = 97, (1)
and (u+v) +(u—v) =—-1. (2)
Reducing (1), 2u*t+12u%v*+2 t= 97. (3)
Reducing (2), 2u=—1, or y= — 7
Substituting in (3), k+3v?+2v'=97,
. e tbe 0229 3 5 —
Solving this, v? = + (je ot and v= + 5or + Vv 9 31

Pe na
Therefore, 2 =u
Rae +US—52%
Leo or —5+
Pe Nea
5
.

eee) or 2 ESL,
a“

SIMULTANEOUS QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 313

And, ay (eae 33 OF oo
1 —31

— 3,2, or meee,
In solving fractional simultaneous equations of higher degree, we must
reject any solution which satisfies the equation obtained by equating to
zero the L. C. M. of the given denominators (§ 222).
Also, in solving simultaneous equations of higher degree having un-
known numbers under radical signs, we retain only those solutions which
satisfy the given equations, when the principal values of the roots are
taken (§ 397).
: EXERCISE 67
Solve the following :
; heed eee
x—y=d. eoy8 — 48 = — 72,
5 | at fase Fe (aad a
xy = 6. ' Uvasy
— Vay? = 80.
Aol ae + y8 = 2 a8 + 244. 4 [es
lay + ay? = 2 a(a? — 4). "Lat + yt = wy? +1,
4 oe Arse 0 y=— 2h
ry + 2y=— 2. a5 + o8y2 + o2y8 + y5 = — 1120,
5. { e+y+ay=11, , xy + 0%+ y = 169.
(a+ y)? + oy? = 61. ayaa
Ua rear:
" fay—x+y=—9. nm ay? + 92 + y2 = 169,
xy — xy? = —20. ¥ ayVx2 + y2 =— 60.

4. ete oy Be 128, fn a2 (1+y) +y2(1 +2) = 109.

Lay +4y2?+2y
= 125. , ey ='12.
3. | V22%—9=8y +6. “A a — y5 = 211.
et — 17 y? = a? — 5, x-y=l.
5 f et+y=—3. ‘a (48 + y8)(% + y) = 112.
y? — 10 28 +17 4?+ 10% = 33. a+ vy + y? = 13.

19. Nee ee ae
ety =ry.
fe ce) eens
; we+yr—4y=1.
dl4 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

SIMULTANEOUS QUADRATIC EQUATIONS WITH MORE

THAN ONE UNKNOWN NUMBER

ey?
+ 22= 14. (1)
480. 1. Solvethe equations }2#—3y+z=11. (2)
e+2y—z2=—6. (3)
Add (2) and (8), 8e2—y=5; or, y=3u—5. (4)
By (3), z=ae+2y+6=2+62—10+6=72—4. ()
Substitute values of y and z in (1),
e+ 9a?— 300+ 25 +49 2? —56~4+16=14.
Or, 59 x? — 862 = — |27.
ba

43 + V/1849
By re 6450; 0 tae
GentesY1089 =—1593 438 +16
ONS ae OE 27
one
59 59 ** 59
Then by (4), y=3—5 or 5-5 = —2 or — EE.
And by (5), pee
189 a oe peerne

(y—b) @—c) =a’. (1)

2. Solve the equations ; (2—c) (w—a)=b* (2)
|(w@—a) (y—b)=c. (3)
Multiply (1), (2), and (8),
(@ — a)?(y— b)? (2 — c)? = abe,
Whence, (a@— a) (y—b)(@—c) = + abe. (4)
Divide (4) by (1), e@—a= 42%, or pa HOC,
UV
a a

Divide (4) by (2), bee 2, ae eS,

_ Divide (4) by (3), e-em + @, or 2 E™.

c c
(a(aty +2)=a?.
3. Solve the equations }y(a+y+z2)=0*
lLz@+ty+2y=c.
 ' SIMULTANEOUS QUADRATIC EQUATIONS ole

Add (1), (2), and 8), @+y+2%=0+4+0+¢.

Then, etytes=4veRt P+. (4)
2
Divide (1) by (4), e=t je
Va? oe b? +¢

b?
Divide (2) by (4), U8
Veter?
re
Divide (3) by (4), =a
W/O One

EXERCISE 68

(The note on page 318 applies with equal force to the following
examples. )
Solve the following :

|
eae ey + 22 = 18 — 2.

|
1. 4 yz =— ab’. , yz + ye = 27 — y?.
| 2% =— ab. 2a + zy = 36 — 22,

2. 4 xyz
evi
= 6.
12:
| xy + yz —2xu=b.
Ly —y2+2u=C.
eyes
ty
= 18.
+ YZ =— O.
| —ay+yz+eu=a.

3. 4 y2@+ 2e=— 3. 242 +. y? — 22 — 43,

(za + ay =— 35. 2—sy+2=17.

@+y@t2)=l4 e+y—32=18.

4.5 yt+tz)(yt")=2. ( we+y+e=12.

L(@+a)(¢+ y)=7.
10. vy + yz + ee = 47.
3 02 — wy — wz = 4.
{| e+ y2—22=0.
5. 6e—2y=1.
[ 4e+82=-5. 62+6y=
5 xyz.

If tee Be 11. 43y+32=2

vyz.
so per eae
[\22+2%
= xyz.

6. wogat e2 + y?2 + 22 = 110.

i 12.
|
et+y—z2=4.
ve + ye = 77.
316 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

PROBLEMS INVOLVING SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS OF A

HIGHER DEGREE THAN THE FIRST

481. In solving problems which involve simultaneous equa-

tions of a higher degree than the first, there will usually be
more than one set of values of the unknown numbers; only
those values should be retained which satisfy the conditions of
the problem.
The considerations of §§ 261, 262, and 463, hold for simul-
taneous equations of any degree.

EXERCISE 69

.1. The product of the sum of two numbers by the smaller is 21, and
the product of their difference by the greater is 4. Find the numbers.
2. The difference of the squares of two numbers is 260; and the sum
of the numbers is - their difference. Find the numbers.

.8. The sum of the squares of two numbers is 61, and the product of
their squares is 900. Find the numbers.
.4. The difference of the cubes of two numbers is 316; and if the prod-
uct of the numbers be added to the sum of their squares, the sum is 79.
Find the numbers.
5. Two numbers are expressed by the same two digits in reverse order.
The sum of the numbers equals the square of the sum of the digits, and
the difference of the numbers equals 5 times the square of the smaller
digit. Find the numbers.
6. A party at a hotel spent a certain sum. Had there been five more,
and each had spent fifty cents less, the bill would have been $24.75. Had
there been three less, and each had spent fifty cents more, the bill would
have been $9.75. How many were there, and what did each spend ?
7. The square ‘of the sum of two numbers exceeds their product by
84 and the sum of the numbers, plus the square root of their product,
equals 14. Find the numbers.
8. The difference of the cubes of two numbers is 728; and if the prod-
uct of the numbers be multiplied by their difference, the result is 72.
Find the numbers.
9. If $700 be put at simple interest for a certain number of years, at
a certain rate, it amounts to $883.75. If the time were 4 years less, and
the rate 1} per cent more, the amount would be $878.25. Find the time
and the rate.
 SIMULTANEOUS QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 317

10. If the digits of a number of two figures be inverted, the quotient

of this number by the given number is > and their product 2268. Find
the number.
11. The square of the smaller of two numbers, added to twice their
product, gives 7 times the smaller number. And the square of the greater
exceeds the product of the numbers by 6 times the smaller number. Find
the numbers.
12. A and B travel from P to Q, 14 miles, at uniform rates, B taking
20 minutes longer than A to perform the journey. On the return, each
travels one mile an hour faster, and B now takes 15 minutes longer than
A. Find the rates of travelling.
18. A and B run a race around a course two miles long, B winning by
two minutes. A now increases his speed by two miles an hour, and B
diminishes his by the same amount, and A wins by two minutes. Find
their original rates.
14. A man ascends the last half of a mountain at a rate one-half mile
an hour less than his rate during the first half, and reaches the top in 33
hours. On the descent, his rate is one mile an hour greater than during
the first half of the ascent, and he accomplishes it in 2? hours. Find the
distance to the top, and his rate during the first half of the ascent.
15. The square of the second digit of a number of three digits exceeds
twice the sum of the first and third by 3. The sum of the first and second
digits exceeds 4 times the third by 1. And if 495 be subtracted from the
number, the digits will be inverted. Find the number.
P ree
16. A rectangular piece of cloth, when wet, shrinks 5 im its length,
and 3 in its width. If the area is diminished by 10} square feet, and
the length of the four sides by 54 feet, what were the original dimensions ?
17. A ship has provisions for 36 days. If the crew were 16 greater, and
the daily ration one-half pound less, the provisions would last 80 days. If
the crew were 2 less, and the daily ration one pound greater, they would
last 24 days, Find the number of men, and the daily ration.
18. The sum of two numbers is 5, and the sum of their fifth powers is
1025. Find the numbers.
19, A man lends $2100 in two amounts, at different rates of interest,
and the two sums produce equal returns. If the first portion had been
loaned at the second rate, it would have produced $48; and if the second
portion had been loaned at the first rate, it would have produced $27.
Find the rates.
318 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

20. A can do a piece of work in two hours less time than B; an

together they can do the work in 1} hours less time than A alone. Hoy
long does each alone take to do the work ?
21. A starts to travel from Pto Q, and at the same time B starts t
travel from @ to P, both travelling at constant rates. A reaches @ in|
hours, and B reaches P in 18 hours, after they have met on the road
How many hours does each take to perform the journey ?
22. A and B travel from P to Q and back. A starts one hour after B
overtakes him at a point two miles from @, meets him 32 minutes after
wards, and reaches P 14 hours before B, Find the distance from P to q
and the rates of travel of A and B.

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF SIMULTANEOUS QUAD

RATIC EQUATIONS WITH TWO UNKNOWN NUMBERS

482. 1. Consider the equation yy=4a+ 4.

We have y=42Va+1.
Le en een yey Y
Tite Dyas 25/2. 0, D)
ek e=—1, ape) (EZ)

ete. x’
For any positive value of «x, or for any
negative value between 0 and —1, y has
two values; the graph extends to an indefi- Y SD
nitely great distance to the right of O.
For any negative value of a< —1, y is imaginary; then, n
part of the graph hes to the left of a perpendicular to XX! at E
2. Consider the equation 2?— 2 y?=1.
Here, y=
oe? —1
2 )

or yore

Tie 1 y=0. (ae

If x is between 1 and —1,
y is imaginary; then, no part of the graph lies between pe:
pendiculars to XX! at A and A’.
 SIMULTANEOUS QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 319

of oa+ 2, yas. (37°C, Bi, C")

For any positive value of «>1, or any negative value < —1,
y has two values; then, the graph has two branches, each of
which extends to an indefinitely great distance from O.
3. Consider the equation #’+7?—4a+4+2y=4.
In this case, it is convenient to first locate the points where
the graph intersects the axes.
If y=, 2 —4e=4,
and 4 ge /8. (A, B)

Be e=0, yY4+2y=4,
and y=—1+-V5. (C,D)
We may write the given equation
y+2ytl=5+4e—2;
or, (y+1)?=(1+2)(5—2@).
i t=—1 or >, y-1=—0,"and y=—1. (, F)
If w has any positive value > 5, or any negative value < —1,
(1 + x)(5 — x) is negative, and y+1 imaginary; then, no part
of the graph extends to the right of F, or to the left of Z.
Again, we may write the given equation
®@—Lo4+4=8—2y—y'; or, (w@—2)'=
(4+ y)(2—9).
If y=—4 or 2, e—2=0, and e=2. (G, A)
If y has any positive value > 2, or any negative value < — 4,
(4+ y)(2—y) is negative; then, no part of the graph extends
above H, or below G.
Tt is shown, in works on Analytic Geometry, that the graph of any equa-
tion of the second degree, with two unknown numbers, is one of the conic
sections, so-called from being the sections of a cone made by a plane ; either
a circle, a parabola, an ellipse, a hyperbola, or a pair of straight lines.
The graph of Ex. 1 is a parabola, as also is the graph of any equation
of the form y? = aa, or y2= ax + bd.
(The graphs of §§ 465 and 467 are parabolas. )
The graph of Ex. 2 is a hyperbola, as also is the graph of any equation
of the form ax? — by? =c, if a and 6 are numbers of like sign.
(The hyperbola has two branches. The graph of any equation of the
form «xy =a is a hyperbola.)
320 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

The graph of Ex. 8 is a circle; as also is the graph of any equation of

the form 22+ y2=a, or @+y?+axn+by+ce=0.
The graph of any equation of the form az? + by? = c, where a, b, and ¢
are numbers of like sign, and a and b unequal, is an ellipse.
(The graph of any equation of the form az? — b*y? = 0 is the pair of
straight lines whose equations are y =+ 7)

483. Graphical Representation of Solutions of Systems of Simul-

taneous Quadratic Equations.
{ y =4 4. Y
1. Consider the equations
(3a—y=5.
The graph of y?=4 @ is the parabola AOB.
The graph of 3% —y=5 is the straight
line AB, intersecting the parabola at the
points A and B, respectively.
To find the co-ordinates of A and B, we
solve the given equations (§ 277); the solu-
eal m. ube 10
ion isv=1, y=—2, and oS eee

It may be verified in the figure that these are the co-ordinates

of A and B, respectively.
Hence (compare § 277), if any two graphs intersect, the co-ordi-
nates of any point of intersection form a solution of the system of
equations represented by the graphs.

2. Consider the equations

oe y == Il.
wy = 4.
The graph of a?+ y?=17 is the
circle AD, whose centre is at O, and
whose radius is V17.
The graph of wy = 4 is a hyper-
bola, having its branches in the
angles XOY and X'OY', respec-
tively, and intersecting the circle at the points A and B in
angle XOY, and at the points O and D in angle X'OY'.
 SIMULTANEOUS QUADRATIC EQUATIONS 821

The solution of the given equations is

@=4, y=1; x=1, y=4; e=—1, y= —4; and a= —4, y= —1.
It may be verified in the figure that these are the co-ordinates
of A, B, C, and D, respectively.
3. Consider the equations
{ et4y=A4,
2e+3y =— 5.

The graph of 27+ 4y7’=4 is the

ellipse AB, intersecting XX! at
points 2 to the right and 2 to the
left of O, and YY' at points 1 above and 1 below O.
The graph of 2%+3y=-—5 is the straight line CD.
Substituting «=— a7 = Le in # +4y?=4, we obtain the
equation 25 y?+30y+9=0, which has equal roots.
9
to)

Thus, y=— 3;and o=—-—— =—8.

The equal roots signify that the two points of intersection

coincide, and the line is therefore tangent to the ellipse.
In general, if the equation obtained by eliminating one of
the unknown numbers has equal roots, the graphs are tangent
to each other.
4. Consider the equations x,
9e— y=—ZY.
x —2 Yio ia— a

The graph of 9 a — 7’? = — 9 is a hyper-

bola, having its branches above and below
O, respectively.
The graph of a—2 y= —2 is the straight
line AB.
Substituting e=2 y—2 in 92°—y’=—9,
we obtain the equation 35 y?—72 y+45=0,
which has complex roots.
322 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Then, the graphs have no point of intersection.

In general, if the equation obtained by eliminating one of the
unknown numbers has no real root, the graphs do not intersect
each other.
EXERCISE 70

Find the graphs of the following :

Le Lyi
— 6: BB gig ey chee 5. 922
= 477 — 0
2c oy: 4. y2=5x2—-1. 6. 422+
9y? = 36.
7. 40? -y=—4, 8. 22+ y?+64"—2y=15.

Find the graphs of the following systems, and in each case verify the
principles of § 483 :
9. &02 +4y2=4,
2 tHe ° x Ot y22 =9.
— fx 2 + y?=— 29,
eo sed, 5a —4y =-9. lay= 10.

10. {x? ee
+ y?= 16.
y2= 6a.
Sigs (2a02—S8y=5.
ae
ba + 6y—12,
ee {32Gee Zee.
a%—4 y2?—— 24,
11. .2_34¢%=—3. Ve [9e+y
9 x? + y? = 148. a {*24 +y2+8
y2413% 2 = =22,
% + 2y =— 2. xy = — 8. 4 a?—9 y?=0.
-—
INDETERMINATE LINEAR EQUATIONS 323
\

XXII. INDETERMINATE LINEAR

EQUATIONS

484. It was shown in § 269 that a system of m independent

limear equations containing more than m unknown numbers,
has an indefinitely great number of solutions.
Such a system is called indeterminate (§ 266).
If, however, the unknown numbers are required to satisfy
other conditions, the number of solutions may be finite.
485. Solution of Indeterminate Linear Equations in Positive
Integers.
We shall consider in the present chapter the solution of
indeterminate linear equations, in which the unknown num-
bers are restricted to positive integral values.
1. Solve 77 +5y=118 in positive integers.
Dividing by 5, the smaller of the two coefficients,
2x P > ie e PT 3 SPY
a ee
Oe oe ean ae or, 5 = 23 —au—y.

_ Since, by the conditions of the problem, w and y must be

2%—
‘

positive integers, must be an integer.

Let this integer be represented by p.

Then, 222 <p, or 20—3=5p. (1)

Dividing (1) by 2,
w—1—5=2p +8; or, e—1—2p=

Since # and p are integers, x—1—2p is an integer; and

therefore eel must be an integer.
Let this integer be represented by 4g.

Then, ptt ig, or p=2q—1.

324 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Substituting in (1), 2~a—3=10q—5.

Whence, 2=dq—1. (2)
Substituting this value in the given equation,
35q—7T+5y=118; or, y= 25—Tq. (3)
Equations (2) and (3) form the general solution in integers o1
the given equation.
By giving to g the value zero, or any positive or negative
integer, we shall obtain sets of integral values at,xz and y whick
satisfy the given equation.
If q is zero, or any negative integer, # will be negative.
If g is any positive integer > 3, y will be negative.
Hence, the only positive integral values of x and y whick
satisfy the given equation are those obtained from the values
1, 25 of ¢:
Thatis, c=4, y= 18; e=29,y=—11; and 7 =14, y=4.

2. Solve 8%—13y=100 in positive integers.

Dividing by 8, the coefficient of smaller absolute value,
5 5 4
xy 3 12455 or, a—y—12—20 +4

Then, outs must be an integer.

9
Multiplying by 5, mee must also be an integer.

Then, 38y+ :+2 +5 must be an integer, and hence a

must be an integer; let this be represented by p.

Then, itt», or y= 8p—4.

Substituting in the given equation,

8%—104p
+52 =100, or x =13p+6. .
In this case p may be any positive integer.
If p=1, e=19 and y=4; if p=2, x =32 and y=12; ote
Thus, the number of solutions is indefinitely great.
 INDETERMINATE LINEAR EQUATIONS 325

5y+4
The artifice of multiplying by 5 saves much work in Ex, 2.
8
The rule in any case is to multiply the numerator of the fraction by
such a number that the coefficient of the unknown quantity shall exceed
some multiple of the denominator by unity.
If this had not been done, the last part of the solution would have
stood as follows :
Let out" =p, or By +4=8p. (1)
Divide by By +2= p+22; then ant must be an integer.*

Let “Pa "4, or 83p—4=54. (2)

Divide by 3, p-1-3=9+4 ; then oe must be an integer.

Let 2a+t=n, or 2g+1=8r. (3)

+s
Divide by 2, BTLe. Pe then r—1
eee : :
must be an integer.

Let rates, Che ase

ae 1,

Substituting in (8), 2g+1=6s+3, org=3s+1.

Substituting in (2), 8p —4=158s+5, or p=5s+3,
Substituting in (1), 5y+4=40s +4 24, or y=8s+4,
Substituting in the given equation,
8x2—104s—52=—100, or +=1388+19,
These values of x and y differ in form from those obtained above ; but
it is to be observed that 13s+19 and 8s + 4, for the values 0, 1, 2, etc.,
of s, give rise to the same series of positive integers a8 13p +6 and 8p—4
for the values 1, 2, 3, etc., of p.
We will now show how to solve in positive integers two
equations involving three unknown numbers.
3. In how many ways can the sum of $14.40 be paid with
dollars, half-dollars, and dimes, the number of dimes being
equal to the number of dollars and half-dollars together ?
Let «= number of dollars,
y = number of half-dollars,
and z=number of dimes.
326 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Then by the conditions,

(10e%+5y+2=144,
1 et y=z. (1)
Adding, die+6y+z2=144+42,
or, di2+6y=144 (2)

Dividing by 6, #+ 22+y= 24.

Then “s must be an integer; or, x must be a multiple of 6.

Let x= 6p, where p is an integer.
Substitute in (2), 66p+6 y=144, or y= 24—11p.
Substitute in (1), z2=6p+24—11 p=24—5p.
The only positive integral solutions are when p=1 or 2.
Therefore, the number of ways is two; either 6 dollars, 1¢
half-dollars, and 19 dimes; or 12 dollars, 2 half-dollars, and 14
dimes.
EXERCISE 71

Solve the following in positive integers :

1, 84+5y=29. 10%+7y=297.
2. 7e#+2y=389. 23% +17 y = 183.
8. 64+
29 y = 274. 8xe+
71 y=1938.
4. 474+
31 y= 473. ewan
13 «+ 50 y = 1089.

Solve the following in least positive integers :

9. 6a—Ty=18. 12. 8e—8ly=10.
107 ba — sx sls 13. 15% —388 y= —47.
11. 14%—5y=64. 14. 64% —19 y= 507.

Solve the following in positive integers:

eh aaa 16 eraeonerie
2e—llyte= —25. : 4%+2y—3z2=6,
17. In how many different ways can $1.65 be paid with quarter-dollar
and dimes ?
18. In how many different ways can £2 1s. be paid with half-crowns
worth 2s. 6d, each, and florins, worth 2s, each ?
 INDETERMINATE LINEAR EQUATIONS 327

19. Find two fractions whose denominators are 5 and 7, respectively,

whose numerators are the smallest possible positive integers, and whose
difference is ba A
35
20. In how many different ways can $7.15 be paid with fifty-cent pieces,
twenty-five-cent pieces, and twenty-cent pieces, so that twice the number
of fifty-cent pieces, plus twice the number of twenty-cent pieces, shall
exceed the number of twenty-five-cent pieces by 31?
21. A farmer purchased a certain number of pigs, sheep, and calves,
for $138. The pigs cost $4 each, the sheep $7 each, and the calves $9
each ; and the whole number of animals purchased was 23. How many
of each did he buy ?
22. In how many different ways can $5.45 be paid with quarter-dol-
lars, twenty-cent pieces, and dimes, so that twice the number of quarters,
plus 5 times the number of twenty-cent pieces, shall exceed the number
of dimes by 36 ?

486. Every linear equation, with two unknown numbers, «

and y, can be reduced to one of the forms
Oe y= ae,
where a,b,and ¢ are positive integers which have no common
divisor.
The equation aw+by=—c cannot be solved in positive
integers ; for, if a, 7, a, and 0 are positive integers, ax + by must
also be a positive integer.
Again, the equations aw+by=c and ax—by=—e cannot
be solved in positive integers if a and b have a common
divisor.
For, if « and y are positive integers, this common divisor
must also be a divisor of aw + by, and consequently of ¢; which
is contrary to the hypothesis that a, b, and c have no common
divisor.
328 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

XXIII. RATIO AND PROPORTION

487. The Ratio of one number a to another number 6 is the

quotient of a divided by 0.
Thus, the ratio of a to 6 is fe it is also expressed a: D.
In the ratio a: 6, a is called the jirst term, or antecedent, and
6 the second term, or consequent.
If ais>b, the ratio a: b is called a ratio of greater inequality; if a is
<b, it is called a ratio of less inequality.
The ratio of the product of the antecedents of a series of ratios to the
product of the consequents, is said to be compounded of the given ratios.
Thus, ac: bd is compounded of the ratios a: b and ¢: d.
The ratio a?: b? is called the duplicate ratio, the ratio a®: 6? the tripli-
cate ratio, and the ratio Va: Vb the sub-duplicate ratio, of a: b.

RATIO OF CONCRETE MAGNITUDES

488. In § 487, we considered the ratio of abstract numbers

only; it is, however, necessary to consider the ratio of two
concrete magnitudes of the same kind.
If a concrete magnitude is a times a certain unit, and another
6 times the same unit, we define the ratio of the first magnitude
to the second as being the ratio of a to b.
Thus, the ratio of two lines whose lengths are 2} and 34
inches, respectively, is 21+ 34, or +
3
If the ratio can be expressed as a rational number, as in the
above illustration, the magnitudes are said to be Commensurable.
If it cannot be expressed as a rational number, they are said
to be Incommensurable.
PROPORTION

489. A Proportion is an equation whose members are equal

ratios.
 RATIO AND PROPORTION 329

Thus, if a: 6 and ¢:d are equal ratios,

a: = C0, or ae
b a
is a proportion.
The symbol :: is sometimes used in place of the sign of equality in a
proportion.

490. In the proportion a:b=c:d, ais called the jirst term,

b the second, c the third, and d the fourth.
The first and third terms of a proportion are called the ante-
cedents, and the second and fourth terms the consequents.
The first and fourth terms are called the extremes, and the
second and third terms the means.
If the means of a proportion are equal, either mean is called
a Mean Proportional between the first and last terms, and the
last term is called a Third Proportional to the first and second
terms.
Thus, in the proportion a:b=b:c, b is a mean proportional
between a and c, and ¢ is a third proportional to a and 0.
A Fourth Proportional to three numbers is the fourth term of
a proportion whose first three terms are the three numbers
taken in their order.
Thus, in the proportion a:b =c:d, d isa fourth proportional
to a, 6, and c.
A Continued Proportion is a series of equal ratios, in which
each consequent is the same as the following antecedent; as,
G20=03¢6=¢)d—dse

PROPERTIES OF PROPORTIONS

491. In any proportion, the product of the extremes is equal to

the product of the means.
Let the proportion be a:b=e:d.
Then en byby § 489 : eS
Aaa

Clearing of fractions, ad. = be.

330 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

492. From the equation ad = be (§ 491), we obtain

re rps and dae

Cc b a
That is, in any proportion, either extreme equals the product
of the means divided by the other extreme; and either mean equals
the product of the extremes divided by the other mean.

493. (Converse of § 491.) If the product of two numbers be

equal to the product of two others, one pair may be made the
eatremes, and the other pair the means, of a proportion.
Let ad== be: (1)

Dividing
ividing byby bd bd, g=f.
ae

Then, arsed,
ore =a:
In lke manner, by dividing the members of (1) by ad, then
by cd, and then by ac, we have
COC2 Ol Chi
10 105
2 =o dy OF 02d
=o 2,
and (LEC =D Ol OMIO
= Clerc

494. In any proportion, the terms are in proportion by alter-

nation ; that is, the means can be interchanged.
Let the proportion be a:b=ce:d.
Then by § 491, ad = be. (1)
Whence, by § 493, a:¢=bid.
We also have from (1), by § 493,
d:b=C¢:a.
That is, in any proportion, the extremes can be interchanged.

495. In any proportion, the terms are in proportion by Inver-

sion; that is, the second term is to the first as the fourth term is
to the third.
Let the proportion be order 0,
Then by § 491, ad = be.
 i RATIO AND PROPORTION 331

Whence, by § 493, Oa 0s
It follows from the above that, in any proportion, the means can be
written as the extremes, and the extremes as the means.

496. A mean proportional between two numbers is equal to the

square root of their product.
Let the proportion be a:b=b:e.
Then by § 491, 6?=ac, and b=-Vace.

497. In any proportion, the terms are in proportion by Com-

position; that is, the sum of the first two terms is to the first
term as the swum of the last two terms is to the third term.
Let the proportion be a@:b=c:d.
Then, Gd = be.
Adding each member of the equation to ac,
ac +ad=ac-+ be, or a(e +d) =c(a+ Bd).
Then by § 493, G-0:a—C-0:¢:
We may also prove a+bo:b=c+d:d.

498. In any proportion, the terms are in proportion by Division ;

that is, the difference of the first two terms is to the first term as
‘the difference of the last two terms is to the third term.
Let the proportion be a:b=c:d.
Then, ad = be.
Subtracting each member of the equation from ac,
ac —ad = ac— be, or a(e —d) = c(a—B).
Then, a—b:a=c—di:c.
We may also prove a—b:b=c—da:d.

499. In any proportion, the terms are in proportion by Com-

position and Division; that is, the sum of the first two terms is
to their difference as the swm of the last two terms is to their
difference.
Let the proportion be a:b=c:d
332 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Then by § 497, cea

gies el (1)
And by § 498, = . (2)
a G

Dividing (1) by (2), 2#28=o+4

Whence, a+b:a—b=c+d:c—d.

500. In any proportion, if the first two terms be multiplied by

any number, as also the last two, the resulting numbers will be in
proportion.
Let the proportion be a:b=c:d.
[hens oes and hence ==
Sept de mb nd
Therefore, ma: mb = ne: nd.
We may also prove a,b_¢,d
mm nn
(Hither m or nm may be unity ; that is, the terms of either ratio may be
multiplied or divided without multiplying or dividing the terms of the
other.)

501. In any proportion, if the first and third terms be multt-

plied by any number, as also the second and fourth terms, the
resulting numbers will be in proportion.
Let the proportion be a:b=e:d.
Ph ome ma __ mc
Then, -=—; and hence —=——.
‘ny nb nd
Therefore, ma:nb = me: nd.
We may also prove RR ES
mn mn
(Hither m or n may be unity.)

502. In any number of proportions, the products of the cor-

responding terms are in proportion.
Let the proportions be a:b =c:d,
and eS PES oh:
 RATIO AND PROPORTION 333

Then, G2 and 2 =9%.

(ay a) ge oe

Multiplyi Gee Bad Oe a 9:

Le da ig eee aay err)
Whence, ae: bf = og: dh.
In like manner, the theorem may be proved for any number
of proportions.

503. The quotients of the corresponding terms of two pro-

portions are in proportion.
Let the proportions be a:b =c:d,
and Orga
2 Re

Then, eee and th

6 ad Ceo

es ome dg" ie. eo aa)

Th en, b_c.d
Aen
eae

504. In any proportion, like powers or like principal roots of

the terms are in proportion.
Let the proportion be a:b=e:d.

Then, = ai and hence ao =

Therefore, at: bc ct
We may also prove Ya: Vo= Ve: Vad.

505. In a series of equal ratios, any antecedent is to its con-

sequent as the sum of all the antecedents is to the sum of all the
consequents.
Let One Os C4 ners fe
Then by § 491, ad = be,
and af = be.
Also, ab = ba.
334 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Adding, a(b+d+f)=b(a+e+e).
Whence, a:b=a+c+e:b+d4+f. (§ 493)
In like manner, the theorem may be proved for any number
of equal ratios.
506. To prove that if —_— RS EY
b hema
1

then each of these equal ratios equals i ar

pb” + qd" + rf”
AB
a)
c ialih
a
If ~=k, then a=bk c=dk, e=sk, ete
b ae e
Then, pa"+ qgce"+ re"+ + = p (bk)" + q(dk)" + r( fk)" + +
ke”( pb” + ga” + rf” + vee),

SPOT GE see" ee
Therefore, k”

pb” + qd" + rf" + + ;

ee aL qc” ae re” aL ak
Or, i
pb” a qd” —- inp + rais

507. Jf three numbers are in continued proportion, the first is

to the third as the square of the first is to the square of the second.
Let the proportion be a: b=b:c.

Then, a_b.
OG
ihe CF Gi eh:
Therefore, -xX-= sees or — .
b tor = c
Whence, a@:0=aQ?:
6.

508. Jffour numbers are in continued proportion, the first is to

the fourth as the cube of the first is to the cube of the second.
Let the proportion be a:b=b:c=e:4d.
Then, pe ee
(rvs d z

Therefore, Chen 3
ae Ore es ON
db oe a) CaO.
Whence, Ca Be
 RATIO AND PROPORTION 335

509. Examples.
1. If «:y=(@+2)’: (y+z)*, prove z a mean proportional
between a and y.
From the given proportion, by § 491,
y(@ +2)? =a(y +2)”, or ay + 2 wyz + y2? = ay? + 2 wyz + o2?.
Transposing, xy — vy? = az? — yz’.
Dividing by «—y, Oy = 2.
Therefore, z is a mean proportional between a and y.
The theorem of § 499 saves work in the solution of a certain
class of fractional equations.
ee a ee 2.
2. Solve the equation
pe nL AY,
By composition and division,
2a?—2_ 22, OW aint) ee
2 % deem Cat, are
Clearing of fractions, 2 2 —2=— a,
Then, Sof=2, and a= ta).

3. Prove that if “=, then

(a) el
Ge 0 LO Ce Ce OCU
Let = ==m; then, a = be.
t
Therefore, (os
Gee Shit bt oof 1 a eee
e—3ab vwe—3be w—8e CC 8¢ C—3ed
aed
Then Ob: @2—80ab=
@—d’?: C3 cd.

EXERCISE 72

1. Find the third term of a proportion whose first, second, and fourth
terms are a ot and Sy respectively.
4 6 9
7
2. Find a third proportional to ; and Ee
336 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Find a mean proportional between 144 and 248.

Find a fourth proportional to 44, 53, and 1.
Find a third proportional to a? + 27 and a + 3.
x2—x — 12 and xt — 9x + 20
i Find a mean proportional between
Go
Ge
©
— x+3

Solve the following equations :

8a—8 24-5. g @+2ex-8_34+2,
B8a+4 2247 ) = oe a
9 + 3%—-1 e+2e+1
7 See te Og
Ve+1+vVer—1_ Ve—2a4+24 at—24_
10.
Viele Veto Wot a? —va—2a
faty a+b.
Lx — a—b
11. id
ee + yt tat be
e—x+y? a—a+b?
12 it Gib d and es f= 9 2h, prove
ae+bf:ae—bf=cg+dh:cg —dh.
18. Find two numbers such that, if 9 be added to the first, and 7 sub-
tracted from the second, they will be in the ratio 9:2; while if 9 be sub-
tracted from the first, and 7 added to the second, they will be in the ratio
Orem
14. Find two numbers in the ratio a:b, such that, if each be increased
by c, they shall be in the ratio m:n.
15. Find three numbers in continued proportion whose sum is 283,
such that the quotient of the first by the second shall be A

16. Find a number such that, if it be added to each term of the ratio
8:5, the result is 5 of what it would have been if the same number
had been subtracted from each term.
17. The second of three numbers is a mean proportional between the
other two. The third number exceeds the sum of the other two by 20;
and the sum of the first and third exceeds three times the second by 4.
Find the numbers.
18. If 8a—5b:7Ta—4b=8b—5c:7b —4e, proveca third propor-
tional to a@ and 0. i
19. Iia+b+c+d:a+b=a—b+c—d:a-—b,
prove
Ol=cn0.
 RATIO AND PROPORTION 337

20. Ife+y:yteHVver— yp: Vy = 2, prove y a mean proportional

between « and z.
21. A is following B along a certain road, when B turns and walks in
the opposite direction; if A and B approach each other five times as fast
as before, compare their rates.
22. If 4 silver coins and 11 copper coins are worth as much as 2 gold
coins, and 5 silver coins and 19 copper coins as much as 3 gold coins, find
the ratio of the value of a gold-coin, and the value of a silver coin, to the
value of a copper coin.
28. Given 2 (a? + ab)x + (a? + 2 b?)y =(a? — b?)u +(2 a? + b?)y, find
the ratio of x to y.
24. Given —
pte= ae
+==0 +5, findthe ratio of # to y, and of« to 2,
Cee Te
Bi hei=
=> prove,

i 3a%*—4ab:2ab+70=38c? —4c¢cd:2cd4+7 ad.

(0) @&+6ab?:
ab —508=c3 + 6 cd?: 07d — 5 a.
26. The sum of four numbers in proportion is 382. The sum of the
means exceeds the sum of the extremes by 4; and the sum of the conse-
quents exceeds the sum of the antecedents by 16. Find the numbers.
27. A passenger observes that a train passes him, moving in the
opposite direction, in 3 seconds; while, if it had been moving in the same
direction, it would have passed in in 13 seconds. Compare the rates of
the trains.
28. Each of two vessels contains a mixture of wine and water. A
’ mixture consisting of equal measures from the two vessels is composed of
wine and water in the ratio 3:4; another mixture consisting of 14 meas-
ures from the first and 21 measures from the second, is composed of wine
to water in the ratio 2:3. Find the ratio of wine to water in each vessel.
29. 1: ©—=£2— , prove
Def,
(a) @4+ 04 2:b294+ 2+ f2=ac+ ce+ea:bd+df+
fo.
(6) at + ct + et: bt + dt + f* =(a? + c2 + €?)?: (02 + a? + f?)?.
30. If a+b, b+c, andc+ a are in continued proportion, prove
a+b:b+c=c—a:a—bD.
31. Find four numbers in proportion such that the sum of the means
is 21, and of the extremes 39 ; and twice the last term exceeds three times
the sum of the first two terms by 36.
$2. Ifa, b, c, and d are in continued proportion, prove
8a+4d:2a—5d=80
+4 63:2 a — 5B3,
338 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

XXIV. VARIATION

510. One variable number (§ 245) is said to vary directly as

another when the ratio of any two values of the first equals
the ratio of the corresponding values of the second.
It is usual to omit the word ‘‘directly,’’ and simply say that one
number varies as another.
Thus, if a workman receives a fixed number of dollars per
diem, the number of dollars received in m days will be to the
number received in n days as m is to n.
Then, the ratio of any two numbers of dollars received equals
the ratio of the corresponding numbers of days worked.
Hence, the number of dollars which the workman receives
varies as the number of days during which he works.
The symbol « is used to express variation; thus, axb is
read “a varies as 0.”
511. One variable is said to vary inversely as another when
the first varies directly as the reciprocal of the second.
Thus, the number of hours in which a railway train will
traverse a fixed route varies inversely as the speed; if the
speed be doubled, the train will traverse its route in one-half
the number of hours.
One variable is said to vary as two others jointly when it
varies directly as their product.
Thus, the number of dollars received by a workman in a
certain number of days varies jointly as the number which he
receives in one day, and the number of days during which he
works.
One variable is said to vary directly as a second and inversely
as a third, when it varies jointly as the second and the recip-
rocal of the third. ;
Thus, the attraction of a body varies directly as the amount
of matter, and inversely as the square of the distance.
 VARIATION 339

512. If x « y, then x equals y multiplied by a constant number.

Let x' and y' denote a fixed pair of corresponding values of
x and y, and # and y any other pair.
a!

gt
alt

By the definition of § 510, "="; or, x=

yy
Denoting the constant ratio 7 by m, we have

c= my.

513. It follows from §§ 511 and 512 that:

1. If varies inversely as y, «= -
2. If x varies jointly as y and 2, « = myZ.
3. If x varies directly as y and inversely as 2, v= =.
The converse of each statement of §§ 512 and 513 is also true ; that is,
if x equals y multiplied by a constant, «oy, etc.

514. Ifxocy, andy «2, thenx «cz.

By § 512, ifrey, Y= my. (1)
And if y «2, Y = nz:
Substituting in (1), L= mnNzZ.
Whenee, by § 513, wo 2.

515. Ifuv«cy when z is constant, and «nz when y is constant,

then wxyz when both y and z vary.
Let y' and z’ be the values of y and 2, respectively, when x
has the value a’.
Let y be changed from 7! to y'', z remaining constantly equal
to z', and let w be changed in consequence from a’ to X.
rThen by §510,
S aepate we (1)

Now let z be changed from 2’ to 2", y remaining constantly

equal to y'', and let x be changed in consequence from X to x".
OGLE
Then, ae at (2)
340 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

= : a! ayia! ;
Multiplying (1) by (2), hes ra (3)

Now if both changes are made, that is, y from y' to y'' and
z from z' to 2", « is changed from a! to w", and yz is changed
from y'z' to y"z".
Then by (3), the ratio of any two values of # equals the
ratio of the corresponding values of yz; and, by § 510, aa yz.
In like manner it may be proved that if there are any
number of variables 2, y, 2, u, etic., such that wey when 2, u, etc.,
are constant, xocz when y, u, etc., are constant, etc., then if all
the variables y, z, u, etc., vary, v varies as their product.
The following is an illustration of the above theorem :
It is known, by Geometry, that the area of a triangle varies as the base
when the altitude is constant, and as the altitude when the base is
constant,
Hence, when both base and altitude vary, the area varies as their
product.
PROBLEMS

516. Problems in variation are readily solved by converting

the variation into an equation by aid of §§ 512 or 513.
1. If x varies inversely as y, and equals 9 when y = 8, find
the value of « when y = 18.
If a varies inversely as y, a= ™ (§ 513).
y
Putting v= 9.and y= Ss, = - or m= 72.
9
Then, Ae and, if y = 18, ee
y 18
2. Given that the area of a triangle varies jointly as its
base and altitude, what will be the base of a triangle whose
altitude is 12, equivalent to the sum of two triangles whose
bases are 10 and 6, and altitudes 3 and 9, respectively ?
Let B, H, and A denote the base, altitude, and area, respec-
tively, of any triangle, and B' the base of the required triangle.
Since A varies jointly as Band H, A= mBH (§ 518).
 VARIATION 341

Then the area of the first triangle is m x10 x 3, or 30m,

and the area of the second is mx6x9, or 54m; whence, the
area of the required triangle is 30m + 54 m, or 84m.
But the area of the required triangle is also m x B’x 12.
Therefore, 12 mB! = 84m, and B'=7.

EXERCISE 73

1. If x varies inversely as y, and equals :when y = S,what is the value

of y when « = ;>

2. If y «2%, and equals 40 when z= 10, what is the value of y in terms

of 22?
8. If z varies jointly as x and y, and equals 2 when x =: and y = S
; 3 5
what is the value of z when x = :and y = ?

4. Ifx varies directly as y and inversely as z, and is equal to 2 when y

= 27 and z = 64, what is the value of x when y= 9 and z= 382?
5. If5e%+8 c6y—1, and «=6 when y=—83, whatis the value of x
when y=7?
6. If xt cy’, and x=4 when y=4, what is the value of y when x = ;?
7. The surface of a cube varies as the square of its edge. If the sur-
face of a cube whose edge is 2} inches is 822 square inches, what will be
the edge of a cube whose surface is 303 square inches ?
8. The distance fallen by a body from a position of rest varies as s the
square of the time during which it falls. Ifa body falls 10294 feet in 8
seconds, how long will it take to fall 4024, feet ?
9. If 7 men in 4 weeks earn $238, how many men will earn $127.50
in 3 weeks; it being given that the amount earned varies jointly as the
number of men and the number of weeks during which they work.
10. A circular plate of lead, 17 inches in diameter, is melted and formed
into three circular plates of the same thickness. If the diameters of two
of the plates are 8 and 9 inches, respectively, find the diameter of the
other ; it being given that the area of a circle varies as the square of its
diameter.
11. If y equals the sum of two numbers which vary directly as «° and
inversely as x, respectively, and y= —53 when «= —3, and y= when «
= 2, what is the value of y when z = :?
a
342 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

12. If x equals the sum of two numbers, one of which varies directly
as y? and the other inversely as 2?, and «= 45 when y= 1 and z = 1, and
« = 40 when y = 2 and z = 3, find the value of y when x = 37 and z = 1.
13. If y equals the sum of three numbers, the first of which is constant,
and the second and third vary as «? and «?, respectively, and y = — 50
when x = 2, 30 when « = — 2, and 110 when x = — 3, find the expression
for y in terms of «.
14. The volume of a circular coin varies jointly as its thickness and
the square of the radius of its face. Two coins whose thicknesses are
5 and 7, and radii of faces 60 and 30, respectively, are melted, and
formed into 100 coins, each 3 units thick. Find the radius of the face of
the new coin.
15. The distance travelled by a man, in any hour after the first, equals
a constant number of miles, plus a number of miles which varies inversely
as the number of hours travelled before that hour. If he travels 12 miles
in the 6th hour, and 8 in the 11th, how far does he travel in the 21st hour ?
16. If the weight of a spherical shell, two inches thick, is = of its
2]
weight if solid, find its diameter; it being given that the volume of a
sphere varies as the cube of its diameter.
17. The illumination from a source of light varies inversely as the
square of the distance. If a book, now 10 inches off, be moved 10(V5—1)
inches farther away, how much will the light received be reduced ?
18. Prove that if az, andyoz, thenx+tyoz, and Vay ce.
19. Prove that if xy, and zaw, then xzayu.
20. Prove that ifeay, then vay"
 PROGRESSIONS 343

XXV. PROGRESSIONS
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION
517. An Arithmetic Progression is a series (§ 283) in which
each term, after the first, is obtained by adding to the preced-
ing term a constant number called the Common Difference.
Thus, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, --- is an arithmetic progression in
which the common difference is 2.
Again, 12, 9, 6, 3, 0, — 3, --- is an arithmetic progression in
which the common difference is — 3.
An Arithmetic Progression is also called an Arithmetic Series.

518. Given the first term, a, the common difference, d, and the
number of terms, n, to find the last term, 1.
The progression is a,a+d,a+2d,a+3d,--.
We observe that the coefficient of d in any term is less by 1
than the number of the term.
Then, in the nth term the coefficient of d will be n —1.
That is, I=a+(n—1)d. (1)
519. Given the first term, a, the last term, 1, and the number
of terms, n, to find the sum of the terms, S.
S=a+(a+d)+(a+2d)++--+(U—d)+l.
Writing the terms in reverse order,
S=l+(1—d)+(1—2d)+---+(a+d)+a.
Adding these equations term by term,
2S8=(a+)+(a+)+(a+)+--+4+@+)D+(at+l,.
Therefore, 2S=n(a+J), and S= 5a 7), (IT)
The first term, common difference, number of terms, last term, and sum
of the terms, are called the elements of the progression.
Substituting in (II) the value of / from (1), we have
S=F[2a+(n—1d].
344 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

520. Ex. In the progression 8, 5, 2, —1, —4, +, to <5

terms, find the last term and the sum.
Here, a=8, d=5—8=—3, n=27.
Substitute in (1), 1=8+(27—1)(—3) =— 70.
Substitute in (II), S= a (Se aa
The common difference may be found by subtracting the first term
from the second, or any term from the next following term.

EXERCISE 74

In each of the following, find the last term and the-sum:

1. 5, 14, 28, --- to 18 terms.
2. 9, 2, —5, --- to 23 terms.
8. — 51, — 438, — 35, --- to 15 terms.

4. dings oe) — 3, --- to 16 terms.

4 8
sy it e-sy1 ot0, 2Euterms.
Bias
G00 2
6. e aU at ---» to 25 terms.
9 36 18

eet a
8 16

8. enn ae _ #1 ++» to 52 terms,

1 6 30
9. 8a+4b, 8a+2b, 13a, --- to 10 terms.
f==2 aa
10. : 3 Y, - a + to 9 terms.

$21. If any three of the five elements of an arithmetic pro-

gression are given, the other two may be found by substituting
the known values in the fundamental formulee (1) and (IT), and
solving the resulting equations.
1.. Given pee
= BY n== 4v,
20 Sas
= 3 5 find
d and 1.

Substituting the given values in (II),

5
meee | ((hen5gt),} oF +)oe
i 5
3 F ait then, / a
 PROGRESSIONS 345

Substituting the values of a, n, and / in (I),

3 D 19 1
CE whence, org and Hes

2. Given d=—3, J=— 39, S=— 264; find a and n.

Substituting in (1), .
— 39=a-+4 (n—1)(—3), or a=3n— 42, (1)
Substituting the values of 1, S, and a in (II),

— 264 =F (3n— 42 — 39), or — 528 =3n?—

81n,
or nv?—27n=—176.

Whence, n=
27 + V729—
704 _ 27+5 =7.16, or Lt.
2 2
Substituting in (1), a=48 — 42 or 33—42=6 or —9.
The solution is, a=6, n=16; or, a=—9, n=11.
The significance of the two answers is as follows :
If a=6 and n= 16, the progression is
6, 3, 0, —3, —6, —9, —12, —15, — 18, —21, — 24, — 27, — 30,
— 33, — 386, — 39.
If a=— 9 and n =11, the progression is
—9, —12, —15, —18, — 21, —24, —27, — 30, — 33, — 36, — 39.
In each of these the sum is — 264.

3. Given a=%
1 Fes
1 it
3 find 7 and n.

Substituting in (1), 7=!+4(n—1)(— 2 eS ast) (1)

3 Dy a0:
Substituting the values of a, S, and / in (II),

<a or —8=n(2"), or n?—9n=

36.
223 12
Solving this, n=12 or —3.
The value » =— 3 must be rejected, for the number of terms
in a progression must be a positive integer.
Dale at
Substituti
ubstitutingn =12 in (1), /=——
in (1) 13 =— —.
-E
346 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Any value of n which is not a positive integer must be rejected, together

with all other values dependent on it.

From (I) and (ID), general formule for the solution of exam-
ples like the above may be readily derived.
4. Given a, d, and S; derive the formula for n.
By $519, 2S=n[2a+ (n—1)d], or dn?+ (2a—d)n=2S8.
This is a quadratic in n; solving by formula (1), § 450,
neat
VCa= OF F808,
2d

EXERCISE 75

1. Given d=8, 1= 147, n=19; find a and S.

2. Given d=—6, n=14, S=— 616; find a andl.
8. Given a =— 69, n=16, 1= 36; finddand V.
4. Given a=8, n= 25, S = — 2500; find d and U.
5. Given a =%, 1=-5, S=—78; find dand n.

)
6. Given 1 = 2, n ==2B,a: find a and d.
7. Given a=—6, d=-=,=) 8a, find n and1.
8. Given a=-t, i=, a = find » and 8.

9. Given d=-<, n= 55, S=— 165; find a and J.

: 227 ;
10. Given 1 ors n= 24, S = 241; find aandd

11. Given 7= 95 = . S ee find a@ and n.

6 6 6
12. Given a ee l EAL. We find d and n.
5 10 2
18. Given a= -2, Pk Si ae find d and J.

;
145 Given 23
)/==-Sg@ 5 s
i ( = —5 Se ee
oe find
@ and n.

15. Given a=-5), a=% S=— a,; find

» and 1.
 PROGRESSIONS 347

16. Given a, 7, and n; derive the formula for d.

17. Given a, n, and §; derive the formule for d and 1.
18. Given d, n, and §; derive the formule for @ and J,
19. Given a, d, and 1; derive the formule for n and 8.
20. Given d, l, and n; derive the formule for a and S.
21. Given 7, n, and 8; derive the formule for a and d.
22. Given a, d, and §; derive the formula for J.
23. Given a, 1, and S§; derive the formule for d and n.
24. Given d, 1, and §; derive the formule for a and n.

522. Arithmetic Means.

To find an arithmetic progression of m-+2 terms, whose
first and last terms are two given numbers, a and 0, is called
inserting m arithmetic means between a and b.
Hx. Insert 5 arithmetic means between 3 and — 5.
We find an arithmetic progression of 7 terms, in which a4 = 8,
and J=—5; substituting n =7, a=3, and /=—5 in (1),

—5=38+4+6d, or d=—%

The progression is 3, 3 ss i f — a — 5.

523. Let x denote the arithmetic mean between a and b.

Then, e—a=b—«4, or 2e=a+0.

Whence, a= & s 2

That is, the arithmetic mean between two numbers equals one-
half their swm.
EXERCISE 76

1. Insert 7 arithmetic means between 4 and 10.

5
2. Insert 6 arithmetic means between ar and —

3. Insert 9 arithmetic means between -i and 6.

33
4. Insert 8 arithmetic means between — 3 and — qe
348 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

5. Insert 5 arithmetic means between 2 and — .

many arithmetic means are

;
inserted between
3
ee and
29
10°
6. How
when the sum of the second and last is 2%
+3)

7. If m arithmetic means are inserted between a and 8, find the first

three.

Find the arithmetic mean between:

8. 13 and — 23. 9, (8m+n)? and (m—8n)?.
Hy x
10. me and = oeag

524. Problems.
1. The sixth term of an arithmetic progression is >,and the
fifteenth term is - Find the first term.

The common difference must be one-ninth the result obtained by

subtracting the sixth term from the fifteenth.

Then, fe ee
ONG3: 0 Geen
Again, the first term must equal the sixth term minus five times the
common difference. ‘
Then, Fe eee
Ca 3

2. Find four numbers in arithmetic progression such that

the product of the first and fourth shall be 45, and the product
of the second and third 77.
Let the numbers be represented by ¢ —3y, «—y, x+y, anda+3y,
respectively.
i i Ves
Then by the conditions,
il42 —
Solving these equations,
Ci), y=+2; or, x=—9, y=t2 (§ 472).

Then thenumbersiare’sy) is lin oneone tos

el beeen oe
In problems like the above, it is convenient to represent the unknown
numbers by symmetrical expressions.
Thus, if five numbers had been required to be found, we should have
represented them by x —-2y, x—y,#,a+y, andx+2y.
 PROGRESSIONS 349

EXERCISE 77

1, The seventh term of an arithmetic progression is — 2, and the

thirteenth term — . Find the twenty-second term.

2. The first term of an arithmetic progression is 1, and the sum of the

sixth and tenth terms is 37. Find the second, third, and fourth terms.
3. The first term of an arithmetic progression of eleven terms is ee and
the seventh term — 38. Find the sum of the terms.
4. In an arithmetic progression, the sum of the first and last terms is
two-ninths the sum of all the terms. Find the number of terms.
5. How many positive integers of three digits are multiples of 13?
What is their sum? ~
6. Find five numbers in arithmetic progression such that their sum
shall be 25, and the sum of their squares 135.
7. Find four numbers in arithmetic progression such that the product
of the first and third shall be — 21, and the product of the second and
fourth 24.
8. If the constant difference of an arithmetic progression equals twice
the first term, the quotient of the sum of the terms by the first term is a
perfect square.
9. In any arithmetic progression, the sum of the first m terms, less
twice the sum of the first m-+ 1 terms, plus the sum of the first m+ 2
terms, equals the common difference.
10. The sum of the first ten terms of an arithmetic progression is to
the sum of the first five terms as 13 to 4. Find the ratio of the first term
to the common difference.
11. The sum of six numbers in arithmetic progression is 86, and the
sum of their squares is 286. Find the numbers.
1995
12. A man travels miles. He travels 20 miles the first day, and
“4

increases his speed one-half mile in each succeeding day. How many
days does the journey require?
13, Find three numbers in arithmetic progression, such that the square
of the first added to the product of the other two gives 16, and the square
of the second added to the product of the other two gives 14,
14. A traveller sets out from a certain place, and goes 34 miles the first
hour, 33 the second hour, 4 the third hour, and so on. After he has been
gone 5 hours, another sets out, and travels 84 miles an hour. After how
many hours are the travellers together ?
(Interpret the two answers. )
350 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

15. Find the sum of the terms of an arithmetic progression of 11 terms,

in which 121 is the middle term.
16. A man climbing a mountain, ascends the first hour 1000 feet, the
second hour 800 feet, the third hour 600 feet, and so on. After how
many hours will he be at the height of 2800 feet ?
(Interpret the two answers. )
17. If a person saves $120 each year, and puts this sum at simple
interest at 34 per cent at the end of each year, to how much will his
property amount at the end of 18 years ?
18. There are 12 equidistant balls in a straight line. A person starts
from a position in line with the balls, and beyond them, his distance from
the first ball being the same as the distance between the balls, and picks
them up in succession, returning with each to his original position. He
finds that he has walked 5460 feet. Find the distance between the balls.
19. A and B travel around the world, the circuit being 23661 miles.
A goes east one mile the first day, two miles the second day, three miles
the third day, and soon. B goes west at a uniform rate of 20 miles a day.
After how many days will they meet ?
Cinterpret the negative answer.)

GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION

525. A Geometric Progression is a series in which each term,

after the first, is obtained by multiplying the preceding term
by a constant number called the Ratio.
Thus, 2, 6, 18, 54, 162, --- is a geometric progression in which
the ratio is 3.
rons > "I-+» is a geometric progression in which the ratio
eel,
is =
3
— 3, 6, —12, 24, —48, -.- is a geometric progression in
which the ratio is — 2.
A Geometric Progression is also called a Geometric Series.

526. Given the first term, a, the ratio, 7, and the number of
terms, n, to find the last term, l.
The progression
" 7
is
1
a, ar,. ar’,
02
ar’,
13
++. e
We observe that the exponent of 7 in any term is less by 1
than the number of the term.
 PROGRESSIONS 351

Then, in the nth term the exponent of 7 will be n — 1.

That is, i=ar. (1)
527. Given the jirst term, a, the last term, l, and the ratio, 7,
fo find the sum of the terms, S.
S=a-+tar tar+..-+ ar -+ ar + ar (1)
Multiplying each term by 7,
TS = ar - on? = a7? ae we. gr? ar Ear. (2)
Subtracting (1) from (2), rS —S=ar"—a, or S= Cae ~
7
But by (1), § 526, = ar”:

Therefore, SaNr ame 7 (IT)

The jirst term, ratio, number of terms, last term, and sum of the terms,
are called the elements of the progression.

528. Examples.
‘1. In the progression 3, 1, a -++, to 7 terms, find the last
term and the sum. 3
Here, a = 3, ae n =7; substituting in (1) and (11),

3% 243
DetlgSioa”Len hy raC186
gud 28 29 729_1098"
Se Be ee ee
3 3 3
The ratio may be found by dividing the second term by the first, or
any term by the next preceding term.

2. In the progression — 2, 6, Age --+, to 8 terms, find the

last term and the sum.
Here, a=—2, r= =— 3, n=8; therefore,
“a9
1=—9(—3)'=— 2 x (— 2187) =4374,
gy 3 X 4374 — (— 2) _ — 13122 +2 _ g000
ea and,
352 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

EXERCISE 78

In each of the following, find the last term and the sum of the terms:
1. 1, —2, 4, --- to 10 terms. 6. cd a -5 he higsPoety
Oe
Que Se 19, = 48, 40 0 terms: 4
35 DO...
~ 6? 2 —
18 eS a terms te = _4 Z --- to 6 terms.
os : 3 aes

Sen 8 * 3)
5 2
4 foo oe to 5 terms. 3° 4
Tp’ --- to 5 terms. ;

8 4 DAL 3
B. Gp gr 2s v1 to 7 terms. Dvveghi gh = qgn oees

529. If any three of the five elements of a geometric pro-

gression are given, the other two may be found by substituting
the given values in the fundamental formule (1) and (11), and
solving the resulting equations.
But in certain cases the operation involves the solution of
an equation of a degree higher than the second; and in others
the unknown number appears as an exponent, the solution of
which form of equation can usually only be affected by the aid
of logarithms (§ 604).
In all such cases in the present chapter, the equations may
be solved by inspection.
1. Given a=—2, n=5, 1=— 82; find rand S.
Substituting the given values in (I), we have
— 32=—2r*; whence, 7*=16, or r=+2.
Substituting in (IT),
i ee) § =A) -_ 64 4 2=— 62.
if Pat? So See 3 eae
eee 4
Seen, al — 3

The solution is, r= 2, S=— 62; or, r=—2, S=— 22.

The significance of the two answers is as follows : 2
Iir= 2, the progression is —2, —4, —8, —16, —32, whose sum is —62.
If r=—2, the progressionis —2, 4,—8, 16, —82, whosesum is —22.
 PROGRESSIONS 858

2. Given a=3 r=—% sath, find n and 1.

Nest, 0 1640
Substituting in (11), 799 = wale; a
mpd. 1+9
3
Whence, 149 =o or, T= “5

Substituting the values of a, r, and J in (1),

1
eee ey 1\ BN1\3ensage1.
729 ( ) 5 on ( =) 218
Whence, by inspection, n—1=7, or n=8.
From (1) and (11) general formule may be derived for the solution of
cases like the above.
Ii the given elements are n, 1, and S, equations for a and r may be
found, but there are no definite formule for their values,
The same is the case when the given elements are a, n, and SV.
The general formule for n involve logarithms; these cases are dis-
cussed in § 604.
EXERCISE 79

1. Given
r = 3, n= 8, 1 = 2187; find
a and VS.
2, Given a=6, n=, 1= 225; find
rand 8.
8. Given r=—5, n=5, S =— 1042; find a and l.
4. Given #23, r= — 2, be: find n and &
2 128

5. Given r=—2,n=10, §=-7 2; find

aand J.
6 Given ==, n= 6, 1=—5>; findrand 8.
9
us Given a=—7,0=-28, g=- 9; findrand n

f 3 3 2343
8. Given @ eS
ee 2 1024? ; find
7and n n.

9. Given 1 = 884, r=—4, sa, find

aand n.
10. Given a =2, l= 1458, S= ae find r and n.
354 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

11. Given a, r, and §; derive the formula for 7.

12. Given a, J, and S; derive the formula for r.
13. Given 7, 7, and §; derive the formula for a.
14. Given r, n, and 7; derive the formule for g and 8S.
15. Given r, n, and §; derive the formule for @ and 1.
16. Given a, n, and 7; derive the formule for 7 and S.

530. Sum of a Geometric Progression to Infinity.

The limit (§ 245) to which the sum of the terms of a decreas.
ing geometric progression approaches, when the number of
terms is indefinitely increased, is called the sum of the series
to infinity.
Formula (II), § 527, may be written
ee re
1—r
It is evident that, by sufficiently continuing a decreasing
geometric progression, the absolute value of the last term may
be made less than any assigned number, however small.
Hence, when the number of terms is indefinitely increased
1, and therefore rl, approaches the limit 0.
Then, the fraction en
toe_ approaches the limit —“—.
awe
Therefore, the sum of a decreasing geometric progression t¢
infinity is given by the formula
S=; = (1
1. Find the sum of the series 4, -*Poe
1
to infinity.
9

Here, a=4, r=—<=. ad

3
Substituting in (IIT), S= =

oe
This signifies that, the greater the number of terms taken, the mor
nearly does their sum approach to am; but the sum will never exactl
equal this value. _
 PROGRESSIONS 350

A repeating decimal is a decreasing geometric progression,

and its value may be found by formula (III).
2. Find the value of .85151 -...
We have, .85151 --- =.8 + .051 + .00051 + «-..
The terms after the first constitute a decreasing geometric
progression, in which a=.051, and r=.01.
Oe "Soni "051 Bie
ee rene ED) 8 e557 = 99 = 9005980
S bstitut o Ill = = ee = = ee

: ; : ile 281
Then, the value of the given decimal is 8 + or .
2 1008 30a aat
EXERCISE 80

Find the sum of the following to infinity:

8 14 49
eG Oily Prey Dati tie

Qi lar. 3 (sh eteil 2

eae 8
ar 10° 25° ~~ 125°
A Te ee ee ee ee
; ES RS Te
4, 25 25 _ 50 a2 70
MerGelo. 27" ee OLY
Find the values of the following:
9. .8181 .... ONT idesees 18. .28185185 ....
10. .629629 ..-, 12. .75959 «--. 14. .587474 ...

531. Geometric Means.

To find a geometric progression of m-+2 terms, whose first
and last terms are two given numbers, a and 8, is called insert-
ing m geometric means between a and b.
: NG;
Ez. Insert 5 geometric means between 2 and ES
72
We find a geometric progression of 7 terms, in which a= 2,
end
1= 228. substituting n= 7,a= 2,and [= in (1)
= 7993 ee Sap
re = 21; Whence, 7) Fog and rats
306 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

4 8 16 32 64 128
The result 18 2, £3 9’ ton 81’ £543 729°

532. Let x denote the geometric mean between a and b.

Then, 7 = 2 ore == 10:

a =
Whence, a= Vab.
That is, the geometric mean between two numbers is equal to
the square root of their product.

EXERCISE 81

1. Insert 8 geometric means between :and — 192.

2. Insert 7 geometric means between — 3 and — 19683.

8. Insert 6 geometric means between a and 5120.

Or 12.
4. Insert 4 geometric means between -% and
29
said
9
5. Insert 5 geometric means between — 48 and — ae
6
>)
6. Insert 3 geometric means between eS and a
OL

7. If m geometric means are inserted between a and b, what are the

last two means ?

Find the geometric mean between :

8. 42 and 25. Se apd
2 2 _ 92

ay — YP ay
10. a? —4ab4+
40? and 4a?+4ab+b2.

533. Problem.
Find 3 numbers in geometric progression such that their
sum shall be 14, and the sum of their squares 84.
Let the numbers be represented by a, ar, and ar.
: pee TIE
Then, by the conditions, ] te ee oe
La? + ar? + art = 84. ~ o(2)
Divide (2) by (1), a—ar+ar2?=6. (8)
Subtract (3) from (1), 2ar=8, orr=4. (4)
a
 PROGRESSIONS 307

Substituting in (1), a +4 + 28=14, ora —10a 4 16=0.

a

Solving this equation, a=8 or 2.

CM 4
Substituting in (4), p= - or := ;or 2.

Then, the numbers are 2, 4, and 8.

EXERCISE 82

1. What number must be added to each of the numbers a, b, and c,

so that the resulting numbers shall form a geometric progression ?
2. The sixth term of a geometric progression is =, and the eleventh
term — we - Find the third term.

3. Find an arithmetic progression whose first term is 2, and whose

first, fourth, and tenth terms form a geometric progression.
4. The product of the first five terms of a geometric progression is 243.
Find the third term.
5. Find four numbers in geometric progression such that the sum of
the first and fourth is 27, and of the second and third 18,
6. Find six numbers in geometric progression such that the sum of
the first, third, and fifth is 147, and of the second, fourth, and sixth 294.
7. The sum of the terms of a geometric progression whose first term
is 1, ratio 8, and number of terms 4, equals the sum of the terms of an
arithmetic progression whose first term is 4, and common difference 4.
Find the number of terms in the arithmetic progression.
8. A man who saved every year five-fourths as much as in the preced-
ing year, had saved in four years $9225. How much did he save the first
year ?
9. The population of a state increases from 100000 to 161051 in five
years. What is the rate of increase per year ?
10. The difference between two numbers is 72, and their arithmetic
mean exceeds their geometric mean by 8. Find the numbers.
11. The sum of the first eight terms of a decreasing geometric progres-
sion is to the sum to infinity as 16 to 25. Find the ratio.
12. There are three numbers in geometric progression whose sum is 64.
Tf the first be multiplied by 2,the second by 2,and the third by a the
resulting numbers will be in arithmetic progression. What are the
numbers ?
358 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

13. The digits of a number of three figures are in geometric progres-

sion, and their sum is 14. If 594 be subtracted from the number, the
digits will be reversed. Find the number.
14. The mth term of a geometric progression is p, and the nth term is
q; prove that the first term is ™ Vpl-g-1.
15. The sum of three rational numbers in geometric progression is
~ and the sum of their reciprocals Find the numbers.

16. If the numbers a, b, and ¢ are in geometric progression, prove

LD el ee aeeenO8
Se C8
as ayb8 i ce ab
17. The sum of the first four terms of a geometric progression is 45,
and of the first six terms 189. Find the first term and the ratio.
18. If x, y, and z are, respectively, the pth, gth, and 7th terms of a
geometric progression, prove
Eat SOP =F a es

HARMONIC PROGRESSION

534. A Harmonic Progression is a series of terms whose

reciprocals form an arithmetic progression.
haere Na ae si
US, L, 5) =) 5) a --+ is a harmonic progression, because the
Ee eee,
reciprocals of the terms, 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, ---, form an arithmetic
progression.
A Harmonic Progression is also called a Harmonic Series.

Any problem in harmonic progression, which is susceptible

of solution, may be solved by taking the reciprocals of the
terms, and applying the formule of the arithmetic progression.
There is, however, no general method for finding the swm of
the terms of a harmonic series.
Ex. In the progression 2, s = --- to 36 terms, find the last
term. Mery
Taking the reciprocals of the terms, we have the arithmetic
progression
fo) 4
9 he
9 9? a :

Here, a= : d= 1, w= 36,
 PROGRESSIONS 359

Substituting in (1), § 518, 7=2s+ Coe le a

Then, 2 is the last term of ae given harmonic series.
‘

535. Harmonic Means. ;

To find a harmonic progression of m+ 2 terms, whose first
and last terms are two given numbers, a and 8, is called insert-
ing m harmonic means between a and b.
Hex. Insert 5 harmonic means between 2 and — 3.

We have to insert 5 arithmetic means between 5 and -}

Substituting a = > es , n=T, in (1), § 518,

al 5
—-—=-+6d,
3 a Q,On ord=——.:
36

Then the arithmetic series is

Aa yo ge ee ee
DGG elo” 4s 1S eee S&S
Therefore, the required harmonic series is
36 9 36
’ 13’ Dy 12, — 18, Se ee? oc)

536. Let x denote the harmonic mean between a and Db.

Then, : is the arithmetic mean between utand u
x a
‘oe:
bhea =
gee , and pees
aon 2 2 ab a+b

EXERCISE 83

Tn each of the following, find the last term :

Pas 7
42 2 -.- to 22 terms.

eee eet lO nbernes

? 3’ 5 1’
360 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

8. —38, 2, , --- to 26 terms.

4, = < 2, --- to 11 terms.

5. —3, 3, -> -»- to 37 terms.

6. Insert 6 harmonic means between 2 and — *.

7%. Insert 8 harmonic means between -; and — .

8. Insert 7 harmonic means between :and — 2.

Find the harmonic mean between :

2 Ee
9. :and 3. 10. ate and = s a
11. Find the (m — 1)th term of the harmonic progression a, 6, --- ton
terms.
12. If m harmonic means are inserted between a and b, what is the
third mean ?
18. The first term of a harmonic progression is p, and the second term
q. Continue the series to three more terms.
14. The arithmetic mean between two numbers is 1, and the harmonic
mean — 15. Find the numbers.
15. The fifth term of a harmonic progression is — * and the eleventh
term — A Find the fifteenth term.

16. The geometric mean between two numbers is 4, and the

harmonic mean i Find the numbers.

17. The arithmetic mean between two numbers exceeds the geometric
mean by > and the geometric mean exceeds the harmonic mean by
“. Find the numbers.
(Represent the sum of the numbers by «, and their product by y.)
18. Prove that, if any three consecutive terms of a harmonic progres-
sion be taken, the first is to the third as the first minus the second is to
the second minus the third.
19. If a*, b?, and c? are in arithmetic progression, prove that b+ c,
¢+ a, and a+ 0 are in harmonic progression.
 PROGRESSIONS 361

20. If a, b, and ¢ are in arithmetic progression, b, c, and d in geomet-

ric progression, and c, d, and e in harmonic progression, prove a, c, and e
in geometric progression.

537. Let A, G, and H denote the arithmetic, geometric, and

harmonic means, respectively, between a and 0.
Then, by §§ 523, 532, and 536,

ie ae 2 nnd ee
2 a+b

b. 2ab
But, an = ab = (Vaby?.
ee ener eet 09
Whence, Ax H=G@, or G=VAXH.
That is, the geometric mean between two numbers is also the
geometric mean between their arithmetic and harmonic means.

538. Let a and b be two positive real numbers.

By § 537, their geometric mean is intermediate in value
between their arithmetic and harmonic means.

But,
G0 200 (@+b) —200 TF (a—d)
2 a+b 2(a+b) 2(a +b)’
a positive number.
Hence, of the three means, the arithmetic is the greatest, the
geometric next, and the harmonic the least.
362 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

XXVI. CONVERGENCY AND DIVERGENCY

OF SERIES

539. An Infinite Series (§ 283) may be developed by Divi-

sion, or by Evolution.
Let it be required, for example, to divide 1 by 1 — a.
1—a#)ld+a+a?+ +.
1—«2

The quotient is obtained in the form of the infinite series

De Par > te
Again, let it be required to find the square root of 1+ a.
: eo
1+-2 Leb pr ett

The result is obtained in the form of the infinite series

pe}
“21 sF 5Sm gt a

Infinite series may also be developed by other methods, one

of the most important of which will be considered in Chap.
eax VL.
540. Convergent and Divergent Series. ‘
An infinite series is said to be Convergent when the sum of
the first n terms approaches a fixed finite number as a limit
(§ 245), when n is indefinitely increased.
 CONVERGENCY AND DIVERGENCY OF SERIES 363

This limit is called the Value of the Series.

A finite series may be regarded as a convergent series.
An infinite series is said to be Divergent when the sum of the
first n terms can be made numerically greater than any assigned
number, however great, by taking n sufficiently great.
Consider, for example, the infinite series
Loparpart-.,
developed by the fraction
1 (8 589).
Toy
I. Suppose «= 2,, where a, is numerically <1.
In this case, the given series is a decreasing Geometric Pro-
gression; and by § 530, the sum of the first n terms approaches
the limit when v is indefinitely increased.
That is, the sum of the first n terms approaches a fixed finite
number as a limit, when vn is indefinitely increased.
Hence, the series is convergent when # is numerically <1.
Let us take, for example, « =.1.
The series now takes the form 1+ .1-+ .01+4.--; while the value of
the fraction from which the series was developed is i : 7’ or .

In this case, however great the number of terms taken, their sum never
exactly equals > but approaches this value as a limit (§ 580).
Thus, if an infinite series is convergent, the value of the series (§ 540)
equals the value of the expression from which the series was developed.

II. Suppose v= 2, where 2, is numerically >1.

The sum of the first n terms is now
Lt tat- potato
6g143),
x" —
By taking n sufficiently great, ;can be made to numer-
a —

ically exceed any assigned number, however great.

Hence, the series is divergent when « is numerically > 1.
Let us take, for example, x = 10.
The series now takes the form 1 + 10+ 100+ ---; while the value of
1
the fraction from which the series was developed is i , or —-=-:
— 10 9
364 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

In this case, the greater the number of terms taken, the more does
their sum diverge from the value — >
Thus, if an infinite series is divergent, the greater the number of terms
taken, the more does their sum diverge from the value of the expression
from which the series was developed.

III. Suppose «=1.

In this case, each term of the series equals 1, and the sum
of the first n terms equals n; and this sum can be made to
exceed any assigned number, however great, by taking n suffi-
ciently great.
Hence, the series is divergent when «= 1.
IV. Suppose «=— 1.
In this case the series takes the form
1—1+1-—-14---;
and the sum of the first n terms is either 1 or 0 according
as m is odd or even.
If the sum of the first n terms of an infinite series neither
approaches a fixed finite limit, nor exceeds any assigned num-
ber, however great, when n is indefinitely increased, the series
is called an Oscillating Series.
Hence, the series is an oscillating series when «=—1.
541. It follows from § 540 that an infinite series cannot be
used for the purposes of demonstration unless it is convergent.
It will be understood, throughout the remainder of the work, that, in
every expression involving a convergent infinite series, the valwe of the
series is meant. For example, the product of two convergent infinite
series will be understood as signifying the product of their values.

THEOREMS ON CONVERGENCY AND DIVERGENCY

OF SERIES
542. If an infinite series is convergent, the last term approaches
the limit zero, when the number of terms is indefinitely increased.
Let the series be w+ wo ++ +, + Une toe
By § 540, m+ ugt--+u, and w+ ute +, +Un41 ap-
proach the same finite limit when n is indefinitely increased.
 CONVERGENCY AND DIVERGENCY OF SERIES 365

But the limit of the difference between wu, + u.+---+u, and

Uy + Ug + +++ + Uy + Un41 18 the difference of their limits (§ 255).
Whence, w,.; approaches the limit 0 when n is indefinitely
increased.

543. An infinite series is convergent if the sum of the first n

terms is finite, and the sum of any finite number of terms com-
mencing with the (n + 1)th approaches the limit zero, when n is
indefinitely increased.
Let U represent the sum of the first n terms, and V the sum
of the m terms Uy, 44 + Unso + tt + Unsmy Of the series uw + ry + ++.
By § 254, the limit of U+ V, when n is indefinitely increased,
is the sum of the limits of U and V.
But since V approaches the limit 0, when n is indefinitely
increased, U+ V approaches the same limit as U.
Since this is the case whatever the number of terms in V,
U must approach a fixed finite limit when n is indefinitely
increased; and the series is convergent.
Take, for example, the series 1 + :+ = fore,

1
n

The sum of the first n terms is (§ 143), which is finite however

great n may be.
The sum of the terms from the (m + 1)th to the (nm + m)th is
fo
Qm
ee
on 9nt+1 i
+
On+m—1
A Qn
et xterra Cae
9m—-1 Qn
r|)
which approaches the limit 0 when » is indefinitely increased.
Then, the series is convergent.
(This series was proved convergent in § 540, I.)

544. If an infinite series is convergent or divergent, it will

remain convergent or divergent after any finite number of terms
have been added to, or subtracted from tt.
For in the case of a convergent series, the sum of the first n
terms still approaches a fixed finite limit when n is indefinitely
increased,
366 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

And in the case of a divergent, the sum of the first n terms

still exceeds any assigned number, however great, when n is
indefinitely increased.
Then, in testing a series for convergency or divergency, we
may commence at any assigned term, taking no account of the
preceding terms. ’
545. If all the terms of an infinite series are positive, and the
sum of any n consecutive terms is finite however great n may be,
the series is convergent.
For, the greater the number of terms taken, the greater will
be their sum; but this sum is always finite.
Then, when v is indefinitely increased, the sum of the first n
terms must approach a fixed finite limit; and the series is con-
vergent.
Thus, in the illustrative example of § 543, the sum of the first n terms
is finite, however great n may be; and hence, the series is convergent.

546. The following theorem, and that of § 547, are of great

importance in testing the convergency or divergency of series:
If, commencing with a certain assigned term, each term of a
series of positive terms is less than the corresponding term of
@ series of positive terms, which is known to be convergent, the
Jirst series is convergent.
For the sum of the first n terms is finite, however great n may
be, and the series is convergent by § 545.
Hx. Prove the infinite series
LS SLy or
1 tatat et ss
convergent.
Each term, commencing with the third, is less than the cor-
responding term of the series
1 ee
Le Seat ceage .

which was proved convergent in § 540, I.

Then, the given series is convergent.
 CONVERGENCY AND DIVERGENCY OF SERIES 367

547. If, commencing with a certain assigned term, each term of

a series of positive terms is greater than the corresponding term —
of a series of positive terms, which is known to be divergent, the
given series is divergent.
For, the sum of the first n terms may be made to exceed
any assigned number, however great, by taking n sufficiently
great.
Thus, commencing with the second term, each term of the series
1424224 98....
is greater than the corresponding term of the series
Pp dae Lap Lap:
which was proved divergent in § 540, III.
Then, the given series is divergent.
(This was also proved in § 540, II.)

548. To prove the infinite series

melted
Lite 3hig 3keb A =} 438

convergent when k is >1, and divergent when k=1 ork <1.

I. If & is >1, the second and third terms are together <
ih sal 2
5 + = 3 1S - the next four terms are together < a the next
Ok 9K?
‘ 8
eight are together <—;
8F
and so on.
Then, the series is less than the series
2,4 8 1 i 1
fn ge ge or Lot jeig? Gaal Becta aie

ce 1 eee
oe oe a
which was proved, in § 530, to approach a finite limit when
the number of terms was indefinitely increased.
Therefore, the given series is convergent.
II. If &=1, the series becomes
Lea (1)
A Lea
MeantMe BerTp
368 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

The third and fourth terms are together >% or 5 the next
four terms are together >s or 3 and so on.

Then, by taking a sufficiently great number of terms, their

sum may be made greater than any assigned number, however
great, and the series is divergent.
The series (1) is a harmonic series (§ 584).

III. If kis <1, each term of the given series, commencing

with the second, is greater than the corresponding term of (1),
and the series is divergent (§ 547).
As examples of the above general theorem, the series
1 1 1
hae 2 + 32+ Rpfans
is convergent ; and the series
1 i 1
ee
V2 V3 wW4
is divergent.

549. If, commencing with a certain assigned term, each term

of a series of positive terms is greater than some assigned finite
number, however small, the series is divergent.
For the sum of the first n terms can be made to exceed any
assigned number, however great, by taking n sufficiently great.
Le 2a one
Thus, in the series 2 oI 3° 4 = i = oH}

each term, commencing with the second, is greater than x

Then, the series is divergent. -

550. If, in two series of positive terms, the ratio of two corre-
sponding terms tis always finite, the first series is convergent if
the second is convergent, and divergent if it is divergent.
Let the series be wu, + w+ ugt +, and + U,+ U3 -*.
I. Let the second series be convergent.
Let & be a finite number greater than the greatest of the
a Oy is u Us uU
ratios —,Vv, —,---;
Vo ? then, ’ i ~<k,’ a —<k,--.,
? > rites "<k.
 CONVERGENCY AND DIVERGENCY OF SERIES 369

Then, u,<hv,, ue< hv +++, Un < kv,

Adding these inequalities, we have
(uy + Uy Hove + Un)< K+ ++ + 2,,)-
But since the second series is convergent, v, + + +++ +, 18
finite, however great n may be; also, k is finite.
Then, w+ %+---+u, is finite, however great n may be,
and the first series is convergent (§ 545).

II. Let the second series be divergent.

Let & be a finite number smaller than the least of the ratios
u
al ee tees then,
u
= >i,
U
MeES
u
tes, SSIS,
Vy Us VY Vo Un
Then, Wy HDi) Ue > WUay 8h, Le
Whence, (m+ vy + +++ +U,) >k(Yy + 02+ +++ +4):
Now, since the second series is divergent, v,+v,+-+:-+v,
can be made greater than any assigned number, however great,
by sufficiently increasing n.
Then, wv, + uv. + --- + u, can be made greater than any assigned
number, however great, by sufficiently increasing n, and the
first series is divergent.
1. Prove the series is 4. x5 a8 ria +--+. convergent.

We compare the series with the series

1 eek +
Ease
see,

which was shown to be convergent in § 548.

The ratio of the nth term of this to the nth term of the
ii
given series is aac or ns ab) or 1 +.
n(n +1)
This is always between 1 and 2, and is therefore finite for
every value of n.
Then the given series is convergent.
370 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

2. Prove the series ce

———
1 9 <4
3 ive +.-. divergent.

We compare it with the series

peter eee, (1)
which was shown to be divergent in § 540, IIT.
The ratio of the nth term of the given series to the nth term
of (1) is ne? i 1
In(2n—1)~ 2(2< a
n

This is always between and > and is therefore finite for

every value of n; then the given series is divergent.
551. If, commencing with a certain assigned term, the ratio
of each term of an infinite series of positive terms to the preceding
term is numerically less than a fixed positive number, which is
itself less than unity, the series is convergent.
Let the series be wu, + vy + Us + «+. (1)

Suppose “%ans k, =as k, Mn <k, «+, where kis <1.

ae

By § vi - since a is <1, the infinite series

1+k+h+h+-
is convergent.
Then, by § 550, since w, is finite, the series
uy(1+k+h? +h + +) ; (2)
is convergent.
Multiplying together the first m —1 of the above inequalie
(§ 3388), we have
Uglg v+s u
ee 1; whence, —< kk", or u, < uk",
UqUy ++ Uy _y Uy
That is, the nth term of (1) is less than the nth term of (2);
and by § 546, series (1) is convergent.
The ratio of w¢n41 to up» is called the Ratio of Convergency of the infinite
series Uy + U2 + Ug + -
92
Hix. Prove the series 1 + —+4=—
a +a+ - convergent.
Ze Be eel
 CONVERGENCY AND DIVERGENCY OF SERIES 871

The ratio of the (xn + 1)th term to the nth is

Ont+1
nd

n+1 y)
KON Sieterkese
2” m+

9
If n= 2, the ratio equals 3) and for any value of n > 2, the
hel

Baie 2
ratio is <<.
3
Then, commencing with the fourth term, the ratio of each
term to the preceding is < 5,and the series is convergent.

552. If, commencing with a certain assigned term, the ratio

of each term of an infinite series of positive terms to the preced-
ing term is either equal to, or greater than, unity, the series is
divergent.
For, commencing with the assigned term, each term of the
series is either equal to, or greater than, the assigned term;
and the series is divergent by § 549.
9 22 98
Hx 5 AEArove tlthe series
i =
ee +5 ae +3 : gee --- divergent.
lvergen

The ratio of the (n+ 1)th term to the mth is

Ont

(n+ 1)(n poe be 2n :

Ze n+2
n(n +1)

If n=2, the ratio equals 1; and for any value of n> 2, the
ratio is > 1.
Then, commencing with the third term, the ratio of each
term to the preceding is equal to, or greater than, 1, and the
series is divergent.

553. The method of § 551 does not apply when the ratio of
the (n+1)th term to the nth is less than 1, but approaches
the limit 1 when n is indefinitely increased.
372 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

For in this case the ratio will not always be less than a fixed
positive number, which is itself less than 1.
In such cases, the convergency or divergency of the series
must be determined by other tests.
Consider, for example, the series
1) Sead
Ltvetigens tie
The ratio of the (rn + 1)th term to the nth is

This is always <1, but approaches the limit 1 when n is

indefinitely increased.
The series is divergent, which may be shown as in § 548, IT.

554. If an infinite series of positive terms is convergent, tt will

remain so after the signs of any of its terms have been changed.
For the sum of the first » terms will still be finite, however
great n may be, and the series is convergent by § 545.
It follows from the above that the theorems of §§ 546
and 551 hold when any or all of the terms are negative; and
also the first statement of § 550 when all the terms are
negative.

555. It follows from §§ 551, 552, and 554 that

I. If the ratio of the (n+1)th term of an infinite series to the
nth term approaches a limit numerically <1, when n is indefi-
nitely increased, the series is convergent.
Thus, in the example of § 551, 2
approaches the limit 0, when n is
n+1
indefinitely increased.
Then, the series is convergent.

Il. If the ratio of the (n+1)th term of an infinite series to

the nth term approaches a limit numerically >1, when n is
indefinitely increased, the series is divergent.
 CONVERGENCY AND DIVERGENCY OF SERIES 873

Thus, in the example of §.552, the ratio of the (n + 1)th term to the
nth term can be written ; and this approaches the limit 2 when n is
indefinitely increased, 1+ =
Then, the series is divergent.
If the ratio of the (n + 1)th term to the nth term approaches the limit
1, when » is indefinitely increased, other tests must be applied to deter-
mine whether the series is convergent or divergent (§ 553).

556. If the terms of an infinite series are alternately positive

and negative, and each term numerically less than the preceding
term, the series is convergent if the nth term approaches the limit
0 when n is indefinitely increased.
Let the series be ww, — w+ Ug — Ug + +o.
It may be written in the forms
(uy — U2) + (Ug — Uy) + (ly — Ue) ee, (A)
and Uy — (Ug — Us) — (Ug — Us) — or (2)
Since each of the expressions w, — Ug Us— Uy etc., 1S posi-
tive, it is evident from (1) and (2) that the sum of the first n
terms is positive, and < 1%.
That is, the sum of the first n terms of the given series is
finite, however great n may be.
The sum of the m terms commencing with the (n+ 1)th is
25 (Bs — Unto Eye 000 28 Unssn) } (3)

the upper or lower sign being taken before w,,,, according as

m is odd or even.
The expression in parentheses can be written in the forms
(Un41 te Un+2) SF (Un+s a Un+4) ar ah)

and Unt — (Un+2 os Un+s) - (Un+4 ae Un+5) sr OE 3

which shows that it is positive and < Uj4).

Now, if n is indefinitely increased, w,4,, and therefore
expression (3), approaches the limit 0.
Thus, the sum of any finite number of terms commencing
with the (n+1)th approaches the limit 0 when n is indefinitely
increased, and the series is convergent by § 543.
374 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

As an example of the above theorem, the series

T= Bl eu A seAl ei
5/35 mes
is convergent.

557. To prove the infinite series

io =ae =Sia

convergent when x is numerically <1.

The ratio of the (n +1)th term to the nth term is
oO ates ae— bbe ae) *)
n° n—1 ee
which approaches the limit # when n is indefinitely increased.
Then, if @ is numerically <1, the series is convergent
(§ 555, I).

558. To prove the infinite series

i
ite+2 at as
|2 [8
convergent for every value of 2. fie

The ratio of the (n+ 1)th term to the nth is pom et =

n—1
which approaches the limit 0 when n is indefinitely increased.
Then, the series is convergent (§ 555, I).

559. To prove the infinite series

eh n—1) —1)(n—2
a are.

where n is any positive fraction, or negative integer or fraction,

convergent when x is numerically <1.
By § 287, the ratio of the (r+ 1)th term to the 7th term is
n(n—1)++-(n—r+ 1), n(n—1)+-(—r+2)
r 3 Pd ois
 CONVERGENCY AND DIVERGENCY OF SERIES 375

That is, la a Batty or Ge — 1)2.

ip i
If n does not equal —1, this approaches the limit — 2 when
r is indefinitely increased; and the series is spn if x is
numerically <1 (§ 555, 1).
If n =—1, the series takes the form 1—a#+a?—a?+.,
which is convergent when @ is numerically <1 hat§ 556.

560. The infinite series

a+ bat ca?t+ daft... + kar t+ lat...
is convergent when the numerical value of x is taken sufficiently
small, and for any numerically smaller value of x, including zero.
Veer la
For the ratio of the (n + 1)th term to the nth is ene
ka oF it

Whatever the values of & and J, « may be taken so small that

mnshall always be numerically <q, where g is numerically <1.
Then, for this value of x the series is convergent.
And by § 546, it is convergent for any numerically smaller
value of x, including 0.

561. If w has any value (not including zero) which BS

4 the series a+ be + cx? + +. (1)

convergent, a+be+ca’+---, and therefore bu+ca?+---, or

“(b+cx-+---), is finite, for this value of a.
Then, since # is not zero, b+ ca+--- is finite for this value
ofa; and #(b + cx +---), or bx + cx’ + .-- approaches the limit 0
when « is indefinitely decreased.
Since b+ cw-+--- is finite for any value of a, except 0, which
makes series (1) convergent, it is itself convergent for this
value of a (§ 545).

562. Absolutely and Conditionally Convergent Series.

A convergent infinite series, having negative terms, is said to
be absolutely convergent when it remains convergent after the
signs of the negative terms are changed.
376 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

It is said to be conditionally convergent when this is not the

case.
Thus, the convergent infinite series (§ 556)

ieee cats )
if the signs of the negative terms are changed, becomes

145434+id-5
which was proved divergent in § 548.
Then, the series (1) is conditionally convergent.
In a conditionally convergent series, the sum of the terms
approaches a different limit by a different arrangement of the
terms.
Thus, in series (1), we may write the terms

seayaLae eek les ny

is WN eared
Crpete jaca
which shows that the sum of the terms is [teh 5) or
2 3
We may also write the terms
Feb
[toes Lie
eet ak et
mat, Meatyete:Leetla Bia
( ns Blea AG a ake :
which shows that the sum of the terms is > >.

Then the terms of a series cannot be arranged in any desired

order unless the series is absolutely convergent.

EXERCISE 84

Expand each of the following to four terms:

1. B+ 4a 4 22 4 bie
1422 * 38-6027422 % V9at—3B%
9 Lie a eCeee)
The oe 5. V14 382. $. V822 —1.

8. 2+6a
=
— x2
6. Vai+ay+y? 9. Vao+25.
 CONVERGENCY AND DIVERGENCY OF SERIES 3877

Determine whether the following infinite series are convergent or

divergent:

ibs Peet 18. l+s+atute

13. a 20. aera e

14. 1-54+5-te" 21. potyputpete

16. S++ i+ 23.24 + teat

Determine for what values of # each of the following infinite series is
convergent or divergent:
= 4pans
2 3

a 4. 142% + 8224... O6 ei
To= =
oon aed
26. Prove the infinite series
1 1
ace u ; see
(Sea ile al aliens
convergent when # is > 1, and divergent when «=1 or x<1.
27. Prove the infinite series
1 x 4?
1+2 oe ee
convergent for every value of a.
In determining the convergency or divergency of a series, it is usually
best to commence with the tests of § 555 ; if the limit approached is 1, then
other methods may be tried.
378 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

XXVII. UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS

THE THEOREM OF UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS

563. An important method for expanding expressions into

series is based on the following theorem :
Let the members of the equation
A+ Bo+ Os? + Die? ++.
+ De? + ---= A'+ Ble+ Cle’? (1)
be infinite series which are equal for any value of x which makes
them both convergent ; then, the coefficients of like powers of x in
the series will be equal; that is,
A=A B= PR CaG, ee.
By § 560, each series is convergent for a certain finite value
of w, and for all smaller values; and since this is the case, each
of the expressions
Ba + Ox?+ --- and Bla+ O'7? +...
approaches the limit 0 when @ is indefinitely decreased (§ 561).
Then, the given series approach the limits A and 4’, respec-
tively, when @ is indefinitely decreased.
Now, since the given series are functions of a, which are
equal for every value of # which makes them both convergent,
their limits when @ is indefinitely decreased are equal (§ 252).
Therefore, A= Al,
and hence Bu + Ce? +... = Bet Ol”? +.
Since @ is not 0, we may divide through by 2.
Then, B+ Ce +... = Blt Ola +... (2)

By § 561, each member of (2) is convergent for the same

values of w as the corresponding member of (1). 2
That is, (2) is satisfied by any value of « which makes both
members convergent; and letting a be indefinitely decreased,
we have pap
 UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS 379

Proceeding in this way, we may prove C= (’, etc.

The above proof holds when either or both of the given series are finite.

EXPANSION OF FRACTIONS

7) =e Say
564. 1. Expand in ascending powers of a,
1—22¢4+32
We saw, in § 539, that a fraction could be expanded into a
series by dividing the numerator by the denominator.
We therefore know that the proposed expansion is possible.
Assume then
2—32° — 2
= A+ Be+ Cov’ + Da’? + Hat+--; (1)
jharteSi
where A, B, CO, D, E, ---, are numbers independent of a.
Clearing of fractions, and collecting the terms in the second
member involving like powers of a, we have
2-—-30—#@=A+ Bla+ Cla’?+ D\e+ Hiat+--. (2)
—2A| —2B;) —2C| —2D
+3A|}| +3B;) +30
A vertical line, called a bar, is often used in place of parentheses.
Thus, + B x is equivalent to (B — 2 A) «a.
—2A
Equations (1) and (2) are satisfied when x has any value
which makes the second member a convergent series.
Then, by § 563, the coefficients of like powers of # in (2)
must be equal; that is, .
Aaa 2. :
By Al On Of, Baa 2 A sail,

C—2B4+3A=—83; or, C=2 B—3 A-—3=—1.

D203 Ba—1; or, D=2C—-3 B—-1=—16.
M-2D+30= 0; or, F=2D—3C =— 27; ‘ete.
Substituting these values in (1), we have
Be OD he ee ge IT ot ee,
12 3
The result may be verified by division.
380 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA
The series expresses the value of the fraction only for such values of x
as make it convergent (§ 540).
If the numerator and denominator contain only even powers
of a, the operation may be abridged by assuming a series con-
taining only the even powers of a.
Thus, if the fraction were pte we should assume

it equal to A + Ba? + Cet + Da® + Hat +...

In like manner, if the numerator contains only odd powers
of w, and the denominator only even powers, we should assume
a series containing only the odd powers of z.
If every term of the numerator contains x, we may assume a
series commencing with the lowest power of x in the numerator.
If every term of the denominator contains #, we determine
by actual division what power of w will occur in the first term
of the expansion, and then assume the fraction equal to a series
commencing with this power of x, the exponents of 2 in the
succeeding terms increasing by unity as before.

2. Expand eee in ascending powers of a.

32° —
—2
Dividing 1 by 3 2’, the quotient is =
We then assume,

Senet
+B+ O04De+ Ett. 6B)
Clearing of fractions,
1=3A+3B\eo+3Cl?’4+3D\e8+3 Blat+.--
— A}| — B)| — C| — D
Equating coefficients of like powers of 2,
2)as
3B—-A=0;
3C—B=0; 3
3D—C=0;
3H—D=0; ete.
 UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS 381

1 dl al i il
Whence, A=% 1S = 57) 2) aye ete.

Substituting in gywe have

il Ad
See = pees hee
In Ex. 1, H=2D—3C; that is, the coefficient of x equals
twice the coefficient of the preceding term, minus three times
the coefficient of the next but one preceding.
It is evident that this law holds for the succeeding terms;
thus, the coefficient of 2° is 2 x (— 27) —3 x (— 15), or —9.
After the law of coefficients has been found in any expansion,
the terms may be found more easily than by long division;
and for this reason the method of § 564 is to be preferred when
a large number of terms is required.
The law for Ex. 2 is that each coefficient is one-third the
preceding.
EXERCISE 85

Expand each of the following to five terms :

1. 342%. 5 14+4%—22 2-308 13. 3
=> "Toa
4 3822 2 3 a8 2 08 + at
LS 6. 6. 2-243 07 10. 2-307 : 14. ores
8+ b%— Bee
1442 1+2 42 38—-24+ 23 x? —3 x3 + xt
3. 4402 — ". 1+ 4 x? , 11. 2Eee a ota fhe?) +6238
15. 1—44
1—3 22 14+42-—22 t—40%+5 0 e+
2 4% — 8

4 ee 8 o— 12? —4 at B—4e8 16 1—4%+4228

"3-522 "1-52-22 " 94 92 — 323 "298
—3 45 — 28

EXPANSION OF SURDS

565. Ex. Expand /1—~2 in ascending powers of a.

We saw, in § 539, that the square root of an imperfect square
could be expanded into a series by Evolution.
We therefore know that the proposed expansion is possible.
Assume then,
V1i—a=At+
Bot Co? + Do? + Hato, (1)
382 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

' Squaring both members, we have

by § 134,
l-g= 4’ c+ Bla wet Cla on,
+2AB) +2A0| +2AD|) +2AH
+2BC| +2BD
Equating coefficients of ke powers of a,
Acs. VSN OF = Sa
ds o, Ba 5h =—5
B42AC0= 0; or, C=-# =-%
2AD+2BC= 0; or, p=-#e=_F.
C?4+2AH+2BD= 0; oe ee eo

Substituting these values in (1), we have

2 3 B at
6g DMT ris met
eee ER a Pet
2 eo pe Lopes
The result may be verified by Evolution.
The series expresses the value of V1 — x only for such values of x as
make it convergent.
EXERCISE 86

Expand each of the following to five terms:

yi 4e: we §, Vit2n— 2. 5. VI+432.

2 V1+ 5. 4. Vi—“24 32. “6. Viseek

PARTIAL FRACTIONS

566. If the denominator of a fraction can be resolved into

factors, each of the first degree in a, and the numerator is of a
lower degree than the denominator, the Theorem of Undeter-
mined Coefficients enables us to express the given fraction as
the sum of two or more partial fractions, whose denominators
are factors of the given denominator, and whose numerators
are independent of a.
 UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS 388

567. Case I. No factors of the denominator equal.

1. Separate Ga SNe 73) into partial fractions.

A 19%+1 - A B
ef 1)es2) Set
ke ee ®)
where 4 and B are numbers independent of a.
Clearing of fractions, we have ‘
19@+1=A(5e+2)+ B8e%—1)
=(5A+3B)e+2A—B. (2)
The second member of (1) must express the value of the
given fraction for every value of a.
Hence, equation (2) is satisfied by every value of #; and by
§ 563, the coefficients of like powers of # in the two members
are equal.
That is, 5AL3B=19,
and 2A— B=,
Solving these equations, we obtain 4=2 and B=3.
Substituting in (1), we have
19¢%+1 ee a ol
(8a—1)(5a+2) 38a—-1 5442
The result may be verified by finding the sum of the partial
fractions.
gesell
2. Separate - into partial fractions.
P Dip hg? }
The factors of 2a—a?— a? are a, 1—a, and 2+.
et+4 _A B CO
Assume then pee ae a pee ee

Clearing of fractions, we have

e+4—=A1—2)(2+)4+ Ba(2+2)+Cx(1—2).
This equation, being satisfied by every value of a, is satisfied
when «=0.
384 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Putting «=0, we have 4=2A, or A=2.

Again, the equation is satisfied when 2 =1.
Putting «=1, we have 5=3 B, or B= a

The equation is also satisfied when #=— 2.

Putting ~=— 2, we have 2=—6Q, or 0=-%

re re
e+4 2 3 3
pee oa ee eee
2
= — + ——__
5 1
— —_—_—_-
x 38-2 3242)
The student should compare the above method of finding A and B with
that used in Ex. 1.

568. Case II.

All the factors of the denominator equal.
odie 26
Let it be required to separate @—3)' into partial
fractions.
Substituting y+3 for a, the fraction becomes
(¥y¥+3/P—l1ly+3)+26
y 7 y—d5y+2_1
y ae 5, 2
Mee ne ee
Replacing y by «—38, the result takes the form
a 5 2
2-8 Gost
Teo oF
This shows that the given fraction can be expressed as the
sum of three partial fractions, whose numerators are indepen-
dent of a, and whose denominators are the powers of a—3
beginning with the first and ending with the third.
Similar considerations hold with respect to any example
under Case Il; the number of partial fractions in any case
being the same as the number of equal factors in the denomi-
nator of the given fraction.

Ex. Separate ee aia into partial fractions.

(3 w+ 5)?
 UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS 385

In accordance with the above principle, we assume the given

fraction equal to the sum of two partial fractions, whose de-
nominators are the powers of 3a-+5 beginning with the first
and ending with the second.

That is, Dee Z iG

(8%+5) 38245 (38%+5)
Clearing of fractions, 6” ah 5=A(8x4+5)+B
=3 Av+b A+ B.
Equating coefficients of like powers of a,
dl ee Gy
and 5A+ B=5.
Solving these equations, d= 2 and B=—5.
6a+5 2 5
Whence,
Ba+d5?
3e+5 (@Bat5?
569. Case III. Some of the factors of the denominator equal.
Sigal Wy
Ex. Separate into partial fractions.
x (a+ 1)?
The method in Case III is a combination of the methods of
Cases I and IL; we assume ?
on + 2 A B G D (1)
oie ok Gel eat
Clearing of fractions,
38a4+2=A(e+1)*+ Bo(w+1)?+ Cx@+1) + Dau
=(4+ B)?+8A+2B+4 C)x
+(8A4+B+C0+D)0+A.
Equating coefficients of like powers of a,
A+B=0,
38A4+2B+C=0,
84+B4+C+D=3,
and INE
386 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Solving, we have A=2, B=—2, C=—2, and D=1.

Substituting in (1),
sa+2 2 2 2 i
SEL eee er
The following general rule for Case III will be found convenient :
2G _. should be assumed
A fraction of the form
equal to (x + a) (a + b)+--(@ +m)"
Fr K
B E :
A
etm’ Cae ae Sane
Saupe Boo
Single factors like « + a and # + } having single partial fractions cor-
responding, arranged as in Case I; and repeated factors like (a + m)”
having r partial fractions corresponding, arranged as in Case II.

EXERCISE 87

Separate the following into partial fractions :

a Sa 67 5. Die Sy 9. 5at+4e—1
4a —9 x8 — 25 x (5a
+ 2)8
9, 19 2 — 30° 6. 9ar— 1b a0 10. 5 ax — 2 atx —8 a
5a%—6 a (8% — 1)8 +3
ax? —4 ara
gee
= 10, 7. 43%24+6 ll. 4a? — 224463
(2% — 3)? 627+ 52 —6 x(x —3)?
aN ze BIN ES 8. Sct M19. Pie ae
(a + 5)8 (2% —3)8 8— 144+ 522
13. 62 « — 38 : 14. 208 + 19a?— 17% +412
-2e@—1)(12 a? — » — 6) vt +428
15, @re—4 ie, 18%—4V2, yy 9a?—9x%—18
(a — 1)4 9e24+6xe—1 (a? — 2%) (a2 — 9)
18. 14? +11 2429 | 91. 9 x8 — 24 22 + 20% —4
(8e—1)(2%48) (8%
— 2)4
19. a8 + 140? + 9% way 208 + 12024 12444
(@ + 2)+ x(a + 1)(@ + 2)?
90. o8 eas aks 93. 19 « — 32 ‘
x(a — 1)2 (2% —3)(8
x2? — 10% — 8)

570. If the degree of the numerator is equal to, or greater

than, that of the denominator, the preceding methods are
inapplicable.
 UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS 587

In such a case, we divide the numerator by the denominator

until a remainder is obtained which is of a lower degree than
the denominator.
eb—32—1
Ex. Separate into an integral expression and
vu — &
partial fractions.
. a pe
We haye, by division, Settee =xex—2+ ee (1)
ao — 2 xe —
ay, —1 :
We can now separate = into partial fractions by the
method of Case I; the result 1s ——
a
.
nee (Ge
Gi eG— 1
3 oe
7
piicuitnuing in (1), a
Cae, vw w—1
Another way to solve the above example is to combine the methods of
§§ 564 and 567, and assume the given fraction equal to

Mpa
pe co eeTaN

EXERCISE 88

‘Separate the following into integral expressions and partial fractions :

Oa? + 21 4 + 220 — 17 | PY Soe
Mead cata ©
(a + 2)(8%—1) i gt
— a
9 42% — 2602 + 20%—1. 4, Ou +6at—2a%+ 5a4+1,
: (% — 2)8 : a? (a + 1)8
5 om =| 1b ae? 3 at — 149% — 18"
x v*+
3 43

571. If the denominator of a fraction can be resolved into

factors partly of the first and partly of the second, or all of the
second degree, in a, and the numerator is of a lower degree
than the denominator, the Theorem of Undetermined Coeffi-
cients enables us to express the given fraction as the sum of
two or more partial fractions, whose denominators are factors
of the given denominator, and whose numerators are inde-
pendent of # in the case of fractions corresponding to factors
of the first degree, and of the form Aw+B in the case of
fractions corresponding to factors of the second degree.
388 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

The only exceptions occur when the factors of the denomi

nator are of the second degree and all equal.

Hz. Separate = riinto partial fractions.

The factors of the denominator are «+1 and #—w#+1.

il A BEC. (1
Assume then =
et1@#4+1 2#—2+4+1
Clearing of fractions, we have
1= A(e’?—a#+1)+(Be+C)(#+1)
=(A+ B)v’4+(—-A+B+O0)e4+A4C.
Equating coefficients of like powers of a,
A+ B=0,

—A+B+C=0,
and A+C=1.
Solving these equations, A= * B=— 7 and C= <.
Al 1 RS ed) :
= ahaa
Substituting in (1), wage G+

EXERCISE 89

Separate the following into partial fractions :

1, Oe? +5442) 4x8—5o'+6%43—
: el: vt —1
w+ 1
5a? +4 — 14 ; 5 22% —6_—
(3% + 1)(a?—a#+8) ' 88— 27
3027 — «+ 25 : 6 4e8+18%48_
203 —5a2+4”2—10 "gt 4 30244
572. We will now show how to find an expression for thi
nth term of the expansion of a fraction in ascending powers o:
x, when the denominator can be resolved into binomial factor:
of the first or second degree in 2.
Ex. Find the nth term in the expansion of the fraction
1+7 «2 : :
1405; _32 in ascending powers of 2.
 UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS 389

Separating the fraction into partial fractions by the method

of § 567, we have
1472 2 1
ioe”Toe tS ye (1)
Bydivision, = =20. tataitat.), (2)
and ae =1-—34+4 3°’ — 3% + ..., (3)
1+3¢
The nth term of (2) is 2a", and the nth term of (8) is
(— oy gn,

Subtracting, the nth term of (1) is

2 grt Seb (— By i ms or [2 on (— Po ed |ant,

The above may be used as a formula to obtain the successive terms of

the expansion.
If m = 1, the expression becomes (2 — 1)2°, or 1.
If n = 2, the expression becomes (2 + 3)a, or 5a.
If n = 38, the expression becomes (2 — 9)x?, or — 74; etc.
1+72
Then, ——1——_. =1+5xe4—-—Te+-.
14+2%-—882%2

EXERCISE 90

. In each of the following, find the nth term of the expansion of the
fraction in ascending powers of x:
|) 4. _0t-2
a 622
+ 5a —6
3 an = it F 5 eet ge aes ;
“1-94 + 2022 "64384 —427?-223
Ose ila L+ba+ 62
9450-32 (1 — x)(1
+ 2?)
In Exs. 5 and 6, it should be observed that there are two forms for the
nth term according as n is even or odd.

REVERSION OF SERIES
573. To revert a given series y=a-+ dx™+ ca” +++. is to ex-
press @ in the form of a series proceeding in ascending powers
of y.
390 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Ez. Revert the series y=2a—32?+42°—5at4+---

Assume, By? + Cy + Dy ++.
w= Ay+ (1)
Substituting in this the given value of y,
at+--)
w= A(2a—3a?+4a%—5
+ B44 w +9 et —12 2 +16 a+ ---)
+ C(8 2 — 36 at + ---) + DAG at + +++) fee
That is, e=2 Aw—3 Ala’?+ 4Ale?— 5 Alat+--s
+4B;}| —12B;) +25B
+ 8C| —386C
+16 D
Equating coefficients of like powers of 2,
2ZA=1-
—8A+4B=0;
4A—12B+8C=0;
—5A+25 B—36C+16 D=0; ete.
: a Pee 35
Solving, A= , = => = 4 ne.
8’ 16’ 128
yt 32
Substituting Tin Ay) ie 5! DS
g/t ap
35 Smee
Maa! +

If the even powers of @ are wanting in the given series, the

operation may be abridged by assuming @ equal to a series con-
taining only the odd powers of y.
Thus, to revert the series y= a —2°+a°—a@’4+..-, we assume
w= Ay + By + Cy + Dy’ + +
If the odd powers of # are wanting in the given series, we
substitute ¢ for a, and revert the series, expressing ¢ in ascend-
ing powers of y; by taking the square root of this result, x
itself may be expressed in ascending powers of y.
If the first term of the given series is independent of , it is
impossible to express x in ascending powers of y, though it is
possible to express it in the form of a series whose terms are
functions of y.
 UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS 391

Thus, let it be required to revert the series

1

y ete
22SOS wee
aD

The series may be written y—1L=a fp ae ee

We then assume

a= A(y—1)+ By—1)?+ Cy—1)*+ Dy—1)'+

Proceeding as before, we find

2=(y—1)—F—1'+3y—-1)—Fy—Dit
EXERCISE 91

Reyert each of the following to four terms:

lL. y=r4302?+
508 + Tat +
2 y=u—202438
038 —4 at 4+ ow,

Reol coiales me
2, 3 4

- er yalNal
4 y=14+2e4+
50274 828+ 11 att ov,

OEE Sa crise aaa

2 3
Gee
y ae aU ee el
392 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

XXVIII. THE BINOMIAL THEOREM

ANY RATIONAL EXPONENT
574. It was proved in § 285 that, if n is a positive integer,

(1+a)"=14+ne+4 ered AES eG Ne wae

In this case, the second member is a finite series of n+1

terms.
If n is a negative integer, or a positive or negative fraction,
the series in the second member becomes infinite; for no one
of the expressions n —1, n — 2, etc., can equal zero.
We will now prove that in this case the series gives the value
of (1 + x)”, provided itis convergent ; this we know to be the case
when @ is numerically <1 (§ 559).

575. Proof of the Binomial Theorem for Any Rational Exponent.

If m and n are positive integers,
(A +a)"=1+ma+ m(m—1)_»
2 ie (2)

and (1+2)"=1+ne+ rie

1 BAe cals, (3)

But, (l+a)"™x 1+2)"=0+4 2)".

Then the product of the series in the second members of (2)

and (3) must equal the expanded form of (1+ )"*"; that is,

[1+ mo + MOT Da | Sf Efa ee “|

“

<1 ee wt « (4)

We proved the above result on the hypothesis thet both m

and were positive integers.
 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM 393

But the form of the product will evidently be the same what-
ever the values of m and n.
Therefore, (4) holds for all rational values of m and n, pro-
vided # is numerically <1; for in this case each series is
convergent.
(We assume that the product of two convergent series is convergent. )
Now let the symbol f(m) stand for the series
il ea eter tee,

for any rational value of m.

Then, if m is a positive integer, f(m)=(1 +a)". (5)
Then, by § 251, (4) may be written
F(m) xf) =f(m +n), (6)
which holds for all rational values of m and n.
Then by (6), if p is also a rational number,
F(m) xXf(”) x f(p) =[f(m+2)] x f(p)=f(m+n+p); ete.
Thus, S(m) x f(n) x f(p) X +++ to r factors
=f(m+n+p
+--+ tor terms). (7)

Now let m, n, p, «++ be each equal to 4 where qg and r are

U()]adta7)=n0
_ positive integers; then (7) becomes

But since g is a positive integer, f(q) = +2)*%

Then, 7(4) =(1+~2)%

Taking the rth root of both members,

q Pa
(1 tayras(t)=1 tfe4 ones (8)

which proves the theorem for a positive fractional exponent.

The result is proved only for the case where x is numerically < 1.
394 ADVANCED COURSE IN. ALGEBRA

Again, in (6), let m=—n, where n is a positive integer or

a positive fraction.
Then, S(-”) xXf(n) =f (—n+n) =f(0).
But f(0) stands for (1 + )°, which equals 1 (§ 359).

Therefore, S(—n) rie

Now since n is a positive integer or a positive fraction, it

follows from (5) and (8) that f(n) =(1+ 2)”.

Whence, f(-”n)=
Then,
(l4+a)-"=f(—n)=1+ GM i a te ay
which proves the theorem for a negative aah or negative
fractional exponent.
The result is proved only in the case where « is numerically <1.

576. Putting -for x, in (1), § 574,

Multiplying each term by a”, we have

n(n —1)
(a+ a)”=a" + nan le + an? 4 eee, (10)
|2
“a

We know that the second member of (9) is convergent when

Ha .
— is numerically < 1.
a
Hence, the second member of (10) is convergent when @ is
numerically < a.
If @ is numerically > a, we can expand (a +2)" in ascending
powers of a; thus,
(a+ a)" = a" + nate aaa ae *

and this series will be convergent, since a is numerically < a.

 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM 595

577. Examples.
In expanding expressions by the Binomial Theorem when
the exponent is fractional or negative, the exponents and
coefficients of the terms may be found by the laws of § 285,
which hold for all rational values of the exponent.
1. Expand (a+ «)3 to five terms.
The exponent of a in the first term is 1 a and decreases by 1
in each succeeding term. 3
The exponent of « in the second term is 1, and increases by
1 in each succeeding term.
The coefficient of the first term is 1; of the second term, =.
7)

Multiplying = the coefficient of the second term, by 5

the exponent of a in that term, and dividing the product by
the exponent of x increased by 1, or 2, we have - |as the
coefficient of the third term; and so on.
Then,
1 4 ao 0
a+2)§ =a Le Pe $9? +—a 5g?— 3 aot + see,
ae Ape
3 9 81 243
It follows from § 576 that the series expresses the value of (a + «ys
only when «x is numerically < a.
If x is numerically > a, (a + x)® is equal to
Ce
B}
Gy anh5a
=v —
‘ee 3
it q? 9
fh 283 qs —
hae: 9 esi
2. Expand (1 + 2a72)~ to five terms.
. a a
Enclosing 27? in parentheses, we have

(+20)? =[1+ exh)"

1

=i? 2.14.00) £3.14. a09)

—4.1~. (2a 23 + B 1-8. (Qa 3) —
=1—4a°? 41207
— 320% + 8002+...
pa
By writing the exponents of 1, in expanding [1+ (2% ”)]-?, we can
make use of the fifth law of § 285.
396 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

=i eh
The series expresses the value of (1+2a 2)-2 only when 2%? is
=1 ' 1
numerically < 1, or « ? numerically <
2 ys
That is, when at is numerically > 2, or when is positive and > 4.

3. Expand cia rh to four terms.

a*—32
ae
Enclosing a~! and — 3° in parentheses, we have
il pc eat 4 =
aur ere [(@") MJ
eal
a a — (—S52 3

= yt Fy t(82h) +t (— ahh
14ai gy aah) ++ we
y 3 (— da)?

sal +atet + 2alet + Bate +.

1
The result expresses the value of the given fraction only when 323
is numerically < a-1; if 3 % is numerically > a~1, the fraction can be
. . . =! . . .

expanded in ascending powers of a7}.

EXERCISE 92

Expand each of the following to five terms:

Lacey 1. (x8 —2y)3, Ngee Saat:

2_9n3)5
2 4+ 2) ae Se ae
: 8. (m= + >) : “3
3. cll = es : anl3. Gas. oe

i eed 9. (at— 2223, is

1 —§ 3 _4
i; (tbs 1
10. ———_. 14. (x
( 5 — 8y4)3,
y*)
1 vi+3y 3
ess 15. ( : ~ ve)"
Vi-« 11. 8/[(x-8 + 6 yz)"]. 16Va3
578. The formula for the rth term of (a+ 2x)” (§ 287) holds
for fractional or negative values of n, since it was derived from
an expansion which has been proved to hold for all rational
values of the exponent.
 THE BINOMIAL THEOREM 397

Ez. Find the 7th term of (a— 3272),

Enclosing — 3 a? in parentheses, we have
(a—3a 4) =[a+(—3a HJ,
The exponent of (— 3 a-®) is 7 —1, or 6.

The exponent of a is ~5- 6, or _2.

The first factor of the numerator is a and the last factor

— 19 + i) (Ne 16,
3 : 3
The last factor of the denominator is 6.
Hence, the 7th term
Ws ee Dyies yo abmaagiee(5
i SaSiale ta aaa a 3072)
1-2-3-4-5-6

mm (28
1? 19.GF (38q-? (Px a8
sa
38 ( ) 3

EXERCISE 93
Find the
1. 6th term of (a + x). 7. 7th term of (at — at) §
al
2. 5th term of (a +b). 8. 10th term of —_!_.
(% + m)®
8. 12th term of (1 — #)-5. , -
4. 7th term of («71-42 y?)-2. 9. 8th term of (m? 4 —2n-*)
9 y-4)72 2.
BY oiiterm of @4-22)?.7 = 10. 9th term
, of “ _— a“),2s
1 C11. 6th term of (a? — 40-2)4.
6. 5th term of ——___—. eee ee)
V1 —2)5 12. 8th term of (x2 4+ 3y°%) 3.
ae 4
.18. Term involving «—!4 in («Vvy> + =) .
V2
r , f mor x AP
(14. Term involving a # in (a? —46 °)?.

579. Extraction of Roots.

The Binomial Theorem may sometimes be used to find the
approximate root of a number, which is not a perfect power of
the same degree as the index of the root.
398 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Ex. Find ~/25 approximately to five places of decimals.

The nearest perfect cube to 25 is 27.
We have 7/25 =~/27 — 2 = [(3) + (—2)]?
= (31 +58) 4-2-7412)"
ae wae
amgCes ee
2 4 40
= STG
Tare sit we
Expressing each fraction approximately to the nearest fifth
decimal place, we have
/25 = 3 — .07407 — .00183 — .00008 — --- = 2.92402.
In any case, we separate the number into two parts, the first of which
is the next less or next greater perfect power of the same degree as the
required root; choice being made of the one which makes the smaller
second term, provided the series is convergent (§ 576).
Thus, in finding V17, we should take (88 — 10) ‘ and not (23+ 9)8 :
for although the latter has the smaller second term, the series is not con-
vergent (§ 576).

If the ratio of the second term of the binomial to the first is a small
proper fraction, the terms of the expansion diminish rapidly ; but if this
ratio is but little less than 1, it requires a great many terms to insure any
degree of accuracy.
EXERCISE 94

Find the approximate value of each of the following to five places of

decimals : ;

eae 8. ~/180, 5. V78.

2. vii18. 4/16; 6. 223.
 : LOGARITHMS 399

XXIX. LOGARITHMS

580. Any positive real number, m, can be expressed in the

form a*, where a is any positive real number except unity.
If a7 =m, x is called the Logarithm of m to the Base a; a
relation which is expressed
x = log,m.
A negative number is not considered as having a logarithm,

581. The Common System.

Logarithms of numbers to the base 10 are called Common
Logarithms, and collectively form the Common System.
They are the only ones used for numerical computation.
It is customary, in writing common logarithms, to omit the
subscript 10 which indicates the base; thus,
log, 13 is written simply Tog 13.
Any positive real number, except unity, may be taken as the base of a
system of logarithms.

582. By §§ 359 and 360,

GPa k, 0 ae eet is
10h A.0; ROS 7.0,
10? = 100; 10+? =-.001, ete:
Whence, by the definition of § 581,
fog t= 0), log. 1=—1=9-—
10,
log 10) aed, log .01=—
2=8 — 10,
log 100 = 2, log .001 =—3=7 — 10, ete.
The second form for log .1, log .01, etc., is preferable in practice.
Where no base is expressed, the base 10 is understood.

It is evident from the above that the common logarithm of

a number greater than 1 is positive, and of a number between
0 and 1 negative.
400 _ ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Tf a number is not an exact power of 10, its common loga-

rithm can only be expressed approximately ; the integral part
of the logarithm is called the characteristic, and the decimal
part the mantissa.
For example, log 13 = 1.1139.
Here, the characteristic is 1, and the mantissa .1139.
A negative logarithm is always expressed with a positive
mantissa, which is done by adding and subtracting 10.
Thus, the negative logarithm — 2.5863 is written
(10 — 2.5863) —10, or 7.4137 — 10.
In this case, 7 — 10, is the characteristic.
The negative logarithm 7.4137 — 10 is sometimes written 3.4137; the
negative sign over the characteristic showing that it alone is negative, the
mantissa being always positive.

583. If a number has five places in its integral part, it hes

between 10* and 10°; and hence its common logarithm lies
between 4 and 5.
Therefore, the characteristic of its logarithm is 4.
In general, if a number has n places in its integral part, it
lies between 10”? and 10”; and the characteristic of its loga-
rithm is n—1.
Hence, the characteristic of the logarithm of a number greater
than 1 is 1 less than the number of places to the left of the deci-
mal point.

584, If a decimal has three ciphers between its decimal

point and first significant figure, it lies between 10-! and 10>;
and hence its common logarithm lies between 6—10 and
7 — 10.
Therefore, the characteristic of its logarithm is 6 — 10.
In general, if a decimal has n ciphers between its decimal
point and first significant figure, it lies between 10-®+» and
10~”; and its common logarithm lies between — (n+ 1) and —n,
or (9—n)—10 and (10—n)—10,
That is, the characteristic of its logarithm is (9 —n)--10.
 LOGARITHMS 401

Hence, to jind the characteristic of the logarithm of a number

between zero and 1, subtract the number of ciphers between the
decimal point and first significant figure from 9, writing —10
after the mantissa.

PROPERTIES OF LOGARITHMS

585. Jn any system, the logarithm of unity is zero.

For by § 359, a =1; whence, by § 580, log,1=0.
586. In any system, the logarithm of the base is unity.
For a'=a; whence, log,a=1.
587. In any system whose base is greater than unity, the
logarithm of zero is minus infinity.
For if ais >1, a-= = —1=0 ¢ 248).
a oe

Whence, by § 580, log,0 =— o.

The above result must be interpreted as follows :
If, in any system whose base is greater than unity, a number approaches
the limit 0, its logarithm is negative, and increases without limit in abso-
lute value. (Compare § 248.)

588. In any system whose base is less than unity, the logarithm
of zero ts infinity.
For if a is<1, a” =0; whence, log,0 =.
This means that if, in any system whose base is less than unity, a
number approaches the limit 0, its logarithm increases without limit.

589. In any system, the logarithm of a product is equal to the

sum of the logarithms of its factors.
Assume the equations a7=m, a’=n.
Then, by § 580, wx=log,m, y=log,n.
Multiplying the assumed equations,
a Xa =mn, or a? = mn.
Whence, log, mn=uv+y= log, m+ log, n.
In like manner, the theorem may be proved for the product
of any number of factors.
402 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

By aid of the above theorem, the logarithm of any positive

integer may be found when the logarithms of its factors are
known.
Ex. Given log2=.3010, and log3=.4771; find log72.
log 72=log(2x2x2x3xX3)
= log 2+ log 2 + log 2 + log3 + log5
=3 x log24+2 x log3
= .9030 + .9542 = 1.8572.

590. In any system, the logarithm of a fraction is equal to

the logarithm of the numerator minus the logarithm of the
denominator.
Assume the equations a =m, a”=n.
Then, e=log,m,.y = log. 1.
2a yats : Chee UL. Mm
Dividing the assumed equations, —=—, or a? ¥= —.
Oe y on n
Wl hence, log,
S47 == #% —y = llog, m — 1logan.
Hx. Given log2=.3010; find log 5.

lee = log — log 10 — log 2 =1 — 3010 =.6990.

591. In any system, the logarithm of any power of a quantity
is equal to the logarithm of the quantity multiplied by the exponent
of the power.
Assume the equation at=m; whence, 7=log,m.
Raising both members of the assumed equation to the pth
power,
a’? =m’; whence, log, (m”) = px =p log, m.

592. In any system, the logarithm of any root of a quantity

is equal to the logarithm of the quantity divided by the inte
of the root.

For, log, Vm = log, (mn?)= :log, m 5 591).

 LOGARITHMS 403
593. Examples.
1. Given log2=.3010; find log 2%,
=
log 28 = 2x log 2 = :x 3010 = .5017.
To multiply a logarithm by a fraction, multiply first by the numerator,
and divide the result by the denominator.

2. Given log3=.4771; find log V3.

log V3 = 108He ATT 0596.
3. Given log2=.3010, log3 =.4771, find log (2? x 33).
By § 589,
k:
log (25 x 32) = log 24 + log 3! =7log 2 + [logs = .6967.

EXERCISE 95

Given log 2 = .8010, log 3 = .4771, log 7 = .8451, find the logarithm of:
5
1. 84. 6. 26, 11. V/105. 16. 18522.
5

2. 392. 7. V3. 12. 475. 17s

| 35
4
‘ead 8. 5292. 13, 2807. 18. (ey
‘
ap
4, 1218 g, 405,
14 14. 754, 19, ¥26.
4
5. 78, 10. 453, 15. V98. 20. (23x152).
594. To prove the relation
los, m
log, m
= —84—
ob og, b

Assume the equations a*=m, b’ = m.

Then, x= log,m, y = log,m.
xe

From the assumed equations, a* = b”, or a’ =).

Therefore, log, 0 = :y OF Y =e
404 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

log, m.
That is, log,m =
log, 0
By aid of this relation, if the logarithm of a number m to
a certain base a is known, its logarithm to any other base 6
may be found by dividing by the logarithm of 6 tu the base a.
595. To prove the relation
log,a x log,b = 1:
Putting m =a in the result of § 594,
loge i
($ 586).
log, b log,6b
Whence, log,a, x log,6 = 1.

596. In the common system, the mantisse of the logarithms of

numbers having the same sequence of figures are equal.
Suppose, for example, that log 3.053 = .4847. :
Then, log 305.3 = log(100 x 3.053) = log 100 + log 3.053
= 2 + 4847 = 2.4847;
log .03053 = log (.01 x 3.053) = log .01 + log 3.053
= 8 — 10 + .4847 = 8.4847 — 10; ete.
In general, if n is any positive or negative integer,
log (10” X m) = n log 10 + log m = n + log m.
But 10” x mis a number which differs from m, only in the
position of its decimal point, and n + log m is a number having
the same decimal part as log m.
Hence, if two numbers have the same sequence of figures,
the mantissz of their logarithms are equal.
For this reason, only mantissa are given, in a table of
Common Logarithms; for to find the logarithm of any number,
we have only to find the mantissa corresponding to its sequence
of figures, and then prefix the characteristic in accordance with
the rules of §§ 583 and 584. 3
This property of logarithms only holds for the common system, and
constitutes its superiority over other systems for numerical computation.
 LOGARITHMS 405

Hx. Given log 2 = .3010, log 3 = .4771; find log .00432.

log 432 = log(2* x 3°) = 4 log 2 + 3 log 3 = 2.6353.
Then, the mantissa of the result is .6353.
Whence by § 584, log .00432 = 7.6353 — 10.

EXERCISE 96

Given log2 = .38010, log 3 = .4771, log 7 = .8451, find the logarithm of :
does. 8. 6750. 5. .0324. 7. .784.
2. 2.592. 4. 274.4, 6. .000175. 8. .001875.

USE OF THE TABLE

597. The table (pages 406 and 407) gives the mantissa of
the logarithms of all integers from 100 to 1000, calculated to
four places of decimals.

598. To find the logarithm of a number of three figures.

Look in the column headed “No.” for the first two signifi-
cant figures of the given number.
Then the required mantissa will be found in the corre-
sponding horizontal line, in the vertical column headed by
the third figure of the number. .
Finally, prefix the characteristic in accordance with the
rules of §§ 583 and 584.
For example, log 168 = 2.2253;
log 344 = 9.5366 — 10; ete.
For a number consisting of one or two significant figures,
the column headed 0 may be used.
Thus, let it be required to find log 83 and log 9.
By § 596, log 83 has the same mantissa as log 830, and log 9
the same mantissa as log 900.
Hence, log 83 = 1.9191, and log 9 = 0.9542.

599. To find the logarithm of a number of more than three

JSigures.
406 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA.
LOGARITHMS. 407
408 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

1. Required the logarithm of 32.76.

We find from the table, log 32.7 = 1.5145,
log 32.8 = 1.5159.
That is, an increase of one-tenth of a unit in the number
produces an increase of .0014 in the logarithm.
Therefore, an increase of six-hundredths of a unit in the
number will produce an increase of .6 x .0014 in the logarithm,
or .6008 to the nearest fourth decimal place.
Hence, log 32.76 = 1.5145 + .0008 = 1.5153.
The above method is based on the assumption that the differences of
logarithms are proportional to the differences of their corresponding num-
bers ; which, though not strictly accurate, is sufficiently exact for practi-
cal purposes.

The difference between any mantissa in the table and the mantissa of
the next higher number of these figures, is called the Tabular Difference.

The following rule is derived from the above:

Find from the table the mantissa of the first three significant
Jigures, and the tabular difference.
Multiply the latter by the remaining figures of the number, with
a decimal point before them.
Add the result to the mantissa of the first three figures, and pre-
fix the proper characteristic.
In finding the correction to the nearest units’ figure, the decimal por-
tion should be omitted, provided that if it is .6, or greater than .5, the
units’ figure is increased by 1; thus 18.26 would be taken as 18, 30.5 as 81,
and 22.808 as 23.

2. Find the logarithm of .021508.

Mantissa 215 = .3324 Tab. diff. = 21
2 -08
0326 Correction = 1.68 = 2, nearly.
The result is 8.3326 — 10. °

600. To jind the number corresponding to a logarithm.

1. Required the number whose logarithm is 0.6571.
 LOGARITHMS 409

Find in the table the mantissa 6571.

In the corresponding line, in the column headed “No.,” we
find 45, the first two figures of the required number, and at the
head of the column we find 4, the third figure.
Since the characteristic is 0, there must be one place to the
left of the decimal point (§ 583).
Hence, the number corresponding to 0.6571 is 4.54.
2. Required the number whose logarithm is 1.3934.
We find in the table the mantisse 3927 and 3945.
The numbers corresponding to the logarithms 1.3927 and
1.3945 are 24.7 and 24.8, respectively.
That is, an increase of .0018 in the mantissa produces an
increase of one-tenth of a unit in the number corresponding.
Then, an increase of .0007 in the mantissa will produce an in-
crease of ;%, of one-tenth of a unit in the number, or .04, nearly.
Hence, the number corresponding is 24.7 + .04, or 24.74.
The following rule is derived from the above:
Find from the table the next less mantissa, the three figures cor-
responding, and the tabular difference.
Subtract the next less from the given mantissa, and divide the
remainder by the tabular difference.
Annex the quotient to the first three figures of the a and
point off the result.
The rules for pointing off are the reverse of those of §§ 583 and 584:
I. If —10is not written after the mantissa, add 1 to the characteris-
tic, giving the number of places to the left of the decimal point.
Il. If — 10 is written after the mantissa, subtract the positive part of
the characteristic from 9, giving the number of ciphers to be placed between
the decimal point and first significant figure.

3. Find the number whose logarithm is 8.5265 — 10.

5265
Next less mant. = 5263; figures corresponding, 336.
Tab. diff. 13)2.00(.15 =.2, nearly.
13
70
410 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

By the above rule, there will be one cipher to be placed be-

tween the decimal point and first significant figure.
The result is .03362.
The correction can usually be depended upon to only one decimal
place; the division should be carried to two places to determine the last
figure accurately.
EXERCISE 97
Find the logarithm of :
ik, Ds 4. .0887. 7.9617. 10. .0064685.
25759: 5. 82.95. 8. .0003788. 11. 4072.6.
3. 98.4. 6. 253.07. 9. 7.808. 12. .013592.

Find the number corresponding to:

13. 1.7782. 17. 0.8744. 21. 1.8077.
14. 8.4314
— 10. 18. 3.3565. 22. 7.6899
— 10.
15. 0.6522. 19. 6.2998
— 10. 23. 9.9108
— 10.
16. 9.0128
— 10. 20. 8.9646
— 10. 24. 2.5524.

APPLICATIONS

601. The approximate value of a number in which the

operations indicated involve only multiplication, division, invo-
lution, or evolution may be conveniently found by logarithms.
The utility of the process consists in the fact that addition
takes the place of multiplication, subtraction of division,
multiplication of involution, and division of evolution.
In computations with four-place logarithms, the result cannot usually
be depended upon to more than fowr significant figures.

1. Find the value of .0631 x 7.208 x .51272.

By § 589, log (.0631 x 7.208 x .51272)
= log .0631 + log 7.208 + log .51272.
log .0631= 8.8000 — 10
log 7.208= 0.8578
log .51272 = 9.7099 — 10 .
Adding, log of result = 19.3677 — 20
9.3677 — 10 (See Note below.)
 LOGARITHMS 411

Number corresponding to 9.3677 — 10 = .2332.

If the sum is a negative logarithm, it should be written in such a form
that the negative portion of the characteristic may be — 10.
Thus, 19.3677 — 20 is written 9.3677 — 10.

2. Find the value of 226.8,

7984.
336.8
By § 590, log aw = log 336.8 — log 7984.

log 336.8 = 12.5273 — 10 (See Note below.)

log 7984 = 3.9022
Subtracting, log of result 8.6251 —10
Number corresponding = .04218.
To subtract a greater logarithm from a less, or a negative logarithm
from a positive, increase the characteristic of the minuend by 10, writ-
ing — 10 after the mantissa to compensate.
Thus, to subtract 3.9022 from 2.5273, write the minuend in the form
12.5273 — 10; subtracting 3.9022 from this, the result is 8.6251 — 10.

3. Find the value of (.07396)’.

By § 591, log (.07396)’ = 5 x log .07396.
log .07396 = 8.8690 — 10
5
44.3450 — 50
= 4.3450 — 10 = log .000002213.
4. Find the value of V/.035063.
By § 592, log ¥/.035063 = ;log .035063.
log .035063 = 8.5449 — 10
3)28.5449 — 30 (See Note below.)
9.5150 — 10 = log .3274.
To divide a negative logarithm, write it in such a form that the nega-
tive portion of the characteristic may be exactly divisible by the divisor,
with — 10 as the quotient.
Thus, to divide 8.5449 — 10 by 3, we write the logarithm in the form
28.5449 — 30. Dividing this by 3, the quotient is 9.5150 — 10.
412 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

602. Arithmetical Complement.

The Arithmetical Complement of the logarithm of a number,
or, briefly, the Oologarithm of the number, is the logarithm of
the reciprocal of that number.
Thus, colog 409= log = log 1—log 409.

logd = 10. —10 (See Ex. 2, § 601.)

log 409 = 2.6117
*, colog 409 = 7.3883 — 10.

Again, colog .067 = log = log 1 — log .067.

log 110: —10

log .067 = 8.8261 —10
= colog.067 =" L739.
It follows from the above that the cologarithm of a number
may be found by subtracting its logarithm from 10 — 10.
The cologarithm may be found by subtracting the last significant figure
of the logarithm from 10 and each of the others from 9, — 10 being
written after the result in the case of a positive logarithm.

Hw. Find the value of

51384
8.708 x .0946

° 8.70851384
x .0946 log(51884 eat u )
8.708 * .0946
0) SS eae ae pee

1 4d
= log .51384 + log ——_ + log——
ne +8 3708" 8.0946
= log .51384 + colog 8.708 + colog .0946.
log .51384 = 9.7109 — 10
colog 8.708 = 9.0601 — 10
colog .0946 = 1.0241
9.7951 — 10 = log .6239.
It is evident from the above example that, to find the loga-
rithm of a fraction whose terms are the product of factors, we
add together the logarithms of the factors of the numerator, and
the cologarithms of the factors of the denominator.
 LOGARITHMS 413

~The value of the fraction may be found without using cologarithms by

the following formula :
51384
—~—"___
log55708 =log108.51384
x 00d6 = 8.
(log 8.708
51384 ——(log + log . .0946) ($§ 589, 590) '
The advantage in using cologarithms is that the written work of com-
putation is exhibited in a more compact form.

603. Examples.
3

1. Find the value of Bi

36
log 275
= = log 2+ log -VW5 + colog 32 (§ 602)

© log 2+ 10g 5 + Seotogs

log 2= .3010

colog 3 = 9.5229 —10; x :— 9.6024 —10

.1364 = log 1.369.
A negative number has no common logarithm (§ 580).
If such numbers occur in computation, they may be treated
as if they were positive, and the sign of the result determined
irrespective of the logarithmic work.
Thus, to find the value of 721.3 x (— 8.0528), we find the value of
721.3 x 3.0528, and put a negative sign before the result.

, — .03296
eee
] o f ee7969
h value
2.7 Find the

log
s|03296 _1),,,, 03296
S62 eS O62:
a BUce .03296 — log 7.962).

log .03296 = 8.5180 — 10

log 7.962 = 0.9010
3)27.6170 — 30
9.2057 — 10 = log .1606.
The result is — .1606.
414 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

EXERCISE 98

Find by logarithms the values of the following :

. 2414.7 x .09348. 8. (— 54.875) x (—.00061488).
. 882.4 x 4.1639. 4. .88142 x (—.0053909).
51.29. 004497. | 718 x (=.02415) |
6.348 09769 (— 5157) x 1420.6
834.32, 8.8629 187028 x 3.74
2192.4 —.75438 0006589 x (— 42.318)
3.8961 x .6945 x .01582
(—.009218) x (— 73.86) | 12.
(—.0832) x 2.8087 4694 x .00457
6 Ia 5 i>
. (2.614)°. 19. 1994. 25. [oe
5
aL
NB
98, 0000007
4 aed

(— 83.28)? 20. /—0s7s68,

V.0049784
3 6
15. (.035127)4, go 2 oy ee3)3
vi (— .8346)3
16. 1008. agree vil. e Bs (4 x .0593) 3.
(-9 $ 1.307 )

V7. (= 007705)", 93, 4)75-88,

7
oa = 3 7 A=
ee
31 31.4 x .415
2
18. V 1553. 24. ee )* 80. 5106.5 x 00003109.
31. (837.5 x .0094325)7,
ay A
36. .83184 x (.2682)3x (56.1)?.
32. V/3929 x V65.48- gy, 20005616 x V/424.65
V721.33 (6.73) x (03194) ®
6 5901 99 ; Dhiec e ee

33. VVAN
05287VA gg 485.7 x (.7301)7xV1000,
V374 x V.0078359 (9.1273)8 x (.7095)®
34. (— 0001916)? x V681 ny iPS .95048)5
x(8473) #7
127556 (— 2080.9) x /.0572
35. 3801.4 Vv —.003012 x 1955
40.
V 04142 x (— .9473) (—.848)8 x 17959 x (— 560.6)?
41. ‘[VY — 04813 x (5.6074) x (,65034)4
(10.115)5 x (— .002988)$ x ie
 LOGARITHMS 415
>
EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC EQUATIONS

604. An Exponential Equation is an equation in which the

unknown number occurs as an exponent.
To solve an equation of this form, take the logarithms of both
members; the result will be an equation which can be solved
by ordinary algebraic methods.
1. Given 31*= 28; find the value oi a.
Taking the logarithms of both members,
log (31”) = log 23; or x log 31 = log 23 (§ 591).
__ log 23 _ 1.3617
Then, —=.91307-,
log 311.4914_—
2. Solve the equation .2*= 3.
Taking the logarithms of both members, a log .2 = log 3.

Then, «=
IE er eee aa ale,
log .2 9.3010—10 —.699
An equation of the form a*=6 may be solved by inspection
if 6 can be expressed as an exact power of a.
3. Solve the equation 16*= 128.
We may write the equation (2*)* = 2’, or 2”= 2".
Then, by inspection, 4a=7; and a= f
If the equation were 16% = a we could write it (2*)* = 5=e nen

4a would equal —7, and « =— t

Certain logarithmic equations are readily solved by aid of

the principles of §§ 589 to 591.
4. Given 2 log,a=m; find the value of a.
By § 591, 2 log, «= log, (x); whence, log, (a?) =m.
Then by § 580, a*=a?; whence, v=+Va"™=+ aa
5. Given log (+4) —logw=3; find the value of a.
By § 590, log (w+
4) — log a= log
416 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Then, log2+4—3; andby § 581,10°=2+*.

wv
4
Therefore, 1000 x=a7+4 4, and «= .
999

EXERCISE 99
Solve the following :
1, 18°=8. 1. .Q2+5 = 52-4, f (4) =4
2. .067 =.9. —8. .3*-4= 100. ; ;
ot ae oe
Dap ae:
8. 9,847° = .0625. 9. 167= 82.
4, .005038= 816.3. 10. 32-1.
128
14, (2\7
i
Se
—5. Bt] = 42248, ; ie
11. =) =e 15. eo Pe
6. 73+2 = .8, 16, 7 2
16. Given a, 7, and 7; derive the formula for n (§ 529).
~-17. Given a, r, and §; derive the formula for n.
~18. Given a, J, and §; derive the formula for n.
19. Given 7, J, and S; derive the formula for n.

Solve the following :

20. 3log,% = 4 log, m. 23. log3 —log(#+1)=—1.
21. log («—5)—log(2a+1)=2. 24 logw+log(4a43)=1.
22. log5 + log (8% —2)=3. ~—25. log2+ 2log% = log (5a —2).

605. Logarithm of a Number to Any Base.

1. Find the logarithm of .3 to the base 7.
By § 594,
logy.3 9.4771 — 10 5229
log, 3 = —2" — =— =— .6187+.
es logy 7 8451 8451
Examples of this kind may be solved by inspection, if the
number can be expressed as an exact power of the base.
2. Find the logarithm of 128 to the base 16.
Let log,,128=a; then, by § 580, 167 = 128. 5
Then, as in Ex. 3, § 604, a= t that is, logy,128 = .

|
nee
 LOGARITHMS 417

EXERCISE 100
Find the values of the following :
1. log, 59. 3. log4 82. 5. loges 2.915.
2. logs .7. 4. log. .00453. 6. logo, .06038,
Find by inspection the values of the following :

7. logss 125. 8. logag Ge 9. log, (3). 10. log, Gel

27

EXPONENTIAL AND LOGARITHMIC SERIES

606. Let » be a real number greater than unity.

1 n |e iL ne
By § 364, (2+5) ]=(1 +3) .

Expanding both members by the Binomial Theorem,

fate 1pm |2 ne
A aeoHe 2dey |3 n?

ws kh nol—
ne1)" 1
=1 + nx ot |2 n2

+ rr Ge 2) ; i+ nee aL)

Since, by hypothesis, n is >1, - is numerically <1; and

both members of (1) are convergent series (§ 559).

he).
We may write equation (1) in the form

141+ eo B

which holds however great n may be.

Now let » be indefinitely increased.
2 :
Then, the limit of each of the terms —, ms ete., is 0 (§ 248).
418 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Hence, the limiting value of the first member of (2) is

Feenucaacaall
and the limiting value of the second member is

thee ea

By § 252, these limits are equal; that vis

141
| 5 ae ‘|=1+2
a aan

The series in the second member is convergent for every

value of w (§ 558); and the series in brackets is also conver-
gent, for it is obtained from the series in the second member
by putting 1 in place of a.
Denoting the series in brackets by e, we have

gate eeetees 5
which holds for every value of .
Putting mw for a, in (8),
mie) nie
en amg ie Te tr (4)
2 8
Let m =log,a, where a is any positive real number.
Then e”= a (§ 580), and e™* = a”.
Substituting these values in (4), we obtain
ne 23
a® =1 + (log, a) # + (log.a)* +(log.a)'is aves (5)
“a vo

which holds for all values of a, and all positive real values
of a.
The result (5) is called the Exponential Series.

607. The system of logarithms which has e for its base

is called the Napierian System, from Napier, the inventor
of logarithms.
Napierian logarithms are also called Natural Logarithms.
 LOGARITHMS 419

The approximate value of e may be readily calculated from

the series of § 606,
deed
e=14+14=4=-4..
IZ [8
‘and will be found to equal 2.7182818....
608. To expand log, +) in ascending powers of a.
Substituting in (5), § 606, 1+ for a, and y for a,
(1+2)"=1- [log,(1+2)]y+ terms in y’, y%, ete. ;
which holds for all values of y, provided w is real, and alge-
braically greater than — 1.
Expanding the first member by the Binomial Theorem,
1 Bead 1) 0 1 YY — eee es

=1+[log,4d+)]y+ terms in 7’, 7°, ete. (6)

The first member of (6) is convergent when # is numerically
less than 1 (§ 559).
Hence, (6) holds for all values of y, provided & is real, and
numerically less than 1.
Then, by the Theorem of Undetermined Coefficients, the
coefficients of y in the two series are equal; that is,

bel +m
i 3
egetgett 2 3 at 25
Or, leg ita te a he ae (7)

which holds for all values of # numerically less than 1.

This result is called the Logarithmic Series.
It was proved in § 557 that this series was convergent when x was
numerically less than 1.
It was also shown in § 556 that it was convergent when «= 1, and in
§ 548 that it was divergent when « = — 1.
Then, series (7) can be used to calculate Napierian logarithms, pro-
vided x is taken equal to, or numerically less than, 1.
Unless x is small, it requires the sum of a great many terms to ensure
any degree of accuracy.
420 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

609. We will now derive a more convenient series for the

calculation of Napierian logarithms.
Putting — a for a, in (7), § 608, we have
re ae bar eeae ee ;
log,(1 ip— 2)\cet NpPara
ene a tml ees 8
(8)

Subtracting (8) from (7), we plane

log,og,(1
(1 + #) Oe —log,(1 ee—2) = Le
oe 5

Or (§ 590), log, 1—- +2 =2(2+5

38. 424.
«Ob (9)
Let «= ee m and n being positive, and m > n.
m+n

This is a valid substitution, since in this case a <1.

n
m—n
Then, Let OAS 2
1—7Z {eS 2n n
m + 2
es these values in (9), we obtain
] m— nee lim—n\* lia ee a
0B. a7 nts m+n TE m+n ss
But by § 590, log. = log,m —log,n; whence,

ioe bts | m=” 1/m—n\? , 1 many a)

: ee hee m+n ee m+n, se
610. Let it be required, for example, to calculate the
Napierian logarithm of 2 to six places of decimals.
Putting m= 2 and n=1 in the result of § 609, we have

lo g,2
21 malt
1.41/18. eh
=log,1 + Bueyy, =
1/1
2am oes pal fe S00 ]
|

Or since log,1= 0 (§ 585),

log, 2 = 2(.3333333 + .0123457 + .0008230 + .0000653
+ .0000056 + .0000005 + ---)
= 2 x .3465734 = .6931468.
 LOGARITHMS 421

Then, log, 2 = .693147, to the nearest sixth place of decimals.

Having found log, 2, we may calculate log,3 by putting m=3
and n= 2 in the result of § 609.
Proceeding in this way, we shall find log, 10 = 2.302585....

611. To calculate the common logarithm of a number, having

given its Napierian logarithm.
Putting b= 10 and a=e in the result of § 594,
log, _ 1
logy) m= X log, m = 4842945 x log, m.
log,10 2.302585
Thus, logy)2 = .4342945 x .693147 = .801030.

612. The multiplier by which logarithms of any system are

derived from Napierian logarithms, is called the modulus of
that system.
Thus, .4342945 is the modulus of the common system.
Conversely, to find the Napierian logarithm of a number
when its common logarithm is given, we may either divide the
common logarithm by the modulus .4842945, or multiply it by
2.302585, the reciprocal of .4342945,

EXERCISE 10I

Using the table of common logarithms, find the Napierian logarithm of

each of the following to four significant figures :
1. 1000. 8. 9.93. 5. .04568.
2. .0001. 4, 243.6. 6. .56734.
7. What is the characteristic of logs; 758 ?
8. What is the characteristic of log, 500 ?
9. If log 3=.4771, how many digits are there in 3!" ?
10. If log 8=.9031, how many digits are there in 875 ?
11. If log 11=1.0414, how many digits are there in the integral
part of 1%
422 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

XXX. COMPOUND INTEREST AND

ANNUITIES

613. The principles of logarithms may be apphed to the

solution of problems in Compound Interest.
Let P = number of dollars in the principal ;
nm = number of years ;
t = the ratio to one year of the time during which sim-
ple interest is calculated; thus, if interest is
compounded semi-annually, ¢= 4;
R=number of dollars in the amount of one dollar for
t years ;
A=number of dollars in the amount of P dollars for
n years.
Since one dollar amounts to R dollars in ¢ years, P dollars
will amount to PF dollars in t years; that is, the amount at
the end of the 1st interval is PR dollars.
In like manner, the amount at the end of the
2d interval is PR x R, or PR? dollars;
3d. interval is PR? x R, or PR® Sate ete.

Since the whole number of intervals is > the amount at

the end of the last one, in accordance with the law observed
above, will be PR dollars.
That is, A PR. (1)
By §§ 589, 591, log A = log P+ :log R. (2)
1. What will be the amount of os326 for 3 years and 9
months at 7 per cent compound interest, interest beings com-
pounded quarterly ?
Here, P = 7326, n = 33, t=h R =1.0175, wa 1B.
 COMPOUND INTEREST AND ANNUITIES 423

log P = 3.8649
logs Ft = 0.0075; “x 16 = 01125
log A= 3.9774 .. A = $9498.
2. What sum of money will amount to $1763.50 in 3 years
at 5 per cent compound interest, interest being compounded
semi-annually ?
From (2), log P = log A — “log aes
i
Here, n=3, t= rt R=1.025, A=1763.5, 7=6.
log A= 3.2464
log R=0.0107; x 6 = 0.0642
log’ P= 3.1822, “Si P= sh 1521,
3. In how many years will $300 amount to $398.60 at 6
per cent compound interest, interest being compounded quar-
terly ?
From (2), ce__ (log
t(log A—log
ae 3 P) :

a)
Here, P=300, t= ri == 1,01), A=21398.6.

7 — 108 398.6 — log 300 _ 2.6006 — 2.4771 _ 1235

~ 4 log 1.015 4 x .0065 .0260
= 4.75 years.
4. At what rate per cent per annum will $500 amount to
$688.83 in 6 years and 6 months, interest being compounded
semi-annually ?
o — log
From (2), log k= Hise Ses
c
Here, P=500, n= 61, t= > A = 688.83, ®= 13.
log A= 2.8381
log P=, 2.0990
13)0.1391
lo == 0.0107 eh — 1.025,
424 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

That is, the interest on one dollar for 6 months is $.025, and
the rate is 5 per cent per annum.

614. To find the present worth of A dollars due at the end

of n years, interest being compounded annually.
Putting ¢=1 in (1), § 613, we have
A= Pi"; whence, P= =

ANNUITIES

615. An Annuity is a fixed sum of money payable at equal

intervals of time.
In the present chapter we shall consider those cases only in
which the payments are annual; in finding the present worth
of such an annuity, it is customary to compound interest annu-
ally.
When we speak of the annuity as beginning at a certain
epoch, it is understood that the first payment becomes due
one year from that time.

616. To find the present worth of an annuity to continue for

nm successive years, allowing compound interest.
Let A =number of dollars in the annuity ;
# =number of dollars in the amount of one dollar for
one year ;
P =number of dollars in the present worth of the
annuity.

By § 614, the present worth of the

A
1st paymen
da R?
———-

A
2d paymen
payment . 2?
= —;
o -a fet s ae

A
nth payment = —.-
 COMPOUND INTEREST AND ANNUITIES 425 ©

Hence, the sum of the present worths of the separate pay-

ments, or the present worth of the annuity, is
A A A A
et pal tate

‘ 1 il il al
That
at 18, P= A|moose
= eee
eal lee a,

The expression in brackets is the sum of the terms of a

geometric progression, in which a= ~ r= A, and Ins

qe:
Then, by II, $527, P= 7 (3)
Ex. Find the present worth of an annuity of $150 to con-
tinue for 20 years, allowing 4 per cent compound interest.
"Here, A= 150, n=20, R=1.04, R-1=.04.
Whence, {Pee 150
: a (9 a thrl.
1
log on™ = 20 colog 1.04.

colog 1.04 = 9.9830 — 10

20
9.6600 — 10 = log .4571.
Then, P= wd — ABT1) = 3750 x .5429.
log 3750 = 3.5740
log .5429 = 9.7347 — 10
log P= 3.3087. P= $2036.
617. We have from (3), § 616,
> Par Preah 1)
a
se . (4)
R

which is a formula for finding the-annuity to continue for n

successive years, when the present worth and the amount of
one dollar for one year are given.
426 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Formula (4) may also be used to find what fixed annual payment must
be made to cancel a note of P dollars due n years hence, & being the
number of dollars in the amount of one dollar for one year.

618. If in (3), § 616, n be indefinitely increased, the limit-

ing value of the second member is
eae (§ 248).
R-1
That is, the present worth of a perpetual annuity is equal to
the amount of the annuity divided by the interest on one dollar
for one year.

619. To jind the present worth of an annuity to begin after

m years, and continue for n years, allowing compound interest.
With the notation of § 616, the number of dollars in the
value of the annuity one year before the first payment becomes
due, is 1
4 a At = 3).
R-1 Rk R-1
By § 614, the present worth of this amount, due m years
hence, is A(R 7). 1) ye

Tt(R — 1)

Therefore, df
ACE = 16
Veg Or aan 1)

620. By § 618, the present worth of a perpetual annuity to

begin after m years, is given by the formula

P= sais
R"(R —1)

EXERCISE 102

1. What will be the amount of $1800 for 16 years at 5 per cent

compound interest, the interest being compounded annually ?
2. What sum of money will amount to $981.75 in 8 years and 9
months at 4 per cent compound interest, the interest being compounded
quarterly ?
 COMPOUND INTEREST AND ANNUITIES 427

3. In how many years will $859 amount to $1012.80 at 3 per cent

compound interest, the interest being compounded semi-annually ?
4. What is the present worth of a note for $625.34 due 12 years
hence, allowing 3 per cent compound interest, the interest being com-
pounded annually ?
5. At what rate per cent per annum will $3700 gain $678 in 4 years
and 3 months, the interest being compounded quarterly?
6. In how many years will a sum of money double itself at 6 per
cent compound interest, the interest being compounded annually ?
7. In how many years will a sum of money treble itself at 44 per
cent compound interest, the interest being compounded semi-annually?
8. What is the present worth of an annuity of $3800 to continue 14
years, allowing 4 per cent compound interest ?
9. What is the present worth of a perpetual annuity of $506.70, allow-
ing 3} per cent compound interest ?
10. What is the present worth of an annuity of $2238 to continue 4
years, allowing 6 per cent compound interest ?
11. What is the present worth of an annuity of $2680 to begin after
10 years and continue for 7 years, allowing 5 per cent compound interest ?
12. What fixed annual payment must be made in order to cancel a
note for $3500 in 5 years, allowing 44 per cent compound interest?
18. What is the present worth of a perpetual annuity of $297.50, to
_begin after 8 years, allowing 8% per cent compound interest ?
14. What annuity to continue 12 years can be purchased for $3149,
allowing 7 per cent compound interest ?
15. A person borrows $6365; how much must he pay in annual
instalments in order that the whole debt may be discharged in 10 years,
allowing 4} per cent compound interest?
428 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

XXXI. PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINA-

TIONS

621. The different orders in which things can be arranged

are called their Permutations.
Thus, the permutations of the letters a, b, c, taken two at a
time, are ab, ac, ba, be, ca, cb; and their permutations taken
three at a time, are abc, acb, bac, bea, cab, cba.

622. The Combinations of things are the different collections

which can be formed from them without regard to the order
in which they are placed.
Thus, the combinations of the letters a, b, c, taken two at a
time are ab, be, ca; for though ab and ba are different permu-
tations, they form the same combination.
623. To find the number of permutations of n different things
taken two at a time.
Consider the n letters a, b, ¢, «+.
In making any particular permutation of two letters, the
first letter may be any one of the v; that is, the first place
can be filled in n different ways.
After the first place has been filled, the second place can be
filled with any one of the remaining x — 1 letters.
Then, the whole number of permutations of the letters taken
two at a time is n(n —1).
We will now consider the general case.

624. To find the number of permutations of n different things

taken r at a time.
Consider the n letters a, b, c, ++:
In making any particular permutation of r letters, the first
letter may be any one of the n.
After the first place has been filled, the second ae can be
filled with any one of the remaining n — 1 letters.
 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 429

After the second place has been filled, the third place can be
filled in n — 2 different ways.
Continuing in this way, the rth place can be filled in
n—(r—1), or n—r+1 different ways.
Then, the whole number of permutations of the letters taken
r at a time is given by the formula
nb = n(n — 1) (n— 2) ---(m—r +1). (1)
The number of permutations of n different things taken r at a time is
- usually denoted by the symbol ,,P,.

625. If ail the letters are taken together, =n, and (1)
becomes = P, = n(n—1)(n—2)-+-3-2-1=|n. (2)
Hence, the number of permutations of n different things taken
n at a time equals the product of the natural numbers from 1 to n
inclusive.

626. To find the number of combinations of n different things

taken r at a time.
The number of permutations of n different things taken r at
atime,is (n—1)(n —2) --- (n—r +1) (§ 624).
But by § 625, each combination of r different things may
have |” permutations. }
Hence, the number of combinations of n different things
taken r at a time equals the number of permutations divided
by |r.
That is, Ore tt ae “4 (3)
:
The number of combinations of n different things taken r at a time is
usually denoted by the symbol ,,C;,.

627. Multiplying both terms of the fraction (3) by the prod-

uct of the natural numbers from 1 to n —r inclusive, we have
‘alEngl): a —r+l) (ar) 2 |n ,
Ta |jrx1-2---(n—r) |r |n—r’
which is another form of the result.
430 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

628. The number of combinations of n different things taken r

at a time equals the number of combinations taken n — r at a time.
For in making a selection of r things out of n, we leave a
selection of n — r things.
The theorem may also be proved by using the result of § 627.

629. Examples.
1. How many changes can be rung with 10 bells, taking 7
at a time ?
Putting n=10, r=7, in (1), § 624,
pP;=10-9-8-7-6-5-4= 604800.
2. How many different combinations can be formed with 16
letters, taking 12 at a time ?
By § 628, the number of combinations of 16 different things,
taken 12 at a time, equals the number of combinations of 16
different things, taken 4 at a time.
Putting n=16, r=4, in (3), § 626,
16-15-.14.13
yy iit sees = 1820.

3. How many different words, each consisting of 4 consonants

and 2 vowels, can be formed from 8 consonants and 4 vowels ?
The number of combinations of the 8 consonants, taken 4 at
a time, is 8-7-6-5
——__———,or ”70).
1-2.3-4
The number of combinations of the 4 vowels, taken 2 at a
»
32) >
time, is
Yi
, or 6,
1-2
Any one of the 70 sets of consonants may be associated with
any one of the 6 sets of vowels; hence, there are in all 70 x 6,
or 420 sets, each containing 4 consonants and 2 vowels.
But each set of 6 letters may have (6, or 720 different
permutations (§ 625). x =
Therefore, the whole number of different words is
420 x 720, or 302400.
 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 431

EXERCISE 103

Find the values of the following :

yeas 8. 17P% 5. 17O1
2. Po. 4. 15C7. 6. 29Co4.

7. In a certain play, there are five parts to be taken by a company of

twelve persons. In how many different ways can they be assigned ?
8. How many different words, of nine different letters each, can be
formed from the letters in the word flowering, if the vowels retain their
places ?
9. How many different numbers, of seven different figures each, can
be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7, 8, 9, if each number begins with
1 and ends with 9 ?
10. How many even numbers, of five different figures each, can be
formed from the digits 4, 5, 6, 7, 8?
11. How many different committees, of 8 persons each, can be formed
from a corporation of 14 persons? In how many will any particular
individual be found? In how many will any particular individual be
excluded ?
12. A and B are in acompany of 72 men. If the companyis divided
into squads of 6, in how many of them will A and B be in the same squad ?
18. In how many different orders can six persons be seated at a round
table ?
14. There are 15 points in a plane, no three in the same straight line.
How many quadrilaterals can be formed, having four of the points for
vertices ?
15. If 32 soldiers are drawn up in line 4 deep, in how many different
ways can they be arranged so as to have a different set in the front rank ?
In how many ways, if the front rank is always to contain 3 particular
men ?
16. If the number of combinations of 2 n different things taken n—1 at
a time, is to the number of combinations of 2n—2 different things taken
n at a time as 132 : 35, find the value of n.
17. How many different crews, each consisting of eight oarsmen and a
steersman, can be formed from 16 boys, of whom 12 can row but cannot
steer, and the others can steer but cannot row ?
18. A person has 22 acquaintances, of whom 14 are males. In how
many ways can he invite 17 guests from them so that 10 may be males ?
19. Out of 10 soldiers and 15 sailors, how many different parties can be
formed, each consisting of 3 soldiers and 3 sailors ?
432 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

20. From 3 sergeants, 8 corporals, and 16 privates, how many different

parties can be formed, each consisting of 1 sergeant, 2 corporals, and 5
privates ?
21. Out of 8 capitals, 6 consonants, and 4 vowels, how many different
words of six letters each can be formed, each beginning with a capital,
and having 3 consonants and 2 vowels ?
22. How many different words of 8 letters each can be formed from
eight letters, if 4 of the letters cannot be separated? How many if
these four can only be in one order ?
23. In how many different ways can ten soldiers be drawn up in double
rank, if three particular men are always in the front rank, and three others
always in the rear ?
24. How many different numbers of seven figures each can be formed
from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, if the first, fourth, and last digits
are odd numbers ?
25. How many different words of six letters each can be formed from
the letters in the word percolating, if each word has a consonant for its
first and last letter, and a vowel for its second and fifth ?
26. There are 2 n guests at a dinner-party. If the host and hostess have
fixed places opposite to each other, and two specified guests cannot sit next
each other, in how many ways can the company be seated ?

630. To find the number of permutations of n things which are

not all different, taken all together.
Let there be n letters, of which p are a’s, g are b’s, and r are
c’s, the rest being all different.
Let V denote the number of permutations of these letters
taken all together.
Suppose that, in any assigned permutation of the n letters,
the p a’s were replaced by p new letters, differing from each
other and also from the remaining » —p letters.
Then by simply altering the order of these p letters among
themselves, without changing the positions of any of the other
letters, we could from the original permutation form |p differ-
ent permutations (§ 625),
If this were done in the case of each of the MW originad per-
mutations, the whole number of permutations would be
N x |p.
 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 433

Again, if in any one of the latter the g b’s were replaced by ©

q new letters, differing from each other ana from the remaining
n —q letters, then by altering the order of these g letters among
themselves, we could from the original permutation form |g
different permutations; and if this were done in the case of
each of the NV x|p original permutations, the whole number of
permutations would be NV x|p x|q.
In like manner, if in each of the latter the r c’s were re-
placed by r new letters, differing from each other and from
the remaining n —~* letters, and these r letters were permuted
among themselves, the whole number of permutations would be
NX|px\|qx|r.
But the number of permutations on the hypothesis that the
n letters are all different, is |n (§ 625).
ThereVf
x|p
orx|q
ex|r
, =[n; or, N= ae

Any other case may be treated in a similar manner.

Ex. How many permutations can be formed from the letters
in the word Tennessee, taken all together ?
Here there are 4 e’s, 2 n’s, 2 s’s, and 1 ¢.
Putting in the above formula n=9, p=4, gq=2, r=2, we
have
|9 ete ORS) = 15700,
wee 2-2
631. To find the number of permutations of n different things,
taken r at a time, when each may occur any number of times
from once up to r times, inclusive.
Consider the n letters a, 0, ¢, «+
In making any particular permutation of r letters, the first
letter may be any one of the x; that is, the first place can be
filled in n different ways.
The second letter can also be any one of the n; that is, the
second place can be filled in n different ways.
434 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Continuing in this way, the rth place can be filled in n differ-

ent ways.
Then, the number of permutations is
nXnX +++ to r factors, or n’.
Ex. How many different words of four letters each can be
formed from nine letters, if each letter may occur any number
of times from once up to four times, inclusive ?
Here, n=9, r=4.
Then, the number of different words is
94, or 6561.

632. To find the entire number of combinations of n different

things, when each may be taken any number of times from once to
n times, inclusive.
Consider the n letters a, b, c, +++.
We can take them one at a time in m ways.
n(n —1)
We can take them2 at a time in 2 ways (§ 626).

. . . . . .

We can take them all in one way.

Then, the entire number of ways is
ie aD te (§ 289, I).
hel

Ex. In how many ways can a selection of one or more vol-

umes be made from 5 books ?
Here, n=5; then, the entire number of selections is
2°—1, or 31.

EXERCISE 104

1. In how many different orders may the letters of the word denomt-
nation be written ?
2. There are four white billiard balls exactly alike, and three red balls,
also alike. In how many different orders can they be arranged ?
 PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATIONS 435
od

3. In how many ways can six things be given to five persons, if there
is no restriction as to the number each may receive ?
4. How many different numbers less than 10000 can be formed from
the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8?
5. In how many different orders may the letters of the word indepen-
dence be written ?
6. How many different signals can be made with 7 flags, of which 2
are blue, 3 red, and 2 white, if all are hoisted for each signal ?
7. A railway signal has m arms, and each can be placed in n positions.
How many different signals can be made with it ?
8. A man has eight friends. In how many ways can he invite one or
more of them to dinner ?
9. How many different words of eight letters each can be formed from
the letters in the word arranged, if the first, fourth, and seventh letters
are always vowels ?
10. A house has nine windows in front. How many different signals
can be given by having one or more of the windows open ?
11. In how many ways can 13 books be arranged on a shelf, when five
volumes are alike, and four other volumes are also alike ?
12. How many different numbers greater than 1000000 can be formed
from the digits 4, 3, 3, 3, 2, 2, 0?
13. In how many ways can two dimes, three quarters, four halves,
and five dollars be distributed among 14 persons, so that each may receive
a coin ?
14. A bag contains a cent, a half-dime, a dime, a twenty-cent piece, a
quarter-dollar, a half-dollar, and a dollar. In how many ways can a sum
of money be drawn from the bag ?
436 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

XXXII. PROBABILITY

633. Suppose that a bag contains 5 white balls, 4 red balls,

and 38 black balls, and that one ball is drawn at random.
Any one ball is as likely to be drawn as any other.
The drawing of a ball can occur in 12 different ways ; for any
one of the balls may be drawn.
The drawing of a white ball can occur in 5 different ways;
for any one of the white balls may be drawn.
We may then consider es as the likelihood that, if a ball is
drawn, it is a white ball.
The drawing of a white ball can fail to occur in 7 different
ways; for any one of the red or black balls may be drawn.
We may then consider ‘sas the likelihood that, if a ball is
drawn, it is not a white ball.

634. We may take the following definition for the term

probability :
If an event can happen in a different ways, and fail to happen
in 0 different ways, and all these ways are equally 1pa to occur,
the probability of the happening of the event is———
an 7 and the
pr obability
ility of
of itsits failing
failing is ae :

We say the odds are a to b in favor of the event, if a is greater than 3,

and a to b against the event, if a is less than bd.

It follows that if the probability of the happening of an

event is p, the probability of its failing is 1 — p.

635. Examples.
1. A bag contains5 white, 4 red, and 3 black balls. *
(a) If 3 balls are drawn, what is the probability that they
are all white ?
 PROBABILITY 437

The number of combinations of the 5 white balls, taken 3

at a time, is °ess
pee 2 (§ 626), or 10; that is, the drawing of 3
white balls can happen in 10 different ways.
The number of combinations of the 12 balls, taken 3 at a
time, is
12-11-10 |
, or 220; that is, the drawing of 3 balls can
1-2-3
occur in 220 different ways. :
qs : : = 1.0
Then, en, th
the probability of d drawing3 white
bability of h balls
ru is 9907!
een 99
—,

(6) If 6 balls are drawn, what is the probability that 2 are

white, 3 red, and 1 black?
The number of combinations of the 5 white balls, taken 2 at
a time, is oat or 10; the number of combinations of the 4

red balls, taken 3 at a time, is #22", @i2 4

1-2-3
We may associate together any one of the 10 combinations
of white balls, any one of the 4 combinations of red balls,
and any one of the 3 black balls; hence, there are in all
10 x 4 x 3, or 120, different combinations, each consisting of
2 white balls, 3 red balls, and 1 black ball.
Also, the number of combinations of the 12 balls, taken 6 at
12-11 -10-9+8-7 |. go4
a time, is
1-2-3-.4-5-6
Hence, the required probability sepa , or —.

2. A bag contains 30 tickets numbered 1, 2, 3, ---, 30.

(a) If four tickets are drawn, what is the chance that both
1 and 2 will be among them ?
The number of combinations of the 28 tickets numbered
5 400 :
3, 4,..., 30, taken 2 at a time, is . a, that is, there are
28 - 27
different ways of drawing four tickets, two of which
Uo W
are numbered 1 and 2.
438 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

The number of combinations of the 30 tickets, taken 4 at ¢

30 - 29 - 28 - 27
time, is
WA oa ys
Hence, the probability that, if four tickets are drawn, tw«
of them will be 1 and 2, is
23 +27) 2003 20-28 227 2 sek we
12) 384k BO OAS
(b) If four tickets are drawn, what is the chance that eithe
1 or 2 will be among them ?
Either 1 or 2 will be among the tickets drawn, unless eacl
ticket drawn bears a number from 3 to 30 inclusive.
The number of combinations of the 28 tickets numbered 3
. -, 28°27
+26-25
4, ---, 30, taken 4 at a time, is TSAI

The number of combinations of the 50 tickets, taken 4 a

30 + 29 - 28 - 27°
a time, is
1-2-3-4
Hence, the probability that each of the 4 tickets drawn bear
28 - 27 - 26-25 65,
a number from 3 to 30 inelusive, is
30 -29.28.27' 87
Then, the probability that none of the tickets drawn bear
a number from 3 to 30 inclusive, is 1 — e (§ 634), or =.
7 7
This then is the probability that either 1 or 2 will be amon
the tickets drawn.
EXERCISE 105

1. A bag contains 6 white balls, 5 red balls, and 4 black balls; fin
the probability of drawing :
(a) One black ball. (@) Four white balls.
(b) Two white balls. (e) Two balls of each color.
(c) Three red balls. (f) Four red and three white ball:
(g) Two red, five white, and two black balls.
2. A bag contains 24 tickets numbered 1, 2, 3, ..., 24; if three ticke
are drawn, find the probability :
(a) That they are 1, 2, and 3.
(b) That either 1, 2, or 3 is among them.
 PROBABILITY 439

3. What is the probability of throwing not more than 5 in a single

throw with two dice ?
4. What is the probability of throwing at least 5 in a single throw
with two dice ?
5. What is the probability of throwing 10 ina elpele throw with three
dice ?
6. If six persons seat themselves at random at a round table, what is
the probability that two specified persons will sit together ?
7. If four cards are drawn from a pack, what is the probability that
they are of the same suit ?
8. There are 8 books, of which 4 are on mathematics and 8 on science.
If the books are placed together on a shelf, what is the probability that
the mathematical volumes, and also the scientific, will be together ?

636. Mutually Exclusive Events.

If an event can happen in more than one way, and if it happens in any
of the ways, cannot at the same time happen in any of the other ways,
these various ways are said to be mutually exclusive.
If an event can happen in more than one way, and these ways
are mutually exclusive, the probability of the happening of the
event equals the sum of the probabilities of its happening in the
separate ways.

Suppose that an event can happen in a certain way a times

out of b, and in another way a' times out of b; all these ways
being equally likely to occur.
Also, suppose that the two ways in which the event can
happen are mutually exclusive.
Since the event happens a + a! times out a b, the probability
of its happening is a (§ 634), or =45—.

But 5
© is the eee that the event me in the first

way, and ¢ the probability that it happens in the second way.

Hence, the probability that it happens equals the sum of
the probabilities of its happening in the separate ways.
In like manner, the theorem may be proved when there are
more than two ways in which the event can happen.
440 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

637. Examples.
1. Find the probability of throwing 4 in a single throw with
two dice.
The event can happen in two ways; either by throwing 3
and 1, or by throwing double-twos; and these ways are mutu-
ally exclusive.
Each die can come up in 6 ways; and hence the pair can
be thrown in 6 x 6, or 36 ways.
Of these different throws, two will be 3 and 1; hence, the
probability of throwing 3 and 1 is =.
Again, double-twos can be thrown in only one way ; hence, the
probability of throwing double-twos is =
ee ; ean 1
Therefore,
erefore, the pr probability
ility of th rowing 44is—+—,or
is 36 + 36°" —-
5

This example can be solved more easily by the method of § 635; the
above method is given simply as an illustration of § 636.

2. A bag contains four $10 gold pieces and six silver dol-
lars. If a person is entitled to draw two coins at random,
what is the value of his expectation ?
If a person has a chance of winning a certain sum of money, the
product of the sum by the probability of his winning it is called his
expectation.

The number of combinations of the four gold pieces, taken

: 5 abo : :
2 at a time, is rast and the number of combinations of the ten
coins, taken 2 at a time, is BE hence the probability of
Toe
drawing two gold coins is oS or Ee
DOs 91s
Then the value of the expectation, so far as it depends or
: se me
the drawing of two gold coins, is is x 20, or dollars.
The probability of drawing two silver coins is i
, Or3=
10-9
the value of the corresponding expectation is = dollars.
~~

PROBABILITY 441

Again, the probability of drawing a gold coin and a silver

coin is (6-4)+ a or = ; the value of the corresponding ex-

pectation is ~ 11, or = dollars.

Hence, the value of the expectation is G + 2 ny dollars,

or $9.20. 33° 16
EXERCISE 106

1. A bag contains 20 tickets numbered 1, 2, 3, ---, 20; if a ticket be

drawn, what is the probability that its number is a multiple of 3 or 7 ?
2. Find the probability of throwing at least 9 in a single throw with
two dice.
8. A bag contains 4 half-dollars and 6 quarter-dollars. If a person is
entitled to draw a single coin, find the value of his expectation.
4. Find the probability of throwing 13 in a single throw with three
dice.
5. A bag contains 3 dimes, 4 five-cent pieces, and 2 twenty-cent
pieces. Ifa person is entitled to draw two coins, what is the value of his
expectation ?
6. Find the probability of throwing 7 in a single throw with four dice.
7. A bag contains 7 gold dollars, and 5 five-dollar gold pieces. If a
person is entitled to draw four coins, what is the value of his expectation ?
8. A bag contains 6 fifty-cent pieces, and four other coins which have
- all the same value. If a person’s expectation on drawing three coins is
120 cents, find the value of each of the unknown coins.

COMPOUND EVENTS

638. Independent Events.

Tf there are two independent events whose respective probabilities
are known, the probability that both will happen is the product of
their separate probabilities.
Two events are said to be independent when the occurrence of one is
not affected by the occurrence of the other.

Let a be the number of ways in which the first event can

happen, and } the number of ways in which it can fail; all
these ways being equally likely to occur,
442 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Also, let a! be the number of ways in which the second event

can happen, and b! the number of ways in which it can fail; all
these ways being equally likely to occur.
We may associate together any one of the a+6 cases in
which the first event happens or -fails, and any one of the
a' +b! cases in which the second happens or fails; hence there
are (a+b) (a'+6') cases, equally likely to occur.
In aa’ of these cases both events happen.
Therefore, the probability that both events happen is
aa!
(a+b) Hoy
But cr is the probability that the first event happens,
a
a!
and a! =e b!
the probability that the second happens.
Hence, the probability that both events happen is the product
of their separate probabilities.
And in general, if »,, Ps, Ps, +++, are the respective probabilities
of any number of independent events, the probability that all
the events happen is p,p».j?3**.

639. Examples.
1. Find the probability of throwing an ace in the first only
of two successive throws with a single die.
1
The probability of throwing an ace at the first trial is 6
4
The probability of not throwing one at the second is 7
Hence, the probability of throwing an ace in the first only of
A 8 Ripe Sy
two successive throws is = x <, or —-
6: Geo
2. Find the probability of throwing an ace at least once in
three throws with a single die.
There will be an ace unless there are three failures. .
The probability of failing at the first trial is a and this is
also the probability of failing at each of the other trials.
: PROBABILITY 443

Hence, the probability that there will be three failures is

Then the probability that there will not be three failures is

125 a1
1——— (§ 634 —.
aig © SA) % 376
3. A bag contains 5 red balls, 4 white balls, and 3 black
balls. Three balls are drawn in succession, each being replaced
before the next is drawn. What is the probability that the
balls drawn are one of each color ?
The probability that the first ball is red is a3 the proba-
bility that the second is white is a or 3 and the probability

that the third is black is =, or ;

Hence, the probability of drawing a red ball, a white ball,
and a black ball, in this assigned order, is e x i x : or Z :
; CS Ce
But a red ball, a white ball, and a black ball may be drawn
in |3, or 6 different orders (§ 625); and in each case the proba-
Pee 4O
8
bilit oe,
Then by § 636, the probability of drawing a red ball, a white
ball, and a black ball, without regard to the order in which
see
th ey are‘eddrawn, is ——
{dA X
x 6,6, oror —.
oA

640. Dependent Events.

The probability of the concurrent happening of two dependent
events is the probability of the first, multiplied by the probability
that when the first has happened the second will follow.
Let a and } have the same meanings as in § 638.
Also, suppose that, after the first event has happened, a!
represents the number of ways in which the second will follow,
and 6! the number of ways in which it will not follow; all
these ways being equally likely to occur.
444 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Then there are in all (a +b) (a' + 0’) cases, equally likely to
occur, and in aa! of these both events happen.
Therefore, the probability that both events happen is
aa!
(a+b) (a! +b’)
Hence, the probability that both events happen is the proba-
bility of the first, multiplied by the probability that when it
has happened the second will follow.
And in general, if there are any number of dependent events
such that p, is the probability of the first, p, the probability
that when the first has happened the second will follow, p, the
probability that when the first and second have happened
the third will follow, and so on, then the probability that all
the events happen is p,p».)3 +++.

641. Examples.
1. Solve Ex. 3, § 639, if the balls are not replaced after being
drawn.
The probability that the first ball is red is > the probabil-
ity that the second is white is a and the probability that the
ae See
third
ra is
18 black
ack 15is i0
—.

Hence, the probability of drawing a red es a white ball,

Rk ee
and a black ball, in this assigned order, is—
Bit * 30"
But the balls may be drawn in |3, or 6 different orders.
Therefore, the probability of drawing a red ball, a white
ball, and a black bs without regard to the order in which
yng x6, Oa. 3
th ey are d drawn, is— xx
X— 6, or—

2. An urn contains 5 white balls and 3 black balls; another

contains 4 white balls and 7 black balls. What is tae proba-
bility of obtaining a white ball by a single drawing from one
of the urns taken at random ?
 PROBABILITY 445
oo
eg

Since the urns are equally likely to be taken, the proba-

bility of taking the first urn is 5 and the probability of then

drawing a white ball from it is 2.

Hence, the probability of obtaining a white ball from the

hs opt lu Uae,Tei
first urn is = xx =, or—-

In like manner, the probability of obtaining a white ball

from the second urn ist bd = or eae
a a WeeSeah
Hence, the required probability is + ae or ele
dee A Meee AS)
642. Given the probability of the happening of an event in
one trial, to find the probability of its happening exactly r times
in n trials.
Let p be the probability of the happening of the event in
one trial.
Then 1 —p is the probability of its failing (§ 634).
The probability that the event will happen in each of the
first 7 trials, and fail in each of the remaining n —r trials, is
prd—p)"". |
But the number of ways in which the event may happen
exactly r times in n trials is equal to the number of combina-
tions of m things taken r at a time, or
n(n as 1) aoe (n —?r a 1) (§ 626).

ln
Hence, the probability that the event will happen exactly
r times in 7 trials is
n(n = 1) . eo —7r+ Dor Siar (1)

Ex, What is the probability of throwing exactly three aces

in five throws with a single die?
446 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Here, p=pra3,n=d, andn—r+1=83.

Substituting in (1), the required probability is

5-4-3 (AVS (ovr 1a
1-2-8 x(6) x(@), oSees
643. It follows from § 642 that, if the probability of the
happening of the event in one trial is p, the probability of its
failing exactly rv times in n trials is
n(n —1)---m—rt) n-r({— yr
Ir ya Rk

644. Given the probability of the happening of an event in one

trial, to find the probability of its happeniug at least r times in n
trials.
The event happens at least 7 times if it happens exactly n
times, or fails exactly once, twice, ---, » — 7 times.
Then the probability that it happens at least r times equals
the sum of the probabilities of its happening exactly nm times,
or failing exactly once, twice, ---, 7 —7r times.
By §§ 642, 643, the required probability is
n(n —1)-+-(r +1)
prtnp’(L—p)tee + pi—p)y”.

Ex. What is the probability of throwing at least three aces

in five throws with a single die ?
Here, p = *,7 =3,n=5; then the required probability is

(5)+8*() *(G) 13%) * GG)” ois

TNE
= SOs
[LN TO
=
ee Da
=a =
ae =
23
Pes

EXERCISE 107

1. Find the probability of throwing exactly four sixes in six throw:

with a single die.
2. Find the probability of throwing at least four doublets in six throw:
with a pair of dice.
\ PROBABILITY 447

8. A purse contains 5 dollars and 7 five-cent pieces, and another

83 dollars and 12 five-cent pieces. Find the probability of obtaining a
dollar by drawing a single coin from one of the purses taken at random,
4. Ifa coin is tossed eight times, what is the probability that the head
will turn up at least five times ?
5. A bag contains 5 white and 3 black balls. If 4 balls are drawn and
not replaced, what is the probability that the balls drawn are alternately
of different colors ?
~~ 6. What is the probability of throwing 10 with a pair of dice exactly
three times in four trials ?
7. The probability of a certain event is 2,and of another independent
of the first x: Find the probability that one at
least of the events will
happen.
8. If two coins are tossed up five times, find the probability that there
will be five heads and five tails.
9. Each of four persons draws a card from a pack. Find the proba-
bility that there will be one of each suit.
10. A, B, C. and D throw a die in succession, in the order named,
until one throws an ace. Find their respective chances of throwing an
ace at the first trial.
11. A bag contains three white and six black balls. A person draws
three balls, the balls when drawn not being replaced. What is the
probability of drawing a white ball ?
~~ 12. A person has four tickets in a lottery in which there are three prizes
and seven blanks. Find his chance of drawing a prize.
18. A box contains ten counters numbered 1, 2, 38,...,10. After one
is drawn, it is put back, and the process is repeated indefinitely. Find
the probability that No. 1 will be drawn in four trials.
14. A bag contains six balls. A person takes one out, and replaces it.
After he has done this six times, find the probability that he has had in
his hand every ball in the bag.
15. In aseries of games, the probability that the winner of any game
wins the next game is . Find the probability that the winner of the
first game wins three or more of the next four.
16. A bag contains three tickets numbered 1, 2,3. <A ticket is drawn,
and replaced. After this has been done four times, what is the probability
that the sum of the numbers drawn is even ?
448 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

17. A purse contains a silver dollar and four dimes; another contains
five dimes. Four coins are taken from the former and put in the latter ;
and then four coins are taken from the latter and put inthe former. Find
the probability that the dollar is still in the first purse.
18. A and B, with six others, draw lots for partners, and play four two-
handed games, all the players being of equal skill, The four winners draw
lots for partners, and play two games, and the winners in these games play
a final game. Find the probability that A and B have played together.
19. If four whole numbers, greater than 10, taken at random be multi-
plied together, find the chance that the last digit in the productis 1, 3, 7, or 9.
20. An urn contains 3 white and 3 black balls, and another 4 white and
4 black balls. A ball is taken from one and put in the other. Ifa ball
be drawn from one of the urns chosen at a random, what is the probability
that it is white ?
 CONTINUED FRACTIONS 449

XXXITI. CONTINUED FRACTIONS

645. A Continued Fraction is an expression of the form

i a at ’5 OF y) ee lu ’
- d CAR 6 -ne:
e+ ---

as it is usually written.
We shall consider in the present work only continued fractions of the
form 1 1
b+ ¢+ -: z

where each numerator is unity, @ a positive integer or 0, and each of the

numbers b, ¢, +++, a positive integer.

646. A terminating continued fraction is one in which the

number of denominators is finite; as,

An infinite continued fraction is one in which the number of

denominators is indefinitely great.
647. In the continued fraction
ji ol 1
+
Qs +- Aa -- Ay =- wee.

a, is called the jirst convergent ;

il
a, + — the second convergent ;
Ag

a + i the third convergent ; and so on.

Az + As
If a, = 0, as in the continued fraction
1 i 1
dz + a3 + a+
then 0 is considered the first convergent.

648. Any ordinary fraction in its lowest terms may be con-

verted into a terminating continued fraction.
450 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Let the given fraction be °, where a and 0 are prime to each

other.
Divide a by 6, and let a, denote the quotient and 0, the re-
mainder; then,
b 1
Rin Waa
by
Divide } by },, and let a, denote the quotient and 6, the re-
mainder; then,

Again, divide 6, by b., and let a; denote the quotient and b,

the remainder; then,
saat Bynes
Qe +r D lg + |
ate a

bs
The process is the same as that of finding the H.C. F. of a
and 6 (§ 188); and since a and 0 are prime to each other, we
must eventually obtain a remainder unity, at which point the
operation terminates.
Hence, any ordinary fraction in its lowest terms can be con-
verted into a terminating continued fraction.

Hx. Convert o into a continued fraction.

23)62(2 = a,
46
16)230 = a,
16
~7)16(2 = ay
14 s

2)78=a,
6
1
 CONTINUED FRACTIONS 451

Th f
62
=? ae ee eS
eee ee ae
649. A quadratic surd (§ 368) may be converted into an infinite
continued fraction.
Ex. Convert V6 into a continued fraction. -
The greatest integer in V6 is 2; we then write
ee 4)
Reducing V6 —2 to an equivalent fraction with a rational
numerator (§ 387), we have
V6 = 244(Vo— 2)(V6 +2) _ on ae
— V¥6+2 V6+42
. — Y + eee
i = 2a
———— 1
W642 @)
2
The greatest integer oe
in a is 2; we then write

V6 +2 V6 = Male 2) (V6 +2) _ 5 aet

2
: 2(V6 +2) Ve42
Substituting in (1), V6=2+
Sp
2
atae es )
@
V6 +2
The greatest integer in 6+ 2 is 4; we then write

Pe ye 7) ae)
42 V6+
2 mae 1
V6 +2 V6 +2
2
Substituting in (2), we have
1

2+
452 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

The steps now recur, and we have

Sag gs eetibe pe
V6=2+
2+442+4+4+-+
An infinite continued fraction in which the denominators recur is
called a periodic continued fraction.

650. A periodic continued fraction may always be expressed

as an irrational number.

Ex. Express ee ss i; 3 5— as an irrational number.

Let x denote the value of the fraction ; then,

- ie ee a
ht 3 ee oR tern ol med ceo
Clearing of fractions,
Ag+tev=3+eo, or +3e¢=3.

Solving this equation, «=

—34+V94+12_ —34-V21.
5 =i 2
It is evident that the positive sign must be taken before the radical.

PROPERTIES OF CONVERGENTS

651. In §§ 652 to 657, inclusive, we shall suppose the con.

tinued fraction to be
ak 1 “i 1
a +
Ag+ Ag+ - Gy + Onza-porr
And we shall let p, denote the numerator, and q, the denomi
nator, of the rth convergent (§ 647), when expressed in its
simplest form.

652. To determine the law of formation of the successive

convergents.
The first convergent is a.

The second is a, + L ae Ghat A

ly Ay
 CONTINUED FRACTIONS 453

a, + ul 1 =a,+ A — NAghs a+ Oy
The third is
A+ As Agats + 1 Ages + 1
The third convergent may be written in the form
(Ghd, t1las+a,
ila
in which we observe that:
I. The numerator equals the numerator of the preceding con-
vergent, multiplied by the last denominator taken, plus the numera-
tor of the convergent neat but one preceding.
Il. The denominator equals the denominator of the preceding
convergent, multiplied by the last denominator taken, plus the
denominator of the convergent next but one preceding.
We will now prove by Mathematical Induction that the above
laws hold for all convergents after the second, when expressed
in their simplest forms.
Assume that the laws hold for all convergents as far as the
nth inclusive.
The nth convergent is 2*=a,+ . Pe ;
Vn Cg ae Clg == Ay,

Then, since the last denominator is a,, we have

Pn = Un Pn —1 Dn —2y and Vn si DnQn - 1 ar Tn —2° (1)

Whence Pn = Ay Pn=1 =e Pn =e) . (2)

; Vn Or Oamitate Gnas

The (n+ 1)th convergent is

‘ ih sD i al
Ripe Ose) (ON ta
1 AnOnsy
ni n+ +l
which differs from the nth only in having a,+ ; or .

in place of a,. Un+1 Un+1

Substituting Gn FT gop a, in (2), we have

An+1

An Ant a 1
Pn-1 eee
Pn+i we Un41
Un+1 An An+1 Si fi

Di. vk Qn-1 = Qn-2

454 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Then Daa = Gori OnPn Poe) Paxi

nti An+1 (Gn Gn-1 + Yn-2) 2 Qn-1

= An+1Pn + Pn-1 b iL (3)

On+1 In 3 Bees i ( )

It is evident that the second member of (3) is the simplest

form of the (n + 1)th convergent, and therefore
Pn+i = U+i1Pnr + Pay and Inti = M4140 i Qn-1

These results are in accordance with laws I and II.

Hence, if the laws hold for all convergents as far as the nth
inclusive, they also hold for the (n + 1)th.
But we know that they hold for the third convergent, and
hence they hold for the fourth; and since they hold as far as
the fourth, they also hold for the fifth; and so on.
Hence, the laws hold for all convergents after the second.
Ex. Find .the first five convergents of

thes LL ered
14+ 24+ 344+...
The first convergent is 1, and the second is i +1, or 2.
Then, by aid of the laws just proved,

the third is ie oe ae
1.2+1 38

the fourth is 5-342 = iy

3-341 10

the fifthigs 27-445 _78,

10-445 438
653. The difference between two consecutive convergents Pn
0) Q 1 ve
and Pmt js ;
Qn Qn Inti

The difference between the first and second convergents is

1 1 3
talek
or
Thus the theorem holds for the first and second convergents.
 CONTINUED FRACTIONS 455

Assume that it holds for the nth and (x + 1)th convergents.

That is, ae ee OF PrQnti ~ PnsiIn = 1. (1)

Qn n+ aa QnInsv’

Then

2
Pn

Gn+1
ag! Pn+e =

Yn+2
Presi a

An41
An+2Pn+1

On+2Jn+1
Pr

ar An
(§ 652)
— Ce nS Qn41 a Pav Qn) gad (CAnyos 3 Ont1 strDn Oia)

Oak Gets Ant SF On) ;

oe Pridn ™ PnIn+1

n+ Yn+2
(§ 652)= , by (1).
Inti In+2

Hence, if the theorem holds for any pair of consecutive con-

vergents, it also holds for the next pair.
But we know that it holds for the first and second conver-
gents, and hence it also holds for the second and third; and
since it holds for the second and third, it also holds for the
third and fourth; and so on.
Therefore, the theorem holds universally.
As an example of the theorem, the difference between the fourth and
fifth convergents, in the example in § 652, is : ®

Mie 18. SGN (80 eS

10 48 10x48 10x48
654. It follows from § 653 that p, and gq, can have no com-
mon divisor except unity; for if they had, it would be a divisor
Of Prnii~ PniiGy OL unity, which is impossible.
Therefore, all convergents formed in accordance with the
laws of § 652 are in their lowest terms.

655. The even convergents are greater, and the odd conver-
gents less, than the fraction itself.
I. The first convergent, a, is Jess than the fraction itself,
since — is omitted.
Cs eee
I. Pier: :
IT. The second, a, + a greater, because its denominator dy
2

is less than ay + the denominator of the fraction.

3 + eee ’
456 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

III. The third,

ee a) is less, because, by II, the
A,+ Os 1 1
denominator gers is greater than ste ae ane the
denominator of the fraction; and so on.
Hence, the first, third, ---, convergents are less, and the
second, fourth, ---, convergents greater than the fraction itself.

656. Any convergent is nearer than the preceding convergent

to the value of the fraction itself.

By § 652, Pn+e oe U4 9Pn+1 = Pn

Qn+2 n+ 29 n+1 ie Vn

The fraction itself is obtained from its (n + 2)th convergent

by putting a,4.+ in place of a,,5.
Anis aimee
Hence, denoting the value of the fraction by x, we have
at
A 1 — mo we g.?
es n n+l n
|as a5 ee,
Te oe = |Qn+1 + Pn

where m stands for d,4. + pce AEA

a An+3 aig hate

Now, nymen — MPn+1 aE Pa =e iO

Un MOn+1 ain Oks Qn

Qn(n Uni aieYn)

=——__.
mm
(§ 658). 1
( )
AIn(MYn41 + Qn) ( )

Also, 7~ Priv = MPn+1 = Dr Patt

Uni Mn+ ae Qn Qn+1

(2)
= Prin ~ Pasir = ‘i

An+a(MO nar =F In) Ina MYni3 AF In)

: E Be he ah F .
Since @,,,5 is a positive integer, a,..+ ae ae is >15 that
is, mis >1. a
And since n+ = An 419n ae Gn (§ 652), And is a Qn
 CONTINUED FRACTIONS 457
Therefore, the fraction (2) is less than the fraction (1), for
it has a smaller numerator and a greater denominator.
Hence, the (n+1)th convergent is nearer than the nth to
the value of the fraction itself.

657. To determine limits to the error made in taking the nth

convergent for the fraction itself.
With the notation of § 656, the difference between the
fraction itself and its nth convergent is
m 1
Sey OP Se (1)
On(MOn41 ae In) an(duie »)
m
Since m is >1 (§ 656), the denominator aC adel is
m
< Gnas a Gg,

The denominator is also > QiQn41-

Hence, the fraction (1) is > ol
In (Qn41 = In) ° Vn Qn41

That is, the error made in taking the nth convergent for the
fraction itself les between.
ae ee and gals .
On(Qn41 aK An) Qn Inti

As an example of the above theorem, the error made in taking the

‘fourth convergent for the fraction itself, in the example in § 652, lies
between 1 1 gs
and 1 7 OL and
10(48 + 10) 10 x 43 530 430

EXERCISE 108

Convert each of the following into a continued fraction, and find in

each case the first five convergents.

us.91 5, 612
5, 5, 18.
B71
mf
1561
g, 253,
179 4, 5.83. g, 748.
611 ——
5151
Convert each of the following into a continued fraction, find in each
case the first four convergents, and determine limits to the error made in
taking the third convergent for the fraction itself.
458 ADVANCED COURSEIN ALGEBRA

9. V26. 12. V46. 15. V53. 18. V23.

10. V37. 13. 5. 16. Vi9. 19. 2V7.

ll. V8. 14. V27. 17. a, 20. 3V 14.

Express each of the following in the form of a surd :

HCAs oe
21, ———_ 28. 44+ —st
4+374+3+-. T2424
Soe lee PYae ie ee ee ale
2+5+2+54- P64 1-64
1 Mba Sli Ri
25. a+
a+2a+a+2a+-:--

26. The sidereal year is approximately 365.25636 days; express the

excess above 365 days as a continued fraction, and find its first four
convergents.

27. A kilometer is approximately .62138 mile; express this decimal

as a continued fraction, find its fifth convergent, and determine limits to
the error made in taking this convergent for the fraction itself.
28. A meter is approximately 1.09363 yards ; express this decimal asa
continued fraction, find its sixth convergent, and determine limits to the
error made in taking this convergent for the fraction itself.
29. Express the greatest root of the equation
202—10%=—5
as a continued fraction, and find the first five convergents.

Convert each of the following into a continued fraction, and find in

each case the first four convergents :

30. V74. 31. =e 32. Vai +a. 88. V5T7.

s Or
 SUMMATION OF SERIES 459

XXXIV. SUMMATION OF SERIES

658. The Summation of an infinite literal series is the pro-

cess of finding an expression from which the series may be
developed.
In § 580, we gave a method for finding the sum of an infinite geometric
series.
RECURRING SERIES

659. Consider the infinite series

1244-3
27-4 a? 4 5 ot ee,
Here, (8 x) — 2 #(2 x) + #7(1)=0,
(4 a) —2 x(3 x’) + «(2 x) = 0, ete.
That is, any three consecutive terms, as for example 2 2, 3 27,
and 44%, are so related that the third, minus 2a times the
second, plus 2” times the first, equals 0.

660. A Recurring Series is an infinite series of the form

Ay+ Aye + bya”++ «+,
' where any r+1 consecutive terms, as for example
CMa mat Ogee incre lie,
are so related that
Ay" + PL Ay 1 L"—1) + QU Ay 9" *)4 2+ + SHA, _2"~") = 05
PP, Y, +++, 8 being constants.
The above recurring series is said to be of the rth order, and
the expression 14 pet gat. + se?

is called its scale of relation.

The recurring series of § 659 is of the second order, and its scale of
relation is 1 —2% + 22.

An infinite geometric series is a recurring series of the first order.

460 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Thus, in the infinite geometric series

1+a4+e%4
22+ ++,
any two consecutive terms, as for example x? and 2%, are so related
that (a3) — x(a?) =0; and the scale of relation is 1 —z.

661. To find the scale of relation of a recurring series.

If the series is of the first order, the scale of relation may be
found by dividing any term by the preceding term, and sub-
tracting the result from 1.
If the series is of the second order, mM, @, Gs, Mg, +++, its con-
secutive coefficients, and 1+ px-+ qa’ its scale of relation, we
shall have dy + pay + Gay = 0, (1)
as + Paz + Ga, = 0;
from which p and g may be determined.
If the series is of the third order, a, 4, Gs, G3, Ay, As, *+*, Its
consecutive coefficients, and 1+ pa-+ qu?+ ra’ its scale of rela.
tion, we shall have
fea + pda + Gay + 7 = 0,
|Ay + pas + Gy + 7a, = 0,
As + Pay + G3 + 7A = 0;
from which p, g, and + may be determined.
It is evident from the above that the scale of relation of a
recurring series of the rth order may be determined when any
27r consecutive terms are given.
To ascertain the order of a series, we may first make trial of
a scale of relation of three terms; if the result does not agree
with the series, try a scale of four terms, five terms, and so on
until the correct scale of relation is found.
If the series is assumed to be of too high an order, the equa.
tions corresponding to the assumed scale will not be indepen:
dent. (Compare § 269.)
662. To find the sum of a recurring series when its scale of
relation is known. °
Let 1 + px + qa’? be the scale of relation of the series
Ay + aya age? +»...
 SUMMATION OF SERIES 461

Denoting the sum of the first n terms by S,, we have

Sy = My + ®t + aye? + ++ +a, 0",
Then, paS, = page + paya? + ++» + pa,_.v"-! + pa, 32",
and QX"Sy = QAgt? + +++ + Yq
_gt"? + GAy_2t” + Gav",
Adding these equations, and remembering that, by virtue of
the scale of relation,
Ay + pd, + Gay = 0, +++) Ay + pay» + Ga,-3= 0,
the coefficients of x, a, ---, a"! become 0, and we have
S,(1 + px + qa’)
= Ay + (Gy + po) & + (yy + YAn_2) &” + Gay, yo",
Whence,
8, = OT (G A Ply) BF (Poly 1F 9An_2) OT 9Oy 0 (1)
1+ pe+ qv
which is a formula for the sum of the first n terms of a recurring
series of the second order.
If x is so taken that the given series is convergent, the
expression (pty1+ m2) 0" + Qin "#2

approaches the limit 0 when v is indefinitely increased (§ 542),

and (1) becomes gut (a, + pay . (2)
1+ pa + qe
which is a formula for the value (§ 540) of a recurring series
of the second order.
If g=0, the. series is of the first order, and therefore
a 1++ pa PA =0; ; whence ’ Sa : (3)
1+ px
which is a formula for the value of a recurring series of the
first order. (Compare § 530.)
In like manner, we shall find the formula
GF a Cot (+ ply) & + (hy + Py + Yo) (4)
1+ px t+ ga? + re?
for the value of a recurring series of the third order.
462 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

It will be observed, in formule (1), (8), and (4), that the denominator
is the scale of relation.
A recurring series is formed by the expansion, in an infinite series, of a
fraction, called the generating fraction. The operation of summation
reproduces the fraction ;the process being just the reverse of that of § 564.
Ex. Find the sum of the series
2+e¢+504+7e+17
a+...
To determine the scale of relation, we first assume the series
to be of the second order (§ 661).
Substituting a) = 2, a, =1, a,=5, a;=T, in (1), § 661,
(5+ p+2q=0,
Wess: =.
Solving these equations, p =—1, g=— 2.
To ascertain if 1 —a#— 22° is the correct scale of relation,
consider the fifth term.
Since 17 a* + (— 2) (7 a) + (— 22’) (5 2”) is 0, it follows that
1 — «— 22’ is the correct scale.
Substituting the values of a, a, p, and q in (2),
i772 2—2
we jh a Pe
The result may be verified by expansion.

The series expresses the value of the fraction only for such values of a
as make the series convergent.
To find for what values of x the given series is convergent, we proceed
as in § 572; we find by the method of § 567,
2—%
l—x—20¢7
:= 1
1—297
+4Ite
=(14 20 +4 2777 4..-)4+ —a% 402 —-.),
The nth term of the given series is [2"—! + (— 1)”-1] a1,
The ratio of the (n + 1)th term to the nth term is

ee ae (— Uo] an or [
Sais9n—-1mak / .
[2r-1 +(- i) a gn-V 1 oe (= 1)7-1

Qn-1
: SUMMATION OF SERIES 463

This approaches the limit 2 «, when n is indefinitely increased.

Then, the series is convergent if « is numerically <5 (§ 555, L.).

EXERCISE 109

In each of the following find the generating fraction, and the expres-
sion for the nth term, and determine for what values of « the series is
convergent:
4+ou+702—5284 19444...
1—138¢% — 23 x? — 85 23 — 239 xt 4+...
- 14+5x%+4 2147 + 85 43 4+ 341 vt+ -...
5 — 13% +4 35 a — 97 w + 275 xt + «,
38+10% + 36 22 + 186 28 + 528 24+ ...,
1—2e¢+
22+ 2273 —191at+....
3+ 4+ 33 22 + 109 «8 + 657 44+ --..
oieah
Cote)
Cay
Ge) 1+ 81% — 19 a? + 391 23 — 619 at4...,

In each of the following find the generating fraction, and continue the
series to two more terms :
9. 14+2xe%—38272+623
—T2t*+ 100%5—114%+..
10. 1—2e%—22—7
#8 — 18 at — 594° — 181 26+...
11. 2—114%+4 1542 + 20 23 — 133 wt + 231 4 4+ 180 x 4+ +.

THE DIFFERENTIAL METHOD

663. If the first term of a series be subtracted from the

second, the second from the third, and so on, a series is formed
which is called the first order of differences of the given series.
The first order of differences of this new series is called the
second order of differences of the given series; and so on.
Thus, in the series
Ve oe 2 4s le LO, <5,
the successive orders of differences are as follows:
1st order, (iy pit Go eee ee A
2d order, 12) 1859.24, 30,
od order, Orbe Gone Om eisess
4th order, Ooi Oss,
A464 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

The Differential Method is a method for finding any term, or

the sum of any number of terms of a series, by means of its
successive orders of differences.
664. To find any term of the series
Gy, Ma, gy gy 222) Any An ty
The successiye |orders of differences are as follows:
Ist order, @,—o, lg — Cay Oy— ay **%y Unga
— Gy *
2d order, @,—2'G,-+0,, d,— 2,4 ds, =".
3d order, ,—30,+3 Q@y— Oh, +++; ete.
Denoting the first terms of the 1st, 2d, 3d, ---, orders of dif-
ferences by dy, ds», ds, ---, respectively, we have
d= d,— 4; whence, a,= a, + dj.
dy = 3 — 2 dy) + ,; whence,
dg = — 0, + 2a,.+ d,=—,4+24,4+20,+0,=44+24,4
d,.
ds = G4 — 3 dg +3 G,— a3 whence,
G&=a,—8a,+80,+d;=a,+93d,+35d,+ds; ete.
It will be observed, in the values of a, a3, and a, that the
coefficients of the terms are the same as the coefficients of the
terms in the expansion by the Binomial Theorem of a + x ta
the first, second, and third powers, respectively.
We will now prove by Mathematical Induction that this law
holds for any term of the given series.
Assume the law to hold for the nth term, a,; then the coef.
ficients of the terms will be the same as the coefficients of the
terms in the expansion by the Binomial Theorem of a+4a tc
the (n—1)th. power; that is,

A,= + (n—1)d,+ Ss eedy

essere
cee fe

If the law holds for the nth term of any series, it must alsc
hold for the nth term of the first order of differences.
 SUMMATION OF SERIES 465

Or, Gay, —O, = 4 + 1) q+ Oa a+ mont)

Adding (1) and (2), we have
ea, (1) +1)4+" 55[(n —2) +2]d,
lamers seae Coes AS dys oe

sr acces= mc St iGe 2
aren (3)

This result is in accordance with the above law.

Hence, if the law holds for the nth term of the given series,
it holds for the (n+1)th term; but we know that it holds for
the fourth term, and hence it holds for the fifth term; and
SO on.
Therefore, (1) holds for any term of the given series.
If the differences finally become zero, the value of a, can be obtained
exactly.

665. To find the sum of the first n terms of the series

Cy, Uo, Ag, U4, As, ***- (1)

Let S denote the sum of the first n terms.

Then S is the (n+ 1)th term of the series
0, dy G+ dy G+ A,+ Mg, ++. (2)
The first order of differences of (2) is series (1); whence,
the rth order of differences of (2) is the same as the (r—1)th
order of differences of (1).
Then, if d,, d., ---, represent the first terms of the Ist, 2d, ---,
orders of differences of (1), a, dy, ds, ---, will be the first terms
of the 1st, 2d, 3d, ---, orders of differences of (2).
Putting a,=0, dj=a, d,=d,, etc., in (8), § 664,

el re ee
ee ee)
ie 3
666. Hx. Find the twelfth term, and the sum of the first -
twelve terms, of the series 1, 8, 27, 64, 125, ---.
466 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Here, n=12,0,=1.
Also, d,=7, d,=12, ds=6, and d,=0 (§ 663).
Substituting in (1), § 664, the twelfth term
sla oe LP-1)-9
(Ee -6= 1728,
1- ~ 1-2-3
Substituting in (3), § 665, the sum of the first twelve terms
12- = “i11-10
i roe elles a.
|) Yo ogc
ee ileal oily oe,
=124 - 6 = 6084.
re af ck ee om = Li ee

667. Piles of Shot.

Ex. Tf shot be piled in the shape of a pyramid with a tri-
angular base, each side of which exhibits 9 shot, find. the num-
ber in the pile.
The number of shot in the first five courses are 1, 3, 6, 10,
and 15, respectively ; we have then to find the sum of the first
nine terms of the series 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, --
The successive orders of differences are as follows:
1st order, Popes, ee Wee as
2d order, A
yspsel be Gis
3d order, Oa),
Putting n=9, a,=1, d= 2, d,=1 in (8), § 665,

Sao oS.942
2
So
1-2-3

EXERCISE {10

i. Find the first term of the sixth order of differences of the series
8, 5, 11, 27, 67, 159, 375, --..
2. Find the 15th term, and the sum of the first 15 terms, of the series
1, 9, 21, 87, 57, «-
3. Find the 14th term, and the sum of the first 14 terms, of the series
5, 14, 15, 8, —7, -
4. Vind the sum of the first » multiples of 3. E
5. Find the nth term, and the sum of the first m terms, of the series
2, —1, 1, 8, 20, «.
 SUMMATION OF SERIES 467

6. If shot be piled in the shape of a pyramid with a square base, each

side of which exhibits 25 shot, find the number in the pile.
7. Find the 13th term, and the sum of the first 15 terms, of the series 1,
B, 9, 25, 57, 111, --.
8. Find the 10th term, and the sum of the first 10 terms, of the series 4,
— 2,10, 4, — 56, — 206, .--.
9. Find the sum of the squares of the first n multiples of 2.
10. Find the nth term, and the sum of the first m terms, of the series 1,
— 8, —138, — 17, — 3, 41, --. ;
11. Find the number of shot in a pile of 9 courses, with a rectangular
base, if the number of shot in the longest side of the base is 24.
12. Find the number of shot in a truncated pile of 10 courses, with a
square base, if the number of shot in each side of the lower base is 16.
18. Find the number of shot in a truncated pile of 8 courses, with a
rectangular base, if the number of shot in the length and breadth of the
base are 20 and 14, respectively.
14. Find the 12th term, and the sum of the first 12 terms, of the series
1, 18, 49, 139, 333, 701, 1333, -.-.
15. Find the 9th term, and the sum of the first 9 terms, of the series
20, 4, — 86, — 132, — 356, — 820, — 1676, ---.
16. Find the sum of the fourth powers of the first m natural numbers.
17. Find the number of shot in a pile with a rectangular base, if the
number of shot in the length and breadth of the base are m and n,
respectively.
18. Find the number of shot in a truncated pile of n courses, with a
triangular base, if the number of shot in each side of the lower base is m.

INTERPOLATION

668. Interpolation is the process of introducing between the

terms of a series other terms conforming to the law of the
series.
Its usual application is in finding intermediate numbers
between those given in Mathematical Tables.
The operation is effected by giving fractional values to n in (1),
§ 664.
The method of Interpolation rests on the assumption that a
formula which has been proved for an integral value of n, holds
also when n is fractional.
468 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Ex. Given V5=2.2361, V6= 2.4495, V7 = 2.6458,

V8 = 2.8284, ---; find V6.3.
In this case the successive orders of differences are:
2134, «.1963,) 1626;
— .0171, — .0137,
.0034,
Whence, d, = .2134, d,=— .0171, d; = .0034, ---
Now, the required term is distant 1.3 intervals from V5.
Substituting n= 2.3 in (1), § 664, we have, approximately,

V6.3= 2.2361 +13 x 213d + 22%=(- 0171)

LOD Oneal
ee Se 0084
alee ee
= 2.2361 + .2774 — .0033 — .0002 = 2.5100.

EXERCISE Ill

1. Given log 26=1.4150, log 27=1.4314, log 28=1.4472, log 29=1.4624,

+; find log 26.7.
2. Given V91 = 4.49704, V92 = 4.51436, V93=4.53066, 1/94 =4.54684,
.3 find V/92.5.
8. The reciprocal of 35 is .02857 ; of 36, .02778 ; of 37, .02703; of 38,
.02632; etc. Find the reciprocal of 36.28.
4. Given log 124 = 2.09342, log 125 = 2.09691, log 126 = 2.10087,
log 127 = 2.10380, --- ; find log 125.36.
5. Given 21% = 9261, 228 = 10648, 28?= 12167, 2483 —18824, and
253 = 15626 ; find the cube of 214.
6. Given log 61 = 1.78533, log 62 = 1.79239, log 63 = 1.79984,
log 64 = 1.80618, --- ; find log 63.527.

SUMMATION OF SERIES BY SEPARATION INTO PARTIAL

FRACTIONS

318. 1. Find the sum of the first » terms of the infinite

series l 1 a
ee eee d ap) Ob,

and determine whether the series is convergent or divergent.

 SUMMATION OF SERIES 469

The nth term of the above series is ee ey

(vn +1) (n+ 2)
Separating into partial fractions by the method of § 567, we
have 1 1 1
GED
e) nia es
Then the sum of the first n terms of the given series is
fete fe ins ot 1 1
é eters ppg teee| aaa
or ee tll
2 n+2 2(n+2) ,

Since Fies 33 approaches the limit >when v is indefinitely

increased, the series is convergent (§ 543).
2. Find the sum of the first n terms of the infinite series
‘i 1 1 + see,
Tia) Somes
oe

and determine whether the series is convergent or divergent.

The nth term of the series is eee—, which, by the method
n(n + 2)
of § 567, equals Ad ss .
2n 2(n+2)
Then the sum of the first n terms is
| _S aee a | 1 i
ae (a Bites) le ea
All the terms cancel except the first two positive, and the
last two negative.
Thus the sum of the first » terms is
| a ee ae ib aoe.shy ©
2°4 An+1) An+2)’~ 4 2n+1) 2n+2)
The latter expression approaches the limit : when 7 is
indefinitely increased.
Hence, the series is convergent.
470 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

EXERCISE 112

In each of the following, find the sum of the first m terms, and deter-
mine whether the series is convergent or divergent :

1. ootygt ete nS ee
Bt Bo (44 7” Te
2. 1 1 1 ait A 1 1
eee 1
re a Ene ore ia
3 5 7
e ja.
12. ga ' 92.38at aa. qa
a

In each of the following, find the sum of the first m terms, and the limit
which it approaches when n is indefinitely increased :
1 1 1
Home CEC)
i ma
x x x
Gaya as),@s2ndess)
0 sa aa
1 1
‘f x(x+ 1)(%
+ 2) Seas BYCEEN Oca
 THEORY OF NUMBERS 471

XXXV. THEORY OF NUMBERS

670. In the present chapter, the word number will signify a

positive integer ; and every letter will be understood as repre-
senting a positive integer.
One number is said to divide another when it is contained in
it without a remainder; in this case, the second number is said
to be a multiple of the first.
A prime number is a number which cannot be divided, with-
out a remainder, by any number except itself and unity.
One number is said to be prime to another when there is no
number, except unity, which will divide each of them without
a remainder.
671. If a number divides the product of two others, and is
prime to one of them, it must divide the other.
Let the number v divide the product ab, and be prime to a.
Since n divides ab, the prime factors of ab must be the same
as those of n, with certain additional prime factors.
But since n is prime to a,n and a have no common factor
except unity.
Then, the prime factors of 6 must be either the same as those
of n, or with certain additional prime factors ;and n divides 0b.
672. Ifa prime number divides the product of any number of
factors, it must divide some factor of the product.
Let p be a prime number which divides the product abc :--.
Then, the prime factors of abc --- must be p, with certain
additional prime factors.
Then, some one of the numbers a, b, ¢, «++, must have p as a
prime factor, and therefore p divides some factor of the product.
673. It follows from § 672 that
If a prime number divides a positive integral power of a num-
ber a, it must divide a.
472 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

674. If the numerator and denominator of a fraction a

prime to each other, the fraction is in its lowest terms.
Let a be ene to ad
If possible, let ©=F
=,',where Dias.
'
Multiplying a members by 0’, a'= a
Whence, since a’ is an integer, b divides ab!.
But a is prime to b, and hence 6 divides b' (§ 671).
But this is impossible if b' is < b.
Hence, b' cannot be < 0, and >is in its lowest terms.

675. It was proved, in § 674, that b divides 0'.

Whence, b'= mb, where m is an integer.
!
Then, C= - = a =am

Hence, if a is prime to b, and >

& =%, a' and b! are equimul
ples of a and b.

676. A number can be resolved into prime factors in only o:

way.
Let n be a composite number; and suppose n = abc ---, whe
a, b, c, +++, are prime numbers.
Suppose also, if possible, that n = a/b'c' ---, where a', 0’, cl, «
is a different set of prime numbers.
We have, abe s+» =a'ble! es, (
Then, a divides a'b'c'---, and therefore divides some one
the numbers a, b!, c!, «+» (§ 672).
Then, since a, b, ¢, +++, and a’, b', c', --», are prime numbers,
must equal some one of the numbers a’, b!, c', «+
2 eae
Suppose, then, a=a'; dividing the members of (1) by a ai
s
a', ? respectivel
p y) a
be... =bd'elal 85

and, as before, b equals one of the numbers B!, ¢!, «+.

Proceeding in this way, we can prove each of the numbe
a, b, ¢, +++, equal to one of the numbers a’, b', ¢', «+
 THEORY OF NUMBERS 473

677. To find the highest power of 2 which is contained in |14.

Of the factors 1, 2, 3, ---, 14, the numbers 2, 2 x 2, 3 x 2, +,
7 x 2 contain 2 as a factor at least once.
The numbers 2, 2 x 2?, 3 x 2? contain 2? as a factor at least
once.
The number 2° contains 2° as a factor once.
Then, the highest power of 2 in |14 is evidently
7+3-+1, or 11.

We will now consider the general case.

To find the highest power of a, where a is any prime number,
which is contained in |n.
Of the factors 1, 2, 5, ---, n, the numbers a, 2a, 3a, -+-, con-
tain a as a factor at least once.
Let the last term of this series be pa.
Then, pa either equals n, or is <n; whence,

p=", or pau:
a a
: ; en
Therefore, p is the greatest integer in —-
a
Again, the numbers a’, 2.a?, 3a’, ---, contain a? as a factor at
least once; let the last term of this series be qa’.
Nn n
Then, as before, =-—, or g<—
a ah:
Whence, g is the greatest integer in 5.
Continuing in this way, the highest power of a in [n is
Pang Aan ae ses;
where p is the greatest integer in g in = rin aeete.

We will now solve the example of § 677 by this method.

In this case, a=2, n= 14; then, “=7, 2= ils gayle
a We 2) 08 A
The greatest integer in 7 is 7; in Z is 8; in i Wey le

Then, the highest power of 2 in |14 is 7+38-+1, or1l.

474 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

678. The product of any n consecutive integers is divisible by |\n.

Let the integers be m+1, m+ 2, ---, m+n.
Multiplying both numerator and denominator by the prod-
uct of the natural numbers from 1 to m, inclusive, the fraction

(m + 1) (m + 2) ++ (m+) _ ce BEL
[2 [m|n
If a is any prime number, the exponent of a in |m +n is
p+qt+r+-, where p is the greatest integer in oe ?

gin ae rin” ZL ete. (§ 677).

a a
The exponent of a in |m is p,+%+7+-::, where p, is the
greatest integer in a gq, in a Fegan ay etc.
a a a
The exponent of a in |n is p. + G+ 72+ +++, where p, is the
. . nm . n . n
greatest integer in i opppent e T. 10 oe etc.

Then, the exponent of a in |m|n is (pi + po) + (Gi + G) +o

m+n
Now, the greatest integer in -is either the sum of the
greatest integers in = and , or else it exceeds this sum
by unity.
That is, p equals p,+ po, or p, + po +1.
Similarly, g equals q, + qd, or gq +@2.+1; ete.
Then, p+q+7r-+- is not < (p+) + (Pot 4) + 3
that is, the exponent of a in |m-+n is not < its exponent in

Then, ain must be an integer.

[min
Whence, (m+ 1) (m+ 2) -+»(m-+n) is divisible by |n.

679. If nis a prime number, the coefficient of any term, excep

the first and last, in the expansion by the Binomial Theorem oj
(a+ x)”, ts divisible by n.
 THEORY OF NUMBERS 475

By § 287, the coefficient of the (7 + 1)th term of (a + 2)" is

(id): Ge — FL) (1)
Ir
By § 678, n(n — 1) ---(n —r +1) is divisible by |r.
If r has any value from 1 to n — 1, none of the factors of |r
ean divide n; for, by hypothesis, n is a prime number.
Then, |7 must divide (n — 1)---(n —7r +1).
Therefore, expression (1) is an integer, and divisible by n.

680. Fermat’s Theorem.

If nis a prime number, and m is prime to n, m™—1 is a
multiple of n. ;
Let a, b, ¢, +++, k be any m numbers.
Expanding by the Binomial Theorem, we have
(a+b+c4--+h)"=[a+(6+e4+--+h)]"

=a"+na"*(b+e+ +++k) + BED grt (p +c+-+--+k)

fee t(b+e+-++k)” = (1)

By § 679, each coefficient n, ae +++, 18 divisible by n.

Then, every term in the expansion (1), which is not a power

of a, b, ¢, «++, k, ig a multiple of n; and (1) can be written
(atd+tet --- +k = (+o
+ e'+ + +h") +pn,
where p is an integer.
Putting a=b=c= --. =k=1, we have
m"™=m-+pn, or m™— m= pn, or m (m"~!—1) =pn.
Since m is prime to n, it cannot be a multiple of n.
Then, m"~!—1 must be a multiple of n.

681. The result m"*—m=pn, of § 680, holds if m is not

prime to n.
That is, m”—m is a multiple of n when n is prime, whether
m is prime to n or not.
476 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

EXAMPLES

682. 1. If two consecutive numbers are not multiples of 3,

their sum is a multiple of 3.
The numbers must be in the forms 3m-+1 and 3m+2.
Then their sum is 6 m+3, which is a multiple of 3.
It follows from the above that any number of the form
n(n +1) [n+ (n+1)], orn(rn+1)2@n+1),
is divisible by 6.
For either 2 or n +1 must be even; and if neither n norn+1lisa
multiple of 3, their sum is a multiple of 3.

2. Every perfect square is in the form 5», or5n+1.

For any number is in the form 5m, or 5m +a, where a may
be 1 or 2.
(5 m)* is in the form 5 n.
Again, (5m + a)’ equals a multiple of 5, plus a’.
But a? is either 1 or 4; and 4=5 —1.
Hence, (5m + a)? differs by 1 from a multiple of 5, and is
therefore in the form 5n+1 or 5n—1.

3. If n is even, and not a multiple of 3, n?+ 2 is divisible

by 6.
For n must be in the form 3 m +1, where m is odd.
Then, n?+2=9 m?+6m-+1-+ 2, which is divisible by 3.
Again, n?+ 2 is even; hence, it is divisible by 6.
4. Every even power of an odd number is in the form
8n+1.
Now, any odd number is in one of the forms
8m+1, or 8m+3.
If this be raised to any even power, the result will be a
multiple of 8 plus 1, or a multiple of 8 plus an even power
of 3.
Now any even power of 3 is in the form of a multiple of
8, plus 1. :
Hence, any even power of an odd number is in the form
Sia
 THEORY OF NUMBERS ATT

5. Frove that n” —n is divisible by 42.

By § 681, since 7 is prime, x’ — n is divisible by 7.
Again, n’—n=n (n'—1)=n (n?—1) (nt+n?+1)
= (n—1)n(n+1) (nt+n?+1).
By § 678, (n —1) n(n + 1) is divisible by |3, or 6.
Hence, n’ — n is divisible by 7 and 6, or by 42.

6. Prove that the fourth power of any number is in the

form 5n or 5n + 1.
If m is prime to 5, m* — 1 is a multiple of 5 (§ 680).
That is, m*is a multiple of 5, increased by 1; and is there-
fore in the form 5n +1.
If m is not prime to 5, it contains 5 as a factor; and m*is
in the form 5n.

EXERCISE II3

1. If n is odd, and greater than 1, (n —1)n(n+1) is divisible

2. Prove that n> — n is divisible by 30, if n is greater than 1.

3. Prove that n(n +1) (nm + 5) is a multiple of 6.
4. Find the highest power of 2 in [50.
5. Find the highest power of 3 in |80.
6. Prove that every perfect square is in the form 3n, or 3n + 1.
7. Prove that every perfect sixth power is in the form 7 n, or 7n + 1.
8. Prove that, if m is odd, and not a multiple of 38, n? + 5 is divisible
by 6.
9. Prove that, if n is odd, (n?+ 3) (n? +7) is divisible by 382.
10. Prove that any odd power of 7 is in the form 8 n — 1.
11. Prove that n5 — 5 3 + 4 n is divisible by 120, if m is greater than 2.
12. Prove that, if n is odd, and greater than 1, n> —n is divisible
by 240.
13. Prove that every perfect cube is in the form 7n, or 7n + 1.
14. Prove that every perfect cube is in the form 9n, or 9n + 1.
478 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

XXXVI. DETERMINANTS

683. The solution of the equations

|Hx + dy = c,
Age +- boy = Coy

BoC wae Oily y = Coy — C1 Ag

is =

D2 — yb, ADs — Ayhy

The common denominator may be written in the form
h, dy x (1)
Og, by

This is understood as signifying the product of the upper

left-hand and lower right-hand numbers, minus the product of
the lower left-hand and upper right-hand.
The expression (1) is called a Determinant of the Second
Order.
The numerators of the above fractions can also be expressed as deter-
minants ; thus,
C1, bi M1, Cy
becy — bye, = > and Cea, — c1a2 =
“) be2 Q25 C2

684. The solution of the equations

fex + dy + 42 = dy,
ait + Dey + Co% = de,
( age + bsy + cgz = ds,

== Aydoe, — Aybscy ar AyD Cy — dyb,C3 + dsb Ce — Asbo, ,

is a
AyDoCs = D5
>
Co -f- COROT
7
ad yD C3 + (s01Co e. AgDoCy
’ (1)
with results of similar form for y and z.
The denominator of (1) may be written in the form
, Ob, ®
My, Dy Co] « (2)
 DETERMINANTS 479

This is understood as signifying the sum of the products of

the numbers connected by lines parallel to a line joining the
upper left-hand corner to the lower right-hand, in the follow-
ing diagram, minus the sum of the products of the numbers
connected by lines parallel to a line joining the lower left-hand
corner to the upper right-hand.

The expression (2) is called a Determinant of the Third Order.

The numerator of the value of « can also be expressed as a determinant,
as follows: dh, 01, C1
da, ba, C2 |;

ds, bs, 3
as may be verified by expanding it by the above rule.

685. The numbers in the first, second, etc., horizontal lines,

of a determinant, are said to be in the first, second, etc., rows,
respectively ; and the numbers in the first, second, etc., vertical
columns, in the jist, second, etc., cohwmns.
The numbers constituting the determinant are called its
elements, and the products in the expanded form its terms.
Thus, in the determinant (2), of § 684, the elements are
My) Ag) gy etc., and the terms a,b.Cs, — ayd,C2, ete.

EXERCISE 114
Evaluate the following determinants :
. i, ty, 2B
ih, aden 2. ee rere Se sony eee
COTE eat 9, 8, 6
480 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA
6 Are AiR et 1 x @
4 | Onn 5. | — 2, 4, 5 (Wee she ie 1b
5, 8, 2 See apes
i ly © e+ Y; 2, 2
He Os Gh Chile 8. x, Y+ 2, x
c, d, a Y; Y; 2+2

Verify the following by expanding the determinants :

m, b1, 41 C3, 03, a3 mai, bi, ci} |a@1, mdi, C1
9. 2,5 bo, C2 |=} Ca; ba, ag). 10. M25 bo, C2 |=|} 2, mbe, C2 |.
35 bs, C3 C1, bi, a1 | NVA35 bs, C3 a3, mbs, C3

diy Py be, C2 M2, 2 @,, de

11. a2, be, C2|}/=ay i a — ds, fa digs bs .

dg, 03, C3

686. If, in any permutation of the numbers 1, 2, 3, ---, n, a

greater number precedes a less, there is said to be an inversion
Thus, in the case of five numbers, the permutation 4, 3, 1, 5, 2 has six
inversions ; 4 before 1, 3 before 1, 4 before 2, 3 before 2, 5 before 2, and
4 before 3.
Consider, now, the n? elements
y,1, A127 G3, *%) An
9,15 As, 2 Mg,3, ct%) Con 2 (Lv
s /

Un17 An, 29 An,3, **%)) Ann

The notation in regard to suffixes, in (1), is that the first

suffix denotes the row, and the second the column, in whick
the element is situated.
Thus, a,,, is the element in the Ath row and rth column.
Let all possible products of the elements taken n at a time be
formed, subject to the restriction that each product shall con:
tain one and only one element from each row, and one and only
one from each column, and write them so that the jirst suffixe.
shall be in the order 1, 2, 3, ---,
This is equivalent to writing all the permutations of the numbers 1, 2
+++, n in the second suffixes.
s

Make each product + or — according as the number of inver

sions in the second suffixes is even or odd.
 DETERMINANTS 481

The expression (1) is called a Determinant of the nth Order.

The number of terms in the expanded form of a determinant of the nth
order is |n (§ 625).
The elements lying in the diagonal joining the upper left-
hand to the lower right-hand corner, are said to be in the
principal diagonal; the term whose factors are the elements in
the principal diagonal is always positive.
The determinant (1) of § 686 is sometimes expressed by writing only
the elements in the principal diagonal ; thus,
|a, 1) a2, 29 **%> Onn |.

When in the form (1) of § 686, the determinant is said to be in the

Square Form.

687. It may be shown that the definition of § 686 agrees

with that of § 684.
For consider the determinant
My hy,» Ks
Qp,1, 2,0, M2,3 |°
M31, As,2, 3,3
The products of the elements taken 3 at a time, subject to
the restriction that each product shall contain one and only
one element from each row, and one and only one from each
_ column, the first suffixes being written in the order 1, 2, 3, are
My,1 Ue, 2 U3, 3) Ay, 1 Ae, 3 M3, 2) Ay, 2 A2,1As3,3, MN, 2M2,3M%3,1, 1,3 2,1 Ms, 2
Vand Op Oey Cs1
In the first of these there are no inversions in the second
suffixes; in the second there is one, 3 before 2; in the third
there is one; in the fourth, two; in the fifth, two; in the
sixth, three.
Then by the rule of § 686, the first, fourth, and fifth products
are positive, and the second, third, and sixth are negative; and
the expanded form is
Ah,1Ue,9U3, 3— MU,1Ay, 3M3,9 — Ay,2Ay,
1As, 3+ Ay,
2Me, 3As,
+ Ay,3As, 1 A3.9 — Ay, 3Me,2 Az 1,
which agrees with § 684.
482 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

688. If, in any permutation of the letters 1, 2, 3, +++, n, two

numbers be interchanged, the number of inversions is increased
or diminished by an odd number.
If two consecutive numbers be interchanged, the number of
inversions is increased or diminished by 1.
Thus, if ---akmb-+--is a permutation of 1, 2, 3, ---, n, the
number of inversions in -+- akmb --- differs by 1 from the number
in ---amkb---; for the number of inversions so far as the
numbers preceding k, and following m, is concerned is not
affected by the interchange.
Now let --- akbe «+» efmg «+» be a permutation of the numbers
1, 2, 3, ---, n, having p numbers between k and m.
By interchanging m with f, then m with e, and so on in sue-
cession with each of the p+1 numbers to the left of m, m may
be brought to the left of k.
Then, by interchanging k with b, then k with c, and so on in
succession with each of the » numbers to the right of k, k may
be brought to the right of 7.
Thus, & and m may be interchanged by p+1+>), or 2p+1
interchanges of consecutive numbers; that is, by an odd number
of interchanges of consecutive numbers.
It follows from this that, if k and m be interchanged, the
number of inversions is increased or diminished by an odd
number.
689. Any permutation of the numbers 1, 2, 3, ---, m can be
obtained from any other by repeated interchanges of two
numbers.
If we commence in this way with the permutation 1, 2, 3.
++, n itself, after one such interchange there will be an odd
number of inversions in the resulting permutation (§ 688).
If in the latter we interchange two numbers, we shall have
a permutation with an even number of inversions.
Proceeding in this way, since the whole number of permuta:
tions is an even number, we shall find that the number of per
mutations with an odd number of inversions equals the numbei
with an even number of inversions.
 DETERMINANTS | 483
It follows from the above that, in the expanded form of the
determinant (1), of § 686, the number of positive terms equals
the number of negative terms.

690. The expanded form of the determinant (1), § 686, may

also be obtained by writing the second suffixes in the order
1, 2, 3, ---, n, and making each product + or— according as the
number of inversions in the jirst suffixes is even or odd.
For let the absolute value of any term, obtained by the rule
of § 686, be gia eae (1)

where p, q, ---;7, 18 a permutation of 1, 2, +++, n.

This is obtained from the first term
My,1 M,9°** Ann (2)
by changing second suffixes, 1 to p, 2 to q,---,n to r.
- Since p, g,-+,7 is a permutation of 1, 2,---,n, (2) may be
written ;
Ap,pUg, *** br,r}
and (1) may be obtained from this by changing /jirst suffixes,
p tol, gto 2,---, r to n.
In these two methods, there is the same number of inter-
changes of two suffixes, and the term (1) will therefore have
_ the same sign.

PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS

691. A determinant is not altered in value if its rows are

changed to columns, and its columns to rows.
The truth of the theorem for a determinant of the third order may
easily be seen by expanding the determinants

Chi, (i, @1, G2, as

de, be, Ce | and | bi, ba, bg |3
a3, bs, Cs C1, Ca, C8
in each of which, by § 684, the expanded form is
a1b2¢3 — ayb3C2 + dob3c1 — a2b1¢3 + a3b1C2 — Asbo.
Proof of the theorem.
484 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Consider the determinants

Qy1, Aya very An Oy, Agy seey Ana
Qe,17 Cle,0) eeey © an amd Ay, 2, Ago, +243 Gn, 2

An, 1) An, 29 OE | An, n Q), nd As, n) Pc) An, n |

Since the second suffixes of the first determinant are the

same as the first suffixes of the second, if the first determinant
be expanded by the rule of § 686, and the second by the rule
of § 690, the results will be the same.
Therefore the determinants are equal.
692. A determinant is changed in sign if any two consecutive
rows, or any two consecutive columns, are interchanged.
The truth of the theorem when the first and second rows of a determi-
nant of the third order are interchanged, may be seen by expanding the
determinants
AA, b1, C1 25 be, €2
Gon Oo) Go) ANG ies Ong GT
a3, 63, C3 a3, 03, C3
By § 684, the expanded forms are, respectively,
A1b2cg3 — A1b3C2 + a2b3C1 — d2b1C3 + A3b1C2 — a3beC1,
and A2b1C3 — deb3Ci + A1b3C2 — a1b2C3 + agbee1 — gb1C25
one of which is the negative of the other.
Proof of the theorem.
Consider the determinants
Qy1, GM, 7 An My,17 Ay,29 *%%7 Ain

Mq,1y Ug, 2 p) qn and Qy17 Apjoy 22%) Ann

eee . ?
C17 Ay, 2 ? ry Ug, yy Ay, 29 a) Ag, n

Anjiy Unj2 °° *s Ann Anis Un,29 ***y Onn

the qth and rth rows of the first being, respectively, the rth
and gth rows of the second.
Let the absolute value of one of the terms of the first deter
minant be ’ '
Qj, 5 pk Ag, Ar, uw =o On, v5 (1y

where s, -+-, t, u, +++, vis a permutation of 1, 2, -+-, n.

 DETERMINANTS 485

Since the element in the gth row and ¢th column of the
second determinant is a,,, and the element in the rth row
and uth column a,,,, the absolute value of the corresponding
term of the second determinant may be obtained from (1) by
replacing #,,, and a}, by a,,, and a, ,, respectively ; that is,
A °° Uy ¢ Agu *?* Un, o

The latter expression is also the absolute value of one of the

terms of the first determinant, since it has one and only one
element from each row, and one and only one from each
column; and writing it so that the first suffixes shall occur in
the order 1, 2, ---, n, we have
Ah, s 9° Wey Ue °° Any (2)

Now whatever the number of inversions in the second suf-

fixes of (1), s, ---, ¢, u, «++, v, the number of inversions in the
second suffixes of (2), s, ---, u, t, +++, v, differs from it by unity;
for in the first case ¢ precedes u, and in the second w pre-
cedes ¢.
Hence, the terms (1) and (2) of the first determinant are of
opposite sign (§ 686).
That is, any two terms of the given determinants of equal
absolute value are of opposite sign; and hence the determi-
nants themselves are of equal absolute value and opposite sign.
It follows, from §§ 691 and 692, that if two consecutive
columns are interchanged, the sign of the determinant is
changed.

693. A determinant is changed in sign if any two rows, or any

two columns, are interchanged.
It follows from the proof of § 688 that any two rows, or
any two columns, of a determinant may be interchanged by an
odd number of interchanges of consecutive rows or columns.
But every interchange of two consecutive rows or columns
changes the sign of the determinant (§ 692).
Therefore, the sign of the determinant is changed if any two
rows, or any two columns, are interchanged.
486 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

694. Cyclical Interchange of Rows or Columns.

By n—1 successive interchanges of two consecutive rows,
the first row of a determinant of the nth order may be made
the last.
Thus, by § 692, the determinant
Mh, Dy srry MM Cz, Day srry Mg
Cay ai Tos Ms a equal to (—1)"7
An) Dns sets My , bi, eoey by

The above is called a cyclical interchange of rows.

In like manner, by v—1 successive interchanges of twe
consecutive columns, the first column of a determinant of the
nth order may be made the last.

695. If two rows, or two columns, of a determinant are iden:

tical, the value of the determinant is zero.
The truth of the theorem when the first two rows of a determinant 0:
the third order are identical, may be seen by expanding the determinant
m, b1,
M, 01, Ci|-
d2, be, 2
By § 684, the expanded form is
404Cq — Ab2C1 + A1b2C1 — 010169 + Aeb10c, — Qb1¢1, or 0.

Proof of the theoren.

Let D be the value of a determinant having two rows, o1
two columns, identical.
If these rows, or columns, are interchanged, the value of the
resulting determinant is — D (§ 693).
But since the rows, or columns, which are interchanged ar
identical, the two determinants are of equal value.
Hence, D=— D; and therefore D=0.

696. If each element in one column, or in one row, is the sun

. . * =

of m terms, the determinant can be expressed as the sum of

determinants.
 DETERMINANTS 487

The truth of the theorem when each element in the first column of a |
determinant of the third order is the sum of two terms, may be seen by
expanding the determinant ; consider, for example, the determinant
mtd, bi,
da+de2, be, Ca):
dg+ds, 0s, ¢s
By § 684, the expanded form is
(a1 + dy) (b2¢3 — b3¢2) + (a2 + d2) (b3¢1 — b1¢3)
+ (a3 + d3) (b1¢2 — b2e1)
= 1 (b2¢3 — b3c2) + aa(bscy — 5163) + a3(b1C2 — b2¢1)
+ dy(b2¢3 — bgC2) + de(bsc1 — b1¢3) + ds3(b1c2 — b2¢1)
Gi, 01, 61) Wai) Or. Cs
=|d2, be, Col+}de, be, Ca):
dz, bs, ¢3| |ds, 03, €3
Proof of the theorem.
Consider the determinant
M1 ty) Ary O8ey Oe

;
Co ath) Shs
7
As ry ey
2
Cy n
(1)
An, Wy as An, r aah | Ay, n

Let each element in the rth column be the sum of m terms,

as follows: eeeOrc Gusteieigls ie
=bo+ C+: ile

Or iy
= D Cyiio ge
Let ay,, +++ M5, *** G,,, be the absolute value of one of the ele-
ments of (1); then,
Gig 221 Oy *?* Oy g = Ay yt (b, +¢,+ <5 +f,) 8 Ons
=3(d, 5-2-0 a Un, ste ~+(%,p° ac + Wn, ay

It is evident from this that the determinant ae

can be ex-
pressed as the sum of the determinants
Ohi **, Ds SON 108 Gi 65 Sy siseg Og

Me, ***y De, sety Clon Myty 79% Soy sety Can le
i . . . ° . oO re ie ap

GAnay °°" bn, seey Ann Gna °°) Im cet) Onn

488 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

697. If all the elements in one column, or in one row, are

multiplied by the same number, the determinant is multiplied by
this number.
The truth of the theorem, when all the elements in the first column
of a determinant of the third order are multiplied by the same number,
may be seen by expanding the determinant.
Consider, for example, the determinant

Q)
az, 03, Cs
Multiplying each element in the first column by m, we have
mai, 01, C4
Ma2, ba, C2 |. (2)
mds; bs, C3

The expanded form of (2) is

may (bees — b3C2) + ma2(bse1 — byC3) + Mas3(bic2 — bee1),
which is m times the expanded form of (1).
It is evident from this that (2) equals (1) multiplied by m.
Proof of the theorem.
Consider the determinant

ase Nahae ar. ©et (1)

Up, eed PM) An, ry eed a

Multiplying each element in the rth column by m, we have

Myay ty MA py sy Ahn
Gln) **%) Mon) ) Op
(2)
Mn ny tery a
Any CeCe n,n

Let a.) +++Mq,.+** %, 5 be the absolute value of one of the terms

of (1).
Replacing a,, by ma,,, the absolute value of the corre-
sponding term of (2) is may, ,+++ G++ LT be
It is evident from this that the determinant (2) equals m
times the determinant (1).
 DETERMINANTS 489

698. If all the elements in any column, or row, be multiplied

by the same number, and either added to, or subtracted from, the
corresponding elements in another column, or row, the value of
the determinant is not changed.
Let the elements in the rth column of the following
determinant be multiplied by m, and added to the correspond-
ing elements in the gth column.
Dyy 22%) Dgy 22> Any cot) Ay
by, tee, by tesy 6,5 tes b, (1)

ky, tee, Hig,” Ooo, Vins ses k,,

We then obtain the determinant

My °°, a, + Ma,, 0) Ary 92°) On

a
Keg 22% halt,
dacncen rater
see, (Bee oe-pKeg
(Ci
which, by §§ 696 and 697, is equal to
BP Gyo, Oy op Oh AL, er ee ee ize ie).
DOE D3,
Q
By reend Oe oF Gree

ky, a) ky, ke) k,y rend k,, ky, St) k,, cee) k,y cane? ky

But the coefficient of m is zero (§ 695).

Whence, the determinant (2) is equal to (1).

699. Minors.
If the elements in any m rows and any m columns of a
determinant of the nth order be erased, the remaining ele-
ments form a determinant of the (n—m)th order.
This determinant is called an mth Minor of the given deter-

eer. th Oy G, dh &
m, dy, & Aa, Dey Coy Mey Ce
Thus, |d@s, ds, €,;| is a second minor of |ds, b3, Cs, ds, |.
Ms, As, e Gy by Cy Ay e
490 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

It is obtained by erasing the second and fourth rows, and

the second and third columns, of the latter determinant.

700. To find the coefficient of a,,, in the determinant

Gy,19 AU,2 °%s Un
O41 Oa ory Op, rel (1)

Gn 15 Un, 29 ee nn

By § 686, the absolute values of the terms which involve

G,; are obtained by forming all possible products of the ele-
ments taken n at a time, subject to the restrictions that the
first element shall be a,,, and that each product shall contain
one and only one element from each row except the first, and
one and only one from each column except the first.
It is evident from this that the coefficient of a,,, in (1) may
be obtained by forming all possible products of the following
elements taken n—1 at a time,
Mp,2) Clog, **%) Con
3,9) Os.3) **%) 3 na

Qn, 27 Un, 39 °*%7 Onn

subject to the restriction that each product shall contain one

and only one element from each row, and one and only one from
each column, writing the first suffixes in the order 2, 3, ---, n,
and making each product + or — according as the number of
inversions in the second suffixes is even or odd.
Then by § 686, the coefficient of a,, is

Gy, a Ot mn, 89 °°*9 Ann

that is, the minor obtained by erasing the first row and the
first column of the given determinant.

701. By aid of § 700, a determinant of any order may be

expressed as a determinant of any higher order.
 DETERMINANTS 491

re Oe Oe 0)
Mm, db, a 0,71, 075.0, °0
Thus, ’ |}a,
A - 0, ‘i |= Ore
On tary
ce bee1 =|0,a 0,i a,ee 0, cq |,’ ete.
s at
3) 39 “3 0, Os Ds, Cs 0. a ia .

2 Vy sy 93,

702. Coefficient of any element of a Determinant.

To find the coefficient of b,, in the determinant
thy Dy, Cy
Gey Dey Co |* (1)
G3, Ds C3
By two interchanges of consecutive rows, the last row may
be made the first; thus, by § 692, the determinant equals
ts, Ds, Cg
(—1)?|m, b, |: (2)
Cla, Boy Cy
By interchanging the first two columns, the determinant
(2) equals
Ds, Ug, Cs3
(— 18 Dy Ghy CIs (3)
Doy Cg, Cz
By § 700, the coefficient of 6,, in (3), is
( Se Gh, Cy
Co, Co

That is, the coefficient of the element in the third row and
second column equals (—1)**? multiplied by that minor of (1)
which is obtained by erasing the third row and second column.
We will now consider the general case; to find the coefficient
of a,, in the determinant
Oh, °%%) Myr 38%) An

Uni °%%) Urry *%%3 An, n|e (4)

Anjriy 9 %%7 Aniry *%*7 Ann

492 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

By k—1 interchanges of consecutive rows, and r—1 inter-

changes of consecutive columns, the element a,, may be
brought to the upper left-hand corner.
Thus, by § 692, the determinant equals
Pr i
Ee 1) 1) Ary Ay,1, 2%) An},

An, r An, ste moar LAr

Then, by § 700, the coefficient of a,, is

Ay °%7 An
(= ADS ae
Unig ***y) Ann

But (—1)"? =(— 1)" + (—1)?= (— 1).

Hence, the coefficient of the element in the Ath row and rth
column equals (—1)**", multiplied by that minor of (4) which
is obtained by erasing the Ath row and rth column.

703. By aid of § 702, a determinant of any order may be

expressed in terms of determinants of any lower order.
Thus, since every term of a determinant contains one and
only one element from the first row, we have,
%, OO, Gy,
pe Do Cx Ay My, Cy Ay
27 Yo, Coy Ag} __
? ; iain as |Os, Cy, dg}—b, [As Cs ds
3) Ye, Ce 3 :
: ; : Dy Cy My Cy Ay
My, Oy Cy Ay
Ma, Do dy | Ug by Cy
+ |, 03, ds|—dy |, by C3);
dy Oy dy dy Dy Cy
and each of the latter determinants may in turn be expressed
in terms of determinants of the second order.

704. Evaluation of Determinants.

The method of § 703 may be used to express a determinant
of any order higher than the third in terms of determinants
of the third order, which may be evaluated by the rule of § 684.
 DETERMINANTS 493

The theorem of § 698 may often be employed to shorten the

process, as shown in Ex. 1.
Det, Oe £6
Pi eedoreetor esLe
1. Evaluate 14, 24, 20, 23
(ie IN Ses Da
Subtracting the first row from the last, twice the first row
from the second, and three times the first row from the third
(§ 698), the determinant becomes
aT. Se 6 B Hye Weg TG
sl Aime: A aU ae as We ad
Bea A &5 Ait See teas
oe ae ok Sealul Heeob
Subtracting five times the second row from the first, adding
the second row to the third, and subtracting the second row
from the last, we have
ee 'o,. — 2o,-, sl 1
eo een f
0% | a ee sa et ee ee 4|, by § 702.
? ! : oe gape ual
0, 1, Da 1

The object of the above process is to put the given deter-

minant in such a form that all but one of the elements in one
column shall be zero; the determinant can then be expressed
as a determinant of the third order by § 702.
The last determinant may be evaluated by § 684; but it is
better to subtract five times the first column from the second,
and then add the first column to the last; thus,
2138. 8
els = 399|— -2| oo 8|= — 20642
+256) =— 1196.
16, 0, 0 ;
2. Prove that a+6-+c is a factor of the determinant
Oh ly
C0 O52 Or.
ih Gy @
494 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA
Adding the second and third columns in succession to the
first, the given determinant equals
atb+e b, ¢
c+ta+b, a, bi.
b+c+a, ¢ a
Since every term contains an element from the first column,
a+b-+c is a factor of the given determinant.
i, ae” oF
3. Evaluate |y, y’*, y*|-
2, ae ee
If x be put equal to y, the determinant has two rows identical,
and equals zero (§ 695).
Then, «—y must be a factor (§ 180); and in like manner,
y—zand z—~ are factors.
Let the given determinant = X(a— y)(y — z)(z—2).
To determine X, we observe that a, y, and z are factors of
the determinant; then, X must equal xyz, as is evident by
noticing that the first term in the expanded form is + ay’,
and the value of the determinant is xyz(a — y)(y—z)(z—2).

EXERCISE II5
Evaluate the following determinants :
hy ete 42) 1 Rosen z am rs :
Vi. 28.0 18d, 408 4 Tb, oe tk a 9, 1 :
21, 26, 80 he Ty oe 6 15, o1. -
? nt 4

Gs ish aly Ut aly ail ? a a0

Bh Wily ailsy, ake) 5. |a2, y2, 22 8. 7 14. 10. on
Wi Ply 255 x8, y3, 28 3. 18, 9, .
? ? ?

25, 28, 19 a + 2 : ala ha tak |

Gh Web ails 18) 6. : : 4 7 9: Piety eae .
21. 17. 14 Sh adhe! vil, “3 chou 25 2
’ ?
We GS Gh & oh ace Gy aC)
—@, 6, c, O ©, XL, ©, w | Oh th ty @
10 ih =a Wh @ wu, [2% % % 12. b, b, b, a).
c, 0,-—a, 0b fly WO Op Ue OS Wy Ws Gi
LS Cn On WB) iy fey O) b, a, b, b
 DETERMINANTS 495

O5, a5 sale al 5, —3, —2, 0

13. thy 5. GE. tee! ; 15 4, 1, -—6, 2 A
il, aes OF > yp 4 85
ils Eh ee 0) 0, 6, —4, 2
ih ils dey, i, a al
ao 27,8 6 ie lis “OS x)
i pameca, 41 sur10 | 16. a, 02, 0, @
31, 47, 64, 15 Ge 02 Go ae
17. Prove that a+ 6 + ¢ is a factor of the determinant

(a+b), e
a, (6 + ¢)%, i > |e
b?, b, =e + a)?
18. Prove that a+ b6+c¢—disa factor of the determinant
a, Oy Cy —
b, ad, —d, ¢
¢ —d, a 0 :
—d, CeO.

705. Let A,, B,, ---, A,, denote the coefficients of the ele-
ments a,, b,, «++, k,, respectively, in the determinant

Cy, Day : (1)

Any Dns ae) ky,

Then, since every term of the determinant contains one and

only one element from the first column, the value of the deter-
minant is Aja, + Apt, + --» + A, a,
In like manner, the value of the determinant also equals
Byby + Baby + +++ + ByDyy oe, Bikey + Koko + +++ + Ah ky.

706. With the notation of § 705, if m, m.,+--, m, are the

elements in any column of the determinant (1), of § 705, except
the first, Ayn, + Agity + +++ + Am,
is the value of a determinant, which differs from (1) only in
having mj, M», «++, m, instead of a, dy, +++, a, as the elements in
the first column.
496 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Then, Aym, + Aymy +-++-+ A,m, = 0;

for it is the value of a determinant which has two columns
identical.
In like manner, if mm, ms, ---, m, are the elements in any
column of the determinant (1), except the second,
By, a Bym se poss aE BAM, — 0;
and so on.
SOLUTION OF EQUATIONS

707. Let it be required to solve the following system of 7

linear, simultaneous equations, involving x unknown numbers
yy + ee + HM, + + + ye, = pr. re
aa +" ih Qe, a ~+ sage
= Pe (2

Ay eesoles. ae gh Ca Dae (3
Let Q1, Q., +++, Q, denote the coefficients of the elements q,
Qo) ***> Yny TeSpectively, in the determinant
Lb ON OY ky
D= Mg) s**, he a) ky i

Gny ***y Any *°* Kn

Multiplying equations (1), (2), ---, (8) by Q, Q, «=, Q,

respectively, and adding, we have
(Qi + Qoty + +++ + QnAn)+ +++
+ @( QM + Qogo + s+ + Onn)+ °°
+ An (Qiky + Qokeo + +++ + Qin)= Qi Pr + Qo. + +++ + QnDne
By § 706, the coefficient of each unknown number, except a,
is zero.
By § 705, the coefficient of w, is D; also, the second membe
is the value of a determinant which differs from D only in
having p, Po +++, P, ustead of Gq, ga +++, G, as the elements it
the rth column.
Denoting the latter by D,, we have .
%,.Di= Dad ae D,
D’
 DETERMINANTS 497

_ The determinant D is called the Discriminant of the given

system of equations.
708. Hz. Find the value of y from the equations
38e—5y4+7T2z= 28.
2e+6y—92= —23.
4a—2y—5z= 9.
The denominator of the value of y is the determinant
3, —5, 7
2, 6, —9|-
4, —2, —5
The numerator is obtained by putting for the second column
the second members of the given equations.
se te oy
aE R a A

? ? a

DENT e-G a9
ye eel
709. Consider the following system of n homogeneous
linear equations, involving » unknown numbers:
Cy + yay + C43 +++ My ®, 1 + hy = 0.
jy + D500 + i a + hen_y + keg,= 0. (1)

nu denemia eae ences =0.

One solution of the system is 4,=0, %,=0, ++, 2, =0.

We will now find what relations must hold between the
coefficients in order that there may be other solutions.
We may write the given system
DyWy + Cy e+ + Ky, = — HM}.
baia “ate feet a — Aah. (2)

b ane rs dat =— A,%}.

We will now use the last n —1 of these equations to express
the values of a, +++, 2, in terms of 2.
498 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

By § 707,
— gly, Coy et, Kyl * ny Coy ety Key

— AnX, Cpy 2% *y Kn Any Cny ***y ky, =

Ler ene Te As
Do Cay tty Kee 2, Cay , 2

|b nm Ong °° %9 ky Buy Cay 95 k,,

with results of similar form for as, «++, %,.

Substituting these values in the first equation of system (1)
and clearing of fractions, we have
Dey Cy, sty Ke | Aang Coy vey ky Do, Any *e*y Hee
@) Ay . ° . 5 —_— by . . . . ° —_ Cy

Diy ny 225 ky, Any Cry °*%5 k,, oS Any °°", k,,

Dy set, Igy Me
—--—k, P are = 0. (3

Os a =) itay An

By § 693, the coefficient of 2, equals

be set, ke a, Coy eee, Key Gn, Dey Aa s+, Key
Ay a Ae os — bd, Fh. ee a +¢, ae ies. 8 — ieee

Oe man ky, Any Cny °° %s k, Any On, Ans at) k,,

Mh, dy ++, ky

That is (§ 702), [7 o» ~~» May, (4

Uny Dny aie ky,

If the determinant (4) equals 0, equation (3) is satisfied whet

x, has any real value.
Then, if the discriminant of the given system vanishes, th
system has an indefinitely great number of solutions.
If any real number, m, be taken-as a value of 2, the correspondin;
value of x2 must be
2 M2, Ca, cy ko

Qny Cry SULT} kn

ba, Cay, thie, ke

bn, Cry rea) en

 DETERMINANTS 499

Similar considerations hold with respect to a3, +++, %p.

710. Consider the following system of n linear equations

involving n — 1 unknown numbers :
( yay + Dy, + ++ + Gy 1 +h = 0.
Agi + opty + +++ + cco eeoF a= 0.

apes a fe ae VWnX,nm—1 ctisa

=

Multiplying the terms-of each equation by u, we have

Ua, + Dua, + +++ + Que, 1 + kyu= 0.
Alay SePats qeOoo Se cos atkwu=0. (1)

dart ee Bie a QnUn—ysea &es ay

This may be considered as a system of n homogeneous linear

equations, involving the » unknown numbers, way, way, ++,
BL, 3, U.
By § 709, the condition which must hold in order that the
system (1) may have possible solutions is
Mh, Oy Hy Ay
Tn a LE = (

Any Dns set, Qny ky,

This, then, is the condition which must hold in order that the
equations of the given system may be consistent.

711. Multiplication of Determinants.

Consider the determinant
MC, + Mgt, Dye, + Dod; |,
AyCy + Ayla, 0 Cy + bol,
By § 696, this can be expressed in the form
HC, yc; HO, Ooch Gg, dC, Ao, dod p
Mylo, DyCo AyCx, Dots Agile, DC, Arlo, Dads
That is, if§ 697,
and, Cy + ab, se a cL Oey dh, ies d, dq |
29 2 do, d.2
Cay is
500 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

The first and last determinants are zero, since they have two
columns identical.
Then, by § 692, the given determinant equals
ands Gq, a = Ob GQ, a
Co, Ay Co, Ag
= (0,0, — God. Gy, d 1j—]°b
Tee (ih“lly Gyardy
ab) :
(abs oe Coy Ag Ay, by Coy dy

That is, the product of two determinants of the second order

can be expressed as a determinant of the second order.
Again, consider the determinant
Ady + Oy) + Az ft, 01d, + be, + O3ff, Gh + Coe) + Os fi
Anda + Agly + Az foy Byda + boy + D3 fo, Ce + C2€2 + Cg fo
Ay + Aes + Agfz, 0,d3+ bees + bsfs, C3 + Coes + C3 fg

By § 696, this equals the sum of twenty-seven determinants,

of which the following are types:
a,d,,. 056), afr Q,0,, 0,0), Coe) aid,, 06d,, Gd;
Aye, Ds, Cao, GA, bide, Cx€a jy MMe, Dido, Cy |
Ghds, D€3, Caf Mds, Dds, Co€s ds, d,d3, Cds

That is, by § 697,

th, A fi dh, dh & dh, dy a

AyboCs| ey C2, fo}, MDiCo| de, My @|, MDC, |da, do, d|-
ds, €s, Ss ds, ds, @s ds, ds, ds

The eighteen determinants of the second type, and the three

of the third type, are all zero by § 695.
Hence, the given determinant equals

Gh, Cp Si dh, fy & Q, dh, fi

Abels |do, Co fo} + AydsCo| de, fo, €2| + AodyCs| Cx, do fh
ds, Cx Ss ds, fay @s €3, ds s
fy

a fir G lf, dy 4 ty &

+ GgbsCy| C2, fry Ay} + AgbyCo| fo, Ao, @2| + Mgbot,| fay ea de>
€x, fs, ds Js) ds @s Ja &s, ds
 DETERMINANTS 501

By § 692, the above equals

dh, ey fi
(Gb2C3 — AybyCz + Agbyey — Ayd\C3 + Mgb,Co — Ag).Cy) do, Cx fo|;
ds, 3s, Ss
, dn, G dh, ay fi
or, Cs, Dey Co] X doy Co, Jo 9
Ms, Dey Cg ds, es, fs
That is, the product of two determinants of the third order
can be expressed as a determinant of the third order.

EXERCISE II6

Solve the following by determinants :

et+2y4+382¢= 4. e+ yt zg=1.
15 32+5y+ z2=18. 8.) ax+ by+ cz=d.
44+ y+2z2=12. |ax + by + Cz = a.

e+ yt 2+ u= 1.
8x%—38y—Tz= 8b.
244+ 8y—424+5u=—-
31.
2. x+6y—4z2=-12.
38%e—4y+524+6u
=— 22.
2%—5y+ z2= 33.
44+5y—6z2-— u=-—18.
4, —3 — 5,
5. Express |_%, | | 10, 7 as a determinant.

ile 2, —6 4, —1, -—3

6. Express |0, —1, Lei = te —4, —5] asa determinant.
2, —3, —5 — 7, 0, 2
5, 0, 1 9
—3| as a determinant. (Com-
7, Express |—5, 2, —1| x /
5 pare § 701.)
—1, —8, 4 :
(hy Wo 10
8. Express the square of |}, c, a as a determinant.
On Ci @
502 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

XXXVII. THEORY OF EQUATIONS

712. Every equation of the nth degree, with one unknowr

number, can be written in the form
a” + pe" + py”? + +++ + Dna + Pn = 05 @
where the coefficients may be positive or negative, integral o1
fractional, rational or irrational, real, pure imaginary, or com
plex, or zero.
If no coefficient equals zero, the equation is said to be Com
plete; otherwise, it is said to be Incomplete.
We shall call (1) the General Form of the equation of thi
nth degree.

713. It will be proved in the Appendix that every equatioz

of the above form has at least one root, real, pure imaginary, o:
complex.
714. (Converse of § 183.) Ifa is a root of the equation
©" + pw" + +++ Da 1% + Pn =O, e!
the first member is divisible by x —a.
If ais a root of (1), a*+ p,a"*+---+p, = 0.
But by § 139, a"+ p,a” 1+ .--.+-p, is the remainder obtaine
by dividing the first member of (1) by «—a.
Then, the first member of (1) is divisible by #—a.
715. Number of Roots.
An equation of the nth degree has n roots, and not more than 1
Let the equation be
a" ye psa vee + Dy y® + Pn = 9. d
By § 718, this equation has at least one root. s
Let a be this root; then by § 714, the first member is divisibl
by «—a, and the equation may be put in the form
(a — a) (0? + qua? + oe + Gn r® + Yn) = 0. »
 THEORY OF EQUATIONS 503

By § 182, the latter equation may be solved by placing

x—a=Q0,
and ett ge"? +..4+¢, 2+, =0. (2)
Equation (2) rnust also have at least one root.
Let 0 be this root; then (2) may be written
(@— b) PP + rye"? +o 4, e+ 1p) =0,
and the equation may be solved by placing
x—b=0, ‘
and . -+7, 10 +7,
= 0.
Continuing the process until » —1 binomial factors have
been divided out, we shall arrive finally at an equation of the
first degree, a—k=0; whence, «=k.
Therefore, the given equation has the n roots a, b, «++, k.
The roots are not necessarily wnequal ; compare note, § 183.

716. Depression of Equations.

It follows from § 715 that, if m roots of an equation of the
mth degree are known, the equation may be depressed to
another equation of the (m — m)th degree, which shall contain
the other — m roots.
Thus, if all but two of the roots of an equation are known,
these two may be obtained from the depressed equation by the
rules for quadraties.
Ex. Two roots of the equation 9 a* —:37 # — 82+ 20=0 are
2 and —4; what are the others?
By § 714, the first member of the given equation is divisible
by (@@ — 2) (8a+5), or 32? —w@ — 10.
Dividing 9 xt — 37 a — 8a + 20 by 3 a? — x — 10, the quotient
TIS) BS aye te = ar
Then the depressed equation is
32° tae—2=0.
2
Solving by the rules for quadraties, a= 5 or — 1.
504 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

EXERCISE I1I7

1. One root of «3 — x? — 322+ 60 =0is 5; find the others.

2. One root of 3x3 — 5x2 — 342%+24 =0 is — 38; find the others.
8. One root of 24 23 — 50 #?+92z + 20 = 0is 33 find the others,

4. One root of 2722 + 542 — 141%+ 28=0is 3 find the others.

5. Two roots of 9 «4 + 623 — 59 x2 —20x+ 100 =0 are — 2 and 2;
find the others.
6. Two roots of 202* — 177273 + 256 22+ 4922 4+ 144—0 are 4 and
- 5 find the others.
7%. Two roots of x! + ax3 — 22 ax? — 16 a3x + 96 at = 0 are —38a and
4a; find the others.
8. One root of
a8 + (n + 6) x? —(n? —4n —11)e-—n8-2n? 4+ 5n4+65=0is —n—8;
find the others.

717. Formation of Equations.

It follows from § 715 that if the roots of
a prw"* + oes + Pyar ® + Py = 0
are a, 0, +++, k, the equation may be written in the form
(2 —a)(a—b)---(a@—k)
=0.
Hence, to form an equation which shall have any required
roots,
Subtract each root from x, and place the product of the resulting
expressions equal to zero.
Hix. Form an equation which shall have the roots 1,
1
9? and oS:
5
By the rule, (w—1) (2£ hi
5(2+ 2 = 0.
Multiplying the terms of the second factor by 2, and of the
third by 3, we have
(w —1)(2e%—1)(8e45)=0.
Expanding, 6 a8 + a?-—1224+5=0.
 THEORY OF EQUATIONS 505

EXERCISE II8

Form equations having the roots :

ieee3 a= 7 meetG 2404 feo3 yaee3

5 6 ee nee
21, —4, 6. 0,
—m, MEVE.
Soe Ve. 4
ie DBE Ti Wy, —10. 8iv?2,
—3+ v2, 0.
5.
ae?
a—6, 2a—5, 8a+4
i
& :
8.
Teese
a 6b
155
Uo, ay Aen 12.
ES ‘i
See :
ies ee i 3 3
13, 2V—24tV—-5 ~2V—-24V—5
: e 2 : 2
1 ns te SO nt 8,
718. Composition of Coefficients.
By § 717, the equation whose roots are a and 6 is
(w@—a)(a—b)=0, or # —(a+b)x+ab=0.
The equation whose roots are a, b, and c is
(x—a)(w—b)(m—0)=0,
or x — (a+ b+ c)a? + (ab + ac + be)a — abe = 0.
The equation whose roots are a, b, c, and d is
(a — a)(a@ — b)(a — c)(a—d) = 0, or
e—(a+b+c+d)x’+
(ab+ac+ad + be + bd + cd)x?
— (abe + abd + acd + bed)x + abed = 0.
In the above expanded forms, we observe the following laws :
The coefficient of the second term is equal to minus the sum
of all the roots.
The coefficient of the third term is equal to the sum of the
products of the roots, taken two at a time.
The coefficient of the fourth term is equal to minus the sum
of the products of the roots, taken three at a time; ete.
The last term is equal to plus or minus the product of all the
roots, according as the number of roots is even or odd.
506 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

We will now prove by Mathematical Induction that the

above laws hold for any number of roots.
Assume them to hold for n roots; a, b, ¢, d, +--+, k, 1, m.
That is, (a — a)(# — b)(@ — ¢) +++ (@— mM)
= x" + py"? + pot"? + py F + a0 + Dy}
where pp=—(a+0+e+--+hk+/]4+m);
Ea ee + tlm;
3—= — nee neabd r acd + - ey Misia;

Dp=t aan ches cee as n is even or odd.

If we introduce an additional root, 7, we equate to zero the
product of
x” + pw" 3+ pow”? + psu"3+ + +, by e— 7.
This gives the equation
ae + (poy — 1)X” + (Py — TPy)v"! + (ps — Tp) e”? + — Tp,= 9%.
Here, the coefficient of the second term is
—(a+b+ce4 ++» +k+l4+m+r).
Of the third term
ab + ac-+ be+ ++ +lm+r(a+b
+e ++ +m).
Of the fourth term
— (abe+ +++ +klm) — r(ab
+ ace + +++ +m).

The last term is = abcd - +s mr, according as n is even or odd;

or + abcd --- r, according as n +1 is even or odd.
These results are in accordance with the above laws.
Hence, if the laws hold for n roots, they hold for n+1 roots.
But we know that they hold for four roots, and hence they
hold for five roots; and since they hold for five roots, they
hold for six roots; and so on.
Hence, the laws hold for any number of roots.
719. It follows from § 718 that, if an equation of the nth
degree is in the general form,
If the second term is wanting, the sum of the roots is 0.
 THEORY OF EQUATIONS 507

If the last term is wanting, at least one root is 0.

We also see that if the last term is integral, it is divisible
by every integral root.

720. If all but one of the roots of an equation of the nth

degree in the general form are known, the remaining root may
be found by changing the sign of the coefficient of the second
term of the given equation, and subtracting the sum of the
known roots from the result; or, by dividing the last term of
the given equation if n is even, or its negative if m is odd, by
the product of the known roots.
If all but two are known, the coefficient of the second term
of the depressed equation (§ 716) may be found by adding the
sum of the known roots to the coefficient of the second term
of the given equation; and the last term of the depressed
equation may be found by dividing the last term of the given
equation by plus or minus the product of the known roots
according as n is even or odd.
Ex. Two roots of the equation 9 at — 372? —-8x2+20=0
5
are 2 and — a) what are the others ?

We first put the equation in the general form by dividing

each term by 9.
aie bo 20
at — —— 9?— =
It then becomes
eH RED— =0.

Since there is no «* term, the coefficient of the second term

is 0. .
Then the coefficient of the second term of the depressed
5
equation is 0 + 2 ae or 5
The coefficient of the last term of the depressed equation
is ey ae
9 ue 3
a 2
The depressed equation is 2 + Spas 0.
Solving, & =3 or —1.
508 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

EXERCISE II9

1. Two roots of 16“? — 37% —21=0 are —1 and iS find the other
root. =
2. Three roots of 4 xt — 17 x8 — 64 2? + 257 « — 60 =0 are 3, — 4, and
5; find the other root.
3. Four roots of 2%° + 3 at — 3022 — 6522+ 184+ 72=0 are l, — 2,
4, and -3 ; find the other.

4. Five roots of 36 2° — 475 «t — 48122 4+ 91a7+ 71% —12=0 are

sea 1
-—1, —8, moe and a? find the other.

5. One root of 23 + 8 a2 — 234 — 210 =0 is — 6; find the others.

6. Two roots of 6a!+
723 — 3722-—8x%+12=0 are 2 and = find
the others. 2
7. Three roots of 2 — 6 at — 2743 + 148 a? + 204% —720=0 are 2,
— 3, and — 4; find the others.
8. Tworoots
of x — (2474 5) 2#74+6ax+ at—5a2?1+4=0area—1
and — a+ 2; find the others.

721. Symmetrical Functions of the Roots.

The expressions for pj), Ps +++, DP», in § 718, are symmetrical
(§ 146) functions of the roots of the equation, and can be
expressed as follows (compare § 150):
pi=— da.
v2) a Sab.

p3= — Sabc, ete.

Other symmetrical functions of the roots can be expressed in
terms of the coefficients. .
Ex. If a, b, and ¢ are the roots of the equation
w+ pie + pre + p,=0,
find the values of Sa?, and Sa’.
We have 3W=0?+0?+=(a+b+c)?—2(ab + be + ca)
= (3a)? — 2(Sab) = (—p,)?— 2p, =p? — 2p
Again, 3a7b=eb +a%+b0%4+B'at+ca+cb :
(ab
=(a+ +be+ca) —38 abe
6+c)
= (— Pi) pPo+3 ps =8 ps — ppm
A

THEORY OF EQUATIONS 509

EXERCISE 120

If a, b, and ¢ are the roots of 23 + py? + pox + p3 = 0, find

LSS. aie ee 8. Za’. 4. 3a%?, Boxee
a ab a
If a, b, c, and d are the roots of x + pix? + pox? + psx + p4 = 0, find
6. 24:
a
eaeab 8. Tare. 9. Dar. 10. Sa%

722. Fractional Roots.

An equation in the general form with integral coefficients
cannot have as a root a rational fraction (§ 198) in its lowest
terms.
Let the equation be
a” + pye"—* + py"? + +++ + Dy 1@ + Pn = 9,
where py, Py °°, Pa are integral.
If possible, let ie
— rational fraction in its lowest terms, be
a root of the aie then,
a\" ays as? a == 0.
(5) ar @ + Po (=) ahead mp ies (F)+-P.

Multiplying each term by 6”"4, and transposing,

- as —(p,a" + pa” *b 4b aie + Pp-ab”? + p,b"~).

By hypothesis, a and 6 have no common divisor; hence a”

and 6 have no common divisor (§ 673).
We then have a rational fraction in its lowest terms equal
to an integral expression, which is impossible.
Therefore, the equation cannot have as a root a rational
fraction in its lowest terms.
723. Complex Roots.
Tf a complex number is a root of an equation in the general
form, with real coefficients, its conjugate (§ 425) is also a root.
Let the equation be
0” + UF 4 vee + Py 1X + pn = 9, (1)
where ,, «++, p, ave real numbers.
510 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Let a+bi, where a and } have the same meanings as in

§ 415, be a root of the equation; then,
(a + di)” + py(a + bi)”*+ +++ + Pp ala + bt) + pn = 0.
Expanding by the Binomial Theorem, we have by § 411,
q” ab na bi —_ ae i) a’? b? a nN (n aoe ae mas. 2) a’ 637 + eee

+), hast +(nr— i) bt — GADD e-op! — ++]

ferret py (4 + bi) + p, = 9. (2)

Collecting the real and imaginary terms, we have a result of

the form (Poe Qi == (I). (3)

Here, P stands for the sum of all the terms containing a

alone, together with all the terms containing even powers of 7;
Qi for all terms containing odd powers of 7.
In order that equation (8) may hold, we must have
P=0, and Q@=0 (§ 418).
Now substituting a— bit for # in the first member of (1), it
becomes
(a — bi)” + p, (a — bi)” + +++ + p,_1 (a — B?) + p,. (4)
Expanding the powers of a — b7, we shall have a result which
differs from the first member of (2) only in having the even
terms in each expansion, or those involving 7 as a factor,
changed in sign.
Then, collecting the real and imaginary terms, the expression
(4) equals P— Qi;

where P and @ have the same meanings as before.

But since P=0 and Q=0, P— Qi=0:
Hence, a — bi is a root of (1).
The above demonstration holds without change when @ equals zero;
thus the theorem holds for any pure imaginary number (§ 418).

724. It follows from §§ 713 and 723 that every equation of

odd degree has at least one real root; for an equation cannot
have an odd number of complex roots.
if THEORY OF EQUATIONS 511

725. The product of the factors of the first member of (1),

§ 723, corresponding to the conjugate complex roots a +bV—1
Bnd a—b/—
[w—(a+bV—1)][e#—(a—bV—1]
= (« —a)?—(6V— 1)? =(@—aP +B;
and is therefore positive for every real value of a.

TRANSFORMATION OF EQUATIONS

726. To transform an equation into another which shall have

the same roots with contrary signs.
Let the equation be
x” + py + ppt? aie 1 Pn =) DA =0. (1)

Substituting — y for x, we have

a) Pi) (9) (9) +P 0:
Dividing each term ee (— 1)”, we have
Ye
y"“i+p y
+p. Vis Se ee y
rere (Dp
-~=0.
“(-1) (1 ‘ep Ed
Or, y" — pig + pay? = + £ Pra F Pr = (2)
the upper or lower signs being taken according as n is odd or
even.
It follows from (1) and (2) that the desired transformation
may be effected by changing the signs of the terms of odd degree,
if the degree of the equation is even, or the signs of the terms of
even degree and of the independent term, if the degree of the
equation is odd.
The above rule applies whether the equation is complete or incomplete.
Ez. Transform the equation 2 —10%+4=0 into another
which shall have the same roots with contrary signs.
By the rule, the transformed equation is x —107—4=0.
727. To transform an equation into another whose roots shall
be respectively m times those of the first.
Let the equation be
a py”? + poe” + v++ + Dy rl + Dy = 0,
512 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Putting mx = y, that is, Z for x, we have

y\" +n(2)
(4) ae Le.
+,(*) ae = + Pn
+pi(2) =0.
Multiplying each term by m”, =
P

y” + puny” + pom’?y”? + ++ + pp_ym"™ty + pam” = 0.

Hence, to effect the desired transformation, multiply the
second term by m, the third term by m’, and so on.
Ex. Transform the equation «°+72?—6=0 into another
whose roots shall be respectively 4 times those of the first.
Supplying the missing term with the coefficient zero, and
applying the rule, we have
e+t4-Ta’+4?.0x7—43.6=0, or 2+ 28 2?— 384=0.

728. To transform an equation with fractional coefficients into

another whose coefficients shall. be integral, that of the first term
being unity. .
The transformation may be effected by transforming the
equation into another whose roots shall be respectively m times
those of the first (§ 727), and then giving m such a value as
will make every coefficient integral.
By giving to m the least value which will make every coeffi-
cient integral, the result will be obtained in its simplest form,
Ges i
Hx. Transform the equation a — = ea Page oe into an-
:

other whose coefficients shall be integral, that of the first term

being unity.
3y § 727, the equation
i ae m si m> 0
3 36. 108
has its roots respectively m times those of the given equation.
It is evident, by inspection, that the least value of m which
will make every coefficient integral, is 6.
Putting m= 6, we have .
xv —2e?—ae¢t+2=0,
whose roots are 6 times those of the given equation.
 THEORY OF EQUATIONS 513

729. To transform an equation into another whose roots

shall be respectively those of the first increased by m.
Let the equation be
ane + py" + hae! = Pn SPDs 7 0. (1)

Putting + m=y, that is, y—m for x, we have

Ym) + PYM) + o +PraY—mM) +Pn=9. (2)
Expanding the powers of y—m by the Binomial Theorem,
and collecting the terms involving like powers of y, we shall
have a result of the form
y+ Hy + os + niY
+ In=9, (8)
whose roots are respectively those of the given equation in-
creased by m.
Ex. Transform the equation #?—Tx2+6=0 into another
whose roots shall be respectively those of the first increased
by 2.
Substituting y — 2 for a,
(y¥— 2) —T(y—2)+6=0.
Expanding, and collecting the terms involving like powers
of y, we have yp —6y+5y+12=0.

730. If m and the coefficients of the given equation are

integral, the coefficients of the transformed equation may be
conveniently found by the following method.
Putting «+ m for y in (3), we obtain
(a+
m)” + 9) (@+ mM)" + ++ + On (@ +m) +9, =0; (4)
which must, of course, take the same form as (1) on expanding
the powers of «+m, and collecting the terms involving hke
powers of a.
Dividing the first member of (4) by «+m, we have
(@ +m)" + gy (@ + Mm)" + es +g, (U+M)+Gn1 (5)
as a quotient, with a remainder 4,.
Dividing (5) by «+m, we have the remainder q,,_; ete.
514 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Hence, to obtain the coefficients of the transformed equation :

Divide the first member of the given equation byx+m; the
remainder will be the last term of the required equation.
Divide the quotient just found by «+m; the remainder will be
the coefficient of the newt to the last term of the transformed equa-
tion; and so on.
Ex. Transform the equation #—7T*x+6=0 into another
whose roots shall be respectively those of the first increased
by 2.
Dividing «? —7 «+6 by w+ 2, we have the quotient «* —2 a
— 3, and the remainder 12.
Dividing #—2a—3 by 7+ 2, we have the quotient «—4,
and the remainder 5.
Dividing «— 4 by w+ 2, we have the remainder — 6.
Then, the transformed equation is
e—6e+5xex+12=0.
Compare Ex., § 729.

731. To transform an equation into another whose roots

shall be those of the first diminished by m, we change y —m to
y +m in the method of § 729, and «+m to «—m in the rule
of § 730.

732. To transform the equation

ie “+ per + pk + Daa + Dn = 0,

where p, is not zero, into another whose second term shall be

wanting.
Expanding the powers of y—m in the first member of (2),
§ 729, and collecting the terms involving like powers of y, we
have z 4
y" + (ai— mn)y"* + ++ =0.
If m be so taken that p,— mn=0, whence m =o the coefii-
cient of y”"~1 will be zero.
Hence, the desired transformation may be effected by sub:
stituting in the given equation y SS in place of a.
 THEORY OF EQUATIONS 515

733. Synthetic Division.

The operation of division, in examples like that of § 730, may
be conveniently performed by a process known as Synthetic
Division.
Let it be required to divide a —12 a? + 29% —21 by x—3.
Using detached coefficients (§ 104), we have
1—12+429—21|/1—3
i. 1—9+42, Quotient.
— 9
— 9-427
soe
tf Pa &
—15, Remainder.
We may omit the first term of each partial product, for it is
merely a repetition of the term immediately above.
Also, the second term of each partial product may be added
to the corresponding term of the dividend, provided we change
the sign of the second term of the divisor before multiplying.
The work now stands:
1—12+4 29—21|1+3
+ 3 1—9+42

+ 6
eae
The first term of the divisor being unity in all applications
of § 730, it may be omitted; and the first terms of the succes-
sive dividends constitute the quotient.
Raising the oblique columns, the operation will stand as
follows:
Dividend, Th 1 Se A) MIL || Se
Partial products, ee
Quotient, 1 — 9 + 2, —15 Remainder.
The complete result is obtained as follows:
°
516 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

' Multiplying the first term of the dividend by 3, and adding

the result to the second term of the dividend, gives the second
term of the quotient.
Multiplying the latter by 3, and adding the result to the
third term of the dividend, gives the last term of the quotient.
Multiplying the latter by 3, and adding the result to the last
term of the dividend, gives the remainder.
Hence, the quotient is #—9#-+ 2, and the remainder —15.
If the term involving any power of x is wanting, it must be supplied
with the coefficient 0 before applying the rule.

The work of transforming, by Synthetic Division, the

equation oe—Te+6=—0

into another whose roots shall be respectively those of the first

increased by 2, will stand as follows (compare § 730):
ee OL or Ole
=2 444 6
—2 —3 +12, ist Rem.
mae ete
—4 +45, 2d Rem.
pa
— 6, 3d Rem.
Thus, the transformed equation is
e—6e+5e+12=0.

EXERCISE 121

Transform each of the following into an equation which shall have the
same roots with contrary signs:
1. wt— 828 —7a2?+38e44=0, 2. 2% +6at-2e%—5=-0.
8. Transform 2° + 10¢24+5a—7=0 into an equation whose roots
shall be, respectively, 5 times those of the first.
4. Transform «+ — 43 +242+38=0 into an equation whats roots
shall be, respectively, — 6 times those of the first.
5. Transform 33+ 522 —2=0 into an equation whose roots shall
be, respectively, :those of the first.
 THEORY OF EQUATIONS 517

6. Transform 7 «++ 623 —75%+125=0 into an equation whose

roots shall be, respectively, those of the first multiplied by — -.

Transform each of the following into an equation with integral coeffi-

cients, that of the first term being unity:
72 32 be ey OCA
he Hiya ho eas 2=0. Ch a= — —=
4 32° 18 54 72
(hae all Sue, 2d 1
8. 23 + — ——= 0 10. 7 + —— + —— — = 05
P35 40 25. 19 998
11. Transform «? —522?+62-+11=0 into an equation whose roots
shall be, respectively, those of the first diminished by 5.
12. Transform x? — 442 — 3a —29=0 into an equation whose roots
shall be, respectively, those of the first increased by 6.
13. Transform «? + 1322 — 82 =0 into an equation whose roots shall
be, respectively, those of the first increased by 2.
14. Transform «! + 243+ %2—7x“-+31=0 into an equation whose
roots shall be, respectively, those. of the first diminished by 1.
15. Transform «! — 343+ 8a2— 10=0 into an equation whose roots
shall be, respectively, those of the first increased by 3.
16. Transform «+ + 62+ 5x2+19=0 into an equation whose roots
shall be, respectively, those of the first diminished by 4.

DESCARTES’ RULE OF SIGNS

734. If an equation of the nth degree is in the general

form (§ 712), a Permanence of sign occurs when two succes-
sive terms have the same sign, and a Variation of sign occurs
when two successive terms have opposite signs.
Thus, in the equation a —3at— a#’?+5x2+1=0, there are
two permanences and two variations.

735. Descartes’ Rule of Signs.

No equation, whether complete or incomplete, can have a
greater number of positive roots than it has variations of sign;
and no complete equation can have a greater number of nega-
tive roots than it has permanences of sign.
Let an equation in the general form have the following
signs : a fit OE Qe ye
the missing terms being supplied with zero coefficients.
518 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

If we introduce a new positive root a, we multiply this by

a—a (§ 717); writing only the signs which occur in the
process, we have
te 2S) A Goats oe
oe) a 0 (1)
att) Mas
fo Oo O00
oe NO ete RS ie
+m—-—+-—- 0 -—-m™ + (2)
Wee o on 4 ae 0 Ot Bho aoe tO
where m signifies a term which may be +, 0, or —.
Now, in (1), let a dot be placed over the first minus sign,
then over the next plus sign, then over the next minus sign,
and so on.
The number of dots shows the number of variations; thus,
in (1) there are three variations.
In the above result, we observe the following laws:
I. Directly under each dotted term of (1) is a term of (2)
having the same sign.
Thus, the terms numbered 4, 5, and 8, in (1) and (2), have
the same sign.
II. The last term of (2) is of opposite sign to the term
directly under the last dotted term of (1).
The above laws are easily seen to hold universally.
By the first law, however the term marked m is taken,
there are at least as many variations in the first eight terms of
(2) as in (1); and by the second law, there is at least one
variation in the remaining terms of (2).
Hence, the introduction of a new positive root increases the
number of variations in the equation by at least one.
If, then, we form the product of all the factors correspond-
ing to the negative and imaginary roots of an equation, multi-
plying the result by the factor corresponding to each positive
root introduces at least one variation.
Hence, the equation cannot have a-greater number of posi-
tive roots than it has variations of sign.
 THEORY OF EQUATIONS 519

To prove the second part of Descartes’ Rule, let — y be

substituted for « in any complete equation.
Then since the signs of the alternate terms commencing with
the second are changed (§ 726), the original permanences of
sign become variations.
But the transformed equation cannot have a greater number
of positive roots than it has variations.
Hence, the original equation cannot have a greater number
of negative roots than it has permanences.
In all applications of Descartes’ Rule, the equation must contain a
term independent of «; that is, no root must equal zero (§ 182); fora
zero root cannot be regarded as either positive or negative.

736. It follows from the last part of § 735, and from § 726,
that in any equation, complete or incomplete, the number of
negative roots cannot exceed the number of variations in the
equation which is formed from the given equation by changing
the signs of the terms of odd degree.

737. In any complete equation, the sum of the number of

permanences and variations equals the number of terms less
one, or the degree of the equation.
That is, the sum of the number of permanences and varia-
_tions equals the number of roots (§ 715).
Hence, if the roots of a complete equation are all real,
the number of positive roots equals the number of variations,
and the number of negative roots equals the number of per-
manences.
An equation whose terms are all positive can have no posi-
tive root; and a complete equation whose terms are alternately
positive and negative can have no negative root.

738. Ex. Determine the nature of the roots of

iy? eh ay AC 5) 0).

There is no variation, and consequently no positive root.

Changing the sign of the independent term, we have
e+ 2x2%—-5=0.
520 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Here there is one variation; and therefore the given equa-

tion cannot have more than one negative root (§ 736).
Then since the equation has three roots (§ 715), one of them
must be negative and the other two imaginary.
If two or more successive terms of an equation are wanting, it follows
by Descartes’ Rule that the equation must have imaginary roots.

EXERCISE 122

If the roots of the following are all real, determine their signs:
1. 84+¢?—144—144=0. 3. c—o? — 1997+ 494— 30=0.
448 23 ¢2+1474+5=0. 4. 524-48 273-112 22-—682—48=0.
ot —4 43 — 9397+ 54a + 72=0.
xe —l1at4+ 33 23+ 1142-1544
—120=0.
RS. 24° +429 xt +119 03 + 159 224+ 72%—60=0.
et
eee
eh

Determine the nature of the roots of the following:

8a — 2 te= 0. 1, 4-42
= 10:
9. 204 +57?+4—0. 12. 825—5=0.
10) 2° -- 382=0: 13. 27432¢+527242=0,
14. Prove that the equation 2° + «§—2?+3=0 has at least two imagi-
nary roots.

LIMITS TO THE ROOTS

739. To find a superior limit to the positive roots of an

equation.
The following examples illustrate the process of finding a
superior limit to the positive roots of an equation.
1. Find a superior limit to the positive roots of
e—3e+2e—5=0.
Grouping the positive and negative terms, we can write the
first member in the form
(@—3)+2(2—2), - (1)
It is evident that if « equals or exceeds 3, the expression (1)
is positive.
 THEORY OF EQUATIONS 521

Hence, no root of the given equation equals or exceeds 3,

and 3 is a superior limit to the positive roots.
2. Find a superior limit to the positive roots of
e— lb 2 —10e¢-—
24 — 0,
4 4
We separate the first term into the parts ao© and on and
write the first member in the form

oa —15 #)+(5- 10 2)+24,or =(2w—45) +> (a—30) +24.

It is evident from this that no root can be so great as 5;
hence, 5 is a superior limit to the positive roots.
If we had written the first member in the form
4 2 4
ee 15 2)ae(ie 10 =)+24, or ©(a — 30)+2(a8 — 20)+24,
we should have found 6 as a superior limit to the positive roots.
Thus, separating x* into es and a instead of © and is gave a
mers 3 3 2 2
smaller limit.

740. To find an inferior limit to the negative roots of an

equation.
First transform the equation into another which shall have
the same roots with contrary signs (§ 726).
The superior limit to the positive roots: of the transformed
equation, obtained as in § 739, with its sign changed, will be
an inferior limit to the negative roots of the given equation.
Ex. Find an inferior limit to the negative roots of
we+2e+5e—T7T=0.
Changing the signs of the 2 term and the independent term
($ 726),
we have 954. 9o3 5a +7 =0. (1)
We can write the first member in the form
a? (a8 — 5) + 20° +7. rt
It is evident from this that no root of (1) can be so great as
2; hence, — 2 is an inferior limit to the negative roots of the
given equation.
522 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

By grouping the 25 and «? terms, in (1), we obtain a smaller limit than

if we group the x3 and «? terms.

EXERCISE 123

In each of the following, find a superior limit to the positive roots, and
an inferior limit to the negative :
1. 28 +822+2—4=0. 4, 304 —52x2?—82—7=0.
2. c¢+523-—152%-—9=0-. 5. 2° —40*+ 6234 322?-—15274+383=0.
3. o¢+327-—52—8=0. 6. 295+ 54+ 628 — 1822 -—257+4=0.
7. In the equation 2?—2%2—3x%+1=0, prove 3 a superior limit to
the positive roots, and — 2 an inferior limit to the negative.
8. In the equation 2%3+5a2?—7xz—38=0, prove — 4 an inferior limit
to the negative roots, and find a superior limit to the positive.
9. In the equation #*+ 323 —922+12a%—10=0, prove 3 a superior
limit to the positive roots, and — 6 an inferior limit to the negative.

LOCATION OF ROOTS

741. If two real numbers, a and b, not roots of the equation

S(@) =x" + pe” + +p, e+ p, = 0,
when substituted for x in f(x), give results of opposite sign, an
odd number of roots of f(w) = 0 lie between a and b.
Let a be algebraically greater than b.
Let d, ---, g be the real roots of f(x) = 0 lying between a and
b, and h, ---, k the remaining real roots.
Then, by § 717, ;
S(@) = (@—d) ++ (@—9g)-(@—h)
++ @—k)-F@); A)
where (x) is the product of the factors corresponding to the
complex roots of f(x) =0.
Substituting a and b for x in (1), we have (§ 251),
F(a)= (a —d) + (a—g) + (a—h) + (a—h) - F(a),
and = f(b)
= (b —d) «+» (bg) + (0 —h) «+ (0 —k) - FO).
Since each of the numbers d, ---, g is less than a and ereater
than b, each of the factors a—d, -++,a—g is positive, and each
of the factors b —d, ---, b—g negative.
 THEORY OF EQUATIONS 523

Again, since none of the numbers h, -:-, k lie between a and

b, the expression (@ —h) --- (a—k) has the same sign as (b — h)
Be. (6 — Ke).
Also, F(a) and F(®) are positive; for the product of the
factors corresponding to a pair of conjugate complex roots
is positive for every real value of x (§ 725).
But by hypothesis, f(a) and f(0) are of opposite sign.
Hence, the number of factors b —d, ---,b—g must be odd ;
that is, an odd number of roots lie between a and 0.
If the numbers substituted differ by unity, it is evident that the in-
tegral part of at least one root is known.
Hx. locate the roots of #2 + 2? —62—7=0.
By Descartes’ Rule (§ 735), the equation cannot have more
than one positive, nor more than two negative roots.
The values of the first member for the values 0, 1, 2, 3, —1,
—2,and —3 of w are as follows:
PaO, Cees 7. tel; —l. 233 — 8
feats — 11, -e=3; 11. beter
Since the sign of the first member is— when w=2, and
+ when a=3, one root lies between 2 and 3.
The others lie between —1 and —2, and —2 and —3, re-
‘spectively.
Tn locating roots by the above method, first make trial of the numbers
0, 1, 2, etc., continuing the process until the number of positive roots deter-
mined is the same as has been previously indicated by Descartes’ Rule.
Thus, in the above example, the equation cannot have more than one
positive root ; and when one has been found to lie between 2 and 3, there
is no need of trying 4, or any greater positive number.
The work may sometimes be abridged by finding a superior limit to
the positive roots, and an inferior limit to the negative roots of the given
equation (§$ 739, 740), for no number need be tried which does not fall
between these limits.
EXERCISE 124
Locate the roots of the following :
1. #8 +42?-6=0.
on — 7 22 = Oe)= 0,
524 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

8. w44+303—44%—1=0. 4. e¢+03-—199?-17441=0.
5. Prove that the equation 234+2a2+52+5=0 has either one or
three roots between — 1 and — 2.
6. Prove that the equation #t — 522 — 7% —2=0 has a root between
2 and 3, and at least one between 0 and — 1.
7. Prove that the equation at — 323+ %2?—3%z—4=0 hasa root be-
tween 0 and — 1, and at least one between 3 and 4.

742. Location of Roots by Synthetic Division.

With the notation of § 741, if f(a) and f(b) are of opposite
sign, an odd number of roots of f(#) =0 lie between a and 0b.
Now by § 251, f(a) =a” + pa") + +++ + py id + Pry (1)
and fO=PKp pK +--+ pdt, 2)
Also, (1) and (2) are the remainders obtained by dividing
a" + py! 28+ Dy al + Dn
by «—a and x— 8, respectively (§ 189).
Hence, if, when f(#) is divided by «—a and «— 8, the
remainders are of opposite sign, an odd number of roots of
J (x) = 0 he between a and b.
The remainders may be obtained by Synthetic Division.
Hx. Locate the roots of 22+ a?—5a—4=0.
By Descartes’ Rule, the equation cannot have more than one
positive, nor more than two negative roots.
Dividing 2° + 2° — 5a —4 by a, the remainder is — 4. (3)
Dividing the first member successively by a—1, x — 2, a—3,
x+1,x+ 2, and «+3, we have
Ue eee sr le halach 1 heres eee
RE a Were
UAE
ee 7 ase
Ieee
a42 @ 1a 25 Sa eae
ae
aa tone
eo
mee
weak
ih hs eee ee 1d Se aes ae
—3 12 _21 —3 6-3
re se Saarey
 THEORY OF EQUATIONS 525

In (5) and (6), the remainders are — 2 and + 17, respectively;

hence one root lies between 2 and 3.
In (8) and (7), the remainders are — 4 and +1, respectively;
hence a root lies between 0 and — 1.
In like manner, a root lies between — 2 and —3.
The above process is nothing more than a convenient way of applying
the test of § 741.
It has moreover the advantage over the method of direct substitution
that, when the integral part of a root has been found, the work performed
is identical with the first part of Horner’s method (§ 794) for deter-
mining additional root-figures; thus, in the above example, the work in
(5) is identical with the first three lines of the determination by Horner’s
method of the root of the given equation lying between 2 and 3.
The note to § 741 applies with equal force to the method of § 742.

EXERCISE 125
Locate the roots of the following ;
i. Ge ae yes Or (0s 8. c¢ —4224+62%—2=0.
2 98 1492
ye —3=0. 4. 2§—722?1+27+4+4=0.
5. Prove that the equation 7?+5x2+4=0 has one root between 0
and — 1.
6. Prove that the equation xt + 2«3—5«2—4%—6=0 has a root be-
tween 2 and 3, and at least one between — 3 and — 4.

743. The methods of §§ 741 and 742, though simple in

‘principle, and easy to apply, are not sufficient to deal with
every problem in location of roots.
Let it be required, for example, to locate the roots of
e4+3e+2e+1=0.
By § 724, the equation has at least one real root.
By Descartes’ Rule, it has no positive root.
By § 740, — 3 is an inferior limit to the negative roots.
Putting x equal to 0, —1, —2, — 3, respectively, the corre-
sponding values of the first member are 1, 1, 1, and —5,
respectively.
Then, the equation has either one root or three roots between
—2 and — 3; but the methods already given are not sufficient
to determine which.
526 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Sturm’s Theorem (§ 758) affords a method for determining

completely the number and situation of the real roots of an
equation.
It is more difficult to apply than the methods of §§ 741 and
742, and should be used only in cases which the latter cannot
resolve.
744. Graphical Representation.
The graph of an expression of higher degree than the second,
with one unknown number, may be found as in § 465.
Ex. Find the graph of
ve—2e—24e+4+3.
Put y= 2? —22?—22+4+3.
liv=0,y=0. Lf-223, y==6.
ibe C= 1, y= 0: ihe e=—1, y=.

Ifw=2,y=—1. If c=—2, y=—9.

ete.
The graph is the curve ABC, which extends in either direc-
tion to an indefinitely great distance from XX’.

745. Graphical Location of Roots.

The principle of § 280 holds for the graph of the first mem-
ber of an equation of higher degree than the second, with one
unknown number.
Thus, the graph of § 744 intersects XX’ at «=1, between
x=2 and «=3, and between « =—1 and x= — 2.
And the equation « — 2a? —2a+3=0 has one root equal to
1, one between 2 and 3, and one between —1 and — 2.
This may be verified by solving the equation ; the factors of the first
member are « — 1 and a? —2#—8.

This method of locating roots is simply a graphical represen-

tation of the process of § 741, and is subject to the limitations
stated in § 743. .
If the graph does not intersect XX’, the equation has no real
root.
 THEORY OF EQUATIONS 527

The note to § 741 applies with equal force in the graphical method of
locating roots.

EXERCISE 126

Locate the roots of the following equations graphically :

1. 2—82%—1=0. 8. 22—79?+12%—5=0. 5. 23-8 22+19%—12=0.
2. 42274+3=0. 4. 984+72?114%48=0. 6. 28-38 2?-224+5=0.
% e412 038—6 227-7 2%+6=0.

DIFFERENTIATION
746. Derivatives.
In any function of x (§ 250), let «+h be substituted for a;
subtract from the result the given function, and divide the
remainder by hk.
The limiting value of the result as h approaches the limit
zero, is called the derivative of the function with respect to x.
Let it be required, for example, to find the derivative of
8 —2a2+5 -
with respect to x.
Substituting «+h for x, and subtracting from the result the given
function, we have
(% +h)? —2(@ +h)? + 5 — (a8 — 2 a? 4 5)
=30h
+ 30h? + h3 — 4 ch — 2 h?.
Dividing this result by h, we have
327+ 3ah+ h?-—4a—2h. (1)
The limiting value of (1) as h approaches 0, is 38 x? — 4 a,
Hence, the derivative of «3 — 22+ 5 with respect to x is 342 —4¢.

The process exemplified above is called Differentiation.

747. In general, let w represent any function of x; and

suppose that, when « is changed to x +h, uw becomes u + h’.
Then, the derivative of w with respect to # is expressed as
follows (compare § 265),
lim |(u+ a= “|
== 0)
528 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

7 lpia eg ua |
It follows from the above that pees: Ei (1)

where “ u stands for the derivative of wu with respect to 2.

x
748. The process of differentiation is facilitated by means
of the following formule, in which a represents any constant,
mn any positive integer, and u, v, w, ---, any functions of a:
d
IS Sepak
ie

Ue dip,
le) NOt
ea ae

III £ (an) =a w
d dG
TA py ta? cheMeee eee tl
ods
oe Gide

Vv. (won 2+) = (vw ) Sy + (ww vt) open

a “ (u") = nu" a U.

VIL “ (02) = naa,

749. In proving the formule of § 748, we shall suppose that,

when «+h is substituted for w, wis changed to u+h', v to
oth", wtow+h'", ete.

Proof of I.
By $747, “y= lm (@+)h —2]_4.
dx h=0
That is, the derivative with respect to x of x itself is unity.
Proof of II.
a PM; ' Ee tay ) Pee; h' Bees
Beta) = an KE+ 2 ute |-mah Fr * = be
by § 747, (4). .
That is, the derivative with respect to x of a function of « plus
a constant equals the derivative of the function of a.
 THEORY OF EQUATIONS 529

F er cxample,
1
d (3 oe? — 5) =—es
—_
—
d (3(¢ x") .

ae oy Atl.

=(au)=12eaeh ) itm [2]

=O %

=ax radeaK 256) =a£ w(§ 47, (1)).

That is, the derivative with respect to x of a constant times
a function of x equals the constant times the derivative of the
function of x.
d Cle
F = np:le, . (3 2”) =3 agit
— (3.27) — (2).

Proof of IV.
Zutvtwt-)

Bed eee atti cons Sse a

~h=0 h
=) lim ig skp se ee
~h=0 h

_ lim [ A! lim [ hl" inf

eoaite sols: hxc it (§ 254)
eed, d d
<a a a ee as

That is, the derivative with respect to a of the sum of any

number of functions of x equals the sum of their derivatives.

Proof of V.
Consider first the case of two factors.
dy, lim [uth) (v +h") — ww
ag V0 | h
— lim [uh + W+h"yh
Reto h

= lim te, lim

= en balers ope" " lim
xwale h'
i

by §§ 254, 257.
530 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

As h approaches the limit 0, kh" also approaches 0, and there-

fore the limiting value of v +h" is v.

Whence, “ (uv) =u “ U+v < U. (1)

Consider next the case of three factors.

a (wow)=&< [(wr) w]= we (w) + ww, by (1)

ce irene)
d d od

ad ad d
— OE =esti Maos ae i=.
Fi

In like manner the theorem may be proved for any number

of factors.
That is, the derivative with respect to x of the product of any
number of functions of x equals the sum of the results obtained by
multiplying the derivative of each factor by all the other factors.

r example, ©
d
For example,— [(e+ 1)a]=(@+1)¥
[(@ + 1) a7]
dys
= (a + 1)
— (a) @) +a+ 2 @+1)
d
— (a+ 1).

Proof of V1.
If we suppose v, w, +++, in V, to be all equal to w, and that
the number of factors is n, we have by V,
ad _ a Sl ad
— (u") = u™*—utu™t—u+--- ton terms = nu” ?— u,
dx <a dle ant da
For example, —==[a +1) =3(@'+ ie©(a? +1).

Proof of VII.

By I1I; se (an") == a Bd (a") = ang a5 by VI

da dx da’ :
=anz"—, by I.
— pn—-l

That is, the derivative with respect to x of a constant times any

. . . . . 2

positive integral power of x equals the constant, times the exponent

of the power, times « raised to a power whose exponent is less by 1.
 THEORY OF EQUATIONS 531

For example, “ Gat) = 124°,

a
Hx. Find the derivative with respect to x of
20 —be+T2—6.
By IJ and IV,
< (2a — 5412 = Len 46>
2) + 2(72)

=6a?—10%+7, by VII.

EXERCISE 127

Find the derivative with respect to a of :

J a4
+e Tt. §. 445 —7a4*+
823 — a.
2. 343 —22 +3. 6. o —4a'+
6234 722 —
8. at¢+523 —12%—4. 7. 208+ 38at—984+
8227+ 54.
4, 2 4+92' —422, 8. 528 —205 — 4234 112248.

750. Successive Differentiation.

If wis any function of a, the derivative of the derivative of
u is called the ote Derivative of u with respect to a, and is

The Pec: of the second derivative of w is called the

“Third Derivative of u with respect to x, and is represented by
3
< u; ete.

Ex. Find the successive derivatives with respect to a of

30°— 9x? —124%+2.
We have, ©(8a — 9 a*—12% + 2)=9a*—18 # — 12.
a

#3 — 90 — 12.242) = 182-18.
av

=~99 12% 2) = 18.

£ (3a — 9012.2 +2) =0; ete.
Ab
532 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

It will be understood hereafter that when we speak of the derivative of

a function of a, the first derivative is meant.

EXERCISE 128

Find the successive derivatives with respect to x of:

1, 497? +72 —3. 4. Tet+
03 +9 22,
2. 24% —11 2? + 4, 5. 32542944
622 — 5.
3. ct — 5622
— 2a. 6. 26 — 495 —1023 +182.

751. Graphical Representation of Derivatives.

Let PQ be the graph of any function of a, f(@).
Let P be any point on the graph having the abscissa x, and
@ another point having the abscissa
Ay Se Ips
Draw PM and QN perpendicular to
XX', and PR perpendicular to QN.
Then, PM represents f(x), and QN
represents f(@ +h).
Whence, QF represents f(# + h) —
f(@).
Then, the ratio Petar) is
| represented by ae
If we denote the eee of f(x) with respect to xa t'(@);
Ng)
S'(@) — lim j
|f@+h)—f@)
; (§ Th.
747).
sO

Then, f'(a) is represented by the limiting value of the ratio

PR h approaches the limit 0; that is, as Q approaches P.
Hence, if PT is tangent to the graph at P, meeting QV
produced at 7, f'(a) is represented by the ratio a
The latter ratio is the tangent of the angle TPR.

752. By application of the principles of § 751, we can deter-

mine the points where any graph is parallel to XX'. :
For, if the graph is parallel to X.X' at P, the ratio i
is evidently equal to zero; so that f'(w) is zero at that point.
 THEORY OF EQUATIONS 533

If then we solve the equation f'(x) = 0, we shall determine

in what points the graph of f(«) is parallel to XX".
Consider, for example, the graph of § 744.
Here, f'(w) = 32?—4x—2,
Solving the equation 3a’— 4% —2=0, we have
24+V44+6_ 24-10.
Tae 85 Aras S
Then, one point is eave!
v10 to the right of YY', and the
other ee to the left.

Let the pupil determine the points where the graphs of the first mem-
bers of the equations in Exs. 1 to 6, inclusive, in Exercise 126, are parallel
to XX’.

MULTIPLE ROOTS

753. If an equation has two or more roots equal to a, a is

said to be a Multiple Root of the equation.
In the above case, a is called a double root, triple root, quad-
ruple root, ete., according as the equation has two roots, three
roots, four roots, etc., equal to a.

754. Let the equation

por” + py" ae 500 a Pn-1% an fos = 0 (1)

have m roots equal to a.

By § 717, the first member can be put in the form
(@— ay"f@); (2)
where f(x) is the product of the factors corresponding to the
remaining roots of (1), and is therefore a rational and integral
expression of the (xn — m)th degree with respect to a.
By § 748, V, the derivative of (2) with respect to a is

ee =f (2) +f(«) “T@ —a)"];

or, (x — a)™f'(x)+ ma — a)" f(x), by § 748, VI. (3)
534 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

It is evident that the expression (3) is divisible by (w—a)”™;

and therefore the equation formed by equating it to zero will
have m —1 roots equal to a.
Hence, if any equation of the form (1) has m roots equal to a,
the equation formed by equating to zero the derivative of its first
member will have m— 1 roots equal to a.
It follows from the above that, to determine the existence of
multiple roots in an equation of the form
Dye” + Pye" + + Pn + Pn = 9,
we proceed as follows:
Find the H.C. F. of the first member and its derivative.
Tf there is no H.C. F., there can be no multiple roots.
Tf there is a H.C. F., by equating it to zero and solving the re-
sulting equation, the required roots may be obtained.
The number of times that each root occurs in the given
equation exceeds by one the number of times that it occurs in
the equation obtained by equating the H.C. F. to zero.
Ex. Find all the roots of
et —6e+122?—-102+3=0. (1)
The derivative of the first member is
49? — 1827?
+ 244 — 10.
The H.C. F. of this and the first member of (1) is 2 —2a+1.
Solving the equation 2? —2%+1=0, the roots are 1 and 1.
Hence, the multiple roots of (1) are 1, 1, and 1.
Subtracting the sum of 1, 1, and 1 from 6, the remaining
root is 3.
EXERCISE 129

Find all the roots of each of the following equations :

1, we —6224+82749=0. 3. #—122416=0. ,
2. 28+3827—92 —27=—0. 4. 1822+ 1502-47 -—4=0.
5. at +2038 — 112? -—12%+ 36=—0.
6. vt— 1123
+ 3622 .-~ 16%
— 64 =0.
 THEORY OF EQUATIONS 530

7%. 2° — 1803+ 422 4+ 57x74 36=0.

ed at4+ lla? + 33224 5a -— 50=0.
9. 2 —382et—28+722-4=0,
10. 74 6a*+4+ 11434 222-—12%-—8=0.

755. We will now construct the graph of the first member

of (1), § 754. y
The first member can be put in the
form (@ —1)*(a — 3). (1) A

This shows that the graph cuts X_X'

Bab 2=1 and r=.
Since (a — 1)*(@ — 3) is positive when
zis <1, or >3, and negative when « *
is between 1 and 8, the graph is above %
XX' when x is <1, or >3, and below
when w is between 1 and 3.
By § 748, V, the derivative of (1) is

(@— 1S @— 8)+ (2-8) (@— 1)?

=(e — 1) + (a — 3) -3(a—1)P'=(e— 1)%e -1432—9)
=(x —1)*(4x%—10).
<
: : 5
Equating this to zero, we have x =1 or 3

Then the graph is parallel to XX' at ¢=1 and a =3(8 752).

If any equation, with one unknown number, has a multiple root, the
graph of its first member is tangent to X_X’.
If the root is a triple root, the curve crosses the axis of X at the point
of tangency, and reverses its direction at that point.
If the root is a double root, the curve is entively above, or entirely
below AX’ at the point of tangency. (Compare § 467.)
Let the pupil construct the graphs of the first members of the equations
in Exs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 9, and 10, Exercise 129; finding all the points where
the graphs are parallel to X_X’.

756. An equation of the form 2*— a= 0 can have no multi-

ple roots; for the derivative of #” — ais na”), and x” — a and
ne”? have no common factor except unity.
536 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Therefore, the n roots of 2" =a are all different. ©

It follows from the above that every expression has two dif-
ferent square roots, three different cube roots, and in general x
different nth roots.
STURM’S THEOREM

757. We will now demonstrate two theorems which are used

in the proof or application of Sturm’s Theorem (§ 758).
I. If x be taken sufficiently great, any term of the expression

Dox” + Pye" + o> + Py al + Pn (1)

may be made to numerically exceed the sum of all the Sollowing
terms.
For the ratio of the (r+ 1)th term to the sum of all the fol-
lowing terms is
pe" oy -
Pr ve
Prise” 7 Py gt” Tf vee teDy’ Pes Pr+2 ( )
aia ae os fae
7

By taking @ sufficiently great, the denominator of (2) can be

made numerically as small as we please; hence, the ratio of
p,«"-" to the sum of the following terms can be made numeri-
cally as great as we please.
II. If x be taken sufficiently small, any term of the expression
Dot”+ Pye? ++ Py al + Dp
may be made to numericaily exceed the sum of all the preceding
terms.
For the ratio of the (r+ 1)th term to the sum of all the
preceding terms is

|
Salil or Pr (3)
+ Pw eb pw?
Pol” py + pw + Pr ae
By taking & sufficiently small, the denominator of (3).can be
made numerically as small as we please; hence, the ratio of
p,«"" to the sum of the preceding terms can be made numeri-
cally as great as we please.
 THEORY OF EQUATIONS | 587

758. Sturm’s Theorem. f

Let S(@) = 2+ pw" +--+ pe +p, =0 (1)
be an equation from which the multiple roots have been
removed (§ 754).
Let fw) denote the derivative of f(x) with respect to a
(§ 746).
Dividing f(a) by f\(#), we shall obtain a quotient Q,, with a
remainder of a degree lower than that of f(@).
Denote this remainder, with the sign of each of its terms
changed, by f(x), and divide f(a) by j,(w), and so on; the
operation being precisely the same as that of finding the
H.C. F. of f(x) and fi(#), except that the signs of the terms
of each remainder are to be changed, while no other changes of
sign are permissible.
Since, by hypotKesis, f(z) =0 has no multiple roots, f(a) and
f(z) have no common divisor except unity (§ 754); and we
finally obtain a remainder f,,(x) independent of 2.
The expressions f(x), f(a), fo(@), «++, f.(w) are called Sturm’s
Functions.
The successive operations are represented as follows:
S(®) = HA) — A); (2)
Ai) = Qh) —h), (3)
S@) = %Sx(”) — fx); (4)
Fn—2(@) = O53, n—1(2) — frl@).
We may now enunciate Sturm’s Theorem.
If two real numbers, a and b, are substituted in place of x
in Sturm’s Functions, and the signs noted, the difference between
the number of variations of sign (§ 734) in the first case and that
in the second equals the number of real roots of f(«)=0 lying
between a and b.
The demonstration of the theorem depends upon the fol-
lowing principles:
I. Two consecutive functions cannot both become 0 for the
same value of x.
538 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

For if, for any value of a, f,(x) = 0 and f,(«) = 0, then, by (8),
Ax) =0; and since f,(x)=0 and f(x) =0, by (4), A(z) =9;
continuing in this way, we have finally f,(@) =0.
But by hypothesis, f,(w) is independent of x, and consequently
cannot become 0 for any value of «.
Hence, no two consecutive functions can become 0 for the
same value of a.
Il. If any function, except f(v) and f,(a), becomes 0 for any
value of x, the adjacent functions have opposite signs for this value
of x.
For if, for any value of a, f,(~) =0, then, by (8), we must
have f,(v) =— f;(x) for this value of a.
Therefore, f,(w) and f,(x) have opposite signs for this value
of x; for, by I, neither of them can equal zero.
III. Let ¢ be a root of the equation f(x) = 0, where f,(2) is
any function except f(a) and 7,(@).
By II, f,_:(@) and f,,,(@) have opposite signs when «=e.
Now let h be a positive number, so taken that no root of
S,-1(@) = 0 or f..,(@) = 0 hes between ¢ —h and c+h.
Then as x changes from c—h toc +h, no change of sign takes
place in f,_,(2) or f,,,(@) ; while f,(a) reduces to zero, and changes
or retains its sign according as the root ¢c occurs an odd or even
number of times in f,(w) = 0.
Therefore, for values of x between c—h and e¢, and also for
values of x between c and c + h, the three functions f._,(x), f(z),
and f,,:(@) present one permanence and one variation.
Hence, as x increases from c —h toc + h, no change occurs in
the number of variations in the functions f,_,(«), f,(«), and f..1(2) ;
that is, no change occurs in the number of variations as & in-
creases through a root of f.(w) = 0.
IV. Let c be a root of the equation f(a) = 0; and let h be a
positive number, so taken that no root of f(x) = 0 lies between
ec—handc+Ah. 4
Then, as x increases from ¢c — h to e+h, no change of sign
takes place in f(x); while f(a) reduces to zero, and changes sign.
 THEORY OF EQUATIONS 539

Putting « = c — h in (1), we obtain

SF(e — h) =(¢ — hy" + pic — hy + ++ + p,_s(e — h) +p,
Expanding by the Binomial Theorem, and collecting the
terms involving like powers of h, we have
Fie —h) =e + po + s+ + pei + Dy
— h[ne™™* + (n — 1p"? + + + pal
+ terms involving h?, h’, ---, h”.
But since ¢ is a root of f(w) = 0, we have by (1),
Cp pre" + ++ + Dye + Pn = 0.
Aiso, it is evident that the coefficient of — his the value of
Ji(@) when c is substituted in place of x; therefore,
J (¢ — h) =— hf + terms involving hi’, h’, ---,h. (5)
In like manner it may be shown that
F(e+h) =+hf(c) + terms involving h’, H?,---,h. (6)
Now if h be taken sufficiently small, the signs of the second
members of (5) and (6) will be the same as the signs of their
first terms, — hf,(c) and + Af(c), respectively (§ 757, II).
Hence, if be taken sufficiently small, the sign of f(¢ — h)
will be contrary to the sign of f(c), and the sign of f(c + h)
the same as the sign of f{(c).
' Therefore, for values of « between c — h and ¢, the functions
J (@) and f\(@) present a variation, and for values of 2 between
candec+h they present a permanence.
Hence, a variation is lost as # increases through a root of
f@)=0. |
We may now demonstrate Sturm’s Theorem; for as & in-
creases from 6 to a, supposing a algebraically greater than }b,
a variation is lost each time that w passes through a root of
J (@) = 0, and only then; for when « passes through a root of
S,(v) = 0, where f,(#) is any function except f(#) and f,(#), no
change occurs in the number of variations.
Hence, the number of variations lost as x increases from
6 to a equals the number of real roots of f(w)=0 included
between a and b.
54U ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

759. It is customary, in applications of Sturm’s Theorem,

to speak of the substitution of an indefinitely great positive
number for #, in an expression, as substititing + © for x; and
the substitution of a negative number of indefinitely great
absolute value as substituting — «© for x.
The substitution of +o and —o for a in Sturm’s Fune-
tions determines the number of real roots of f(«) = 0.
The substitution of +o and 0 for # determines the number
of positive real roots, and the substitution of —o and 0 the
number of negative real roots.
Since Sturm’s Theorem determines the number of real roots
of an equation, the number of imaginary roots also becomes
known (§ 715).

760. If a sufficiently great number be substituted for « in

the expression
F(a) = pyr” + py" = wae + Pn Se Pn

the sign of the result will be the same as the sign of its first
term, por” (§ 757, 1); hence,
If +x be substituted for x in F(a), the sign of the result will
be the same as the sign of its first term.
If —o« be substituted for x in F(a), the sign of the result will
be the same as, or contrary to, the sign of its first term, according
as the degree of F(x) is even or odd.

761. We will now consider an example.

Let it be required to determine the number and situation of
the real roots of f(x) =a — 22—a+1=0

Here, A(@) =32?—4a—-1.,

In the process of finding f(a), f(a), etc., any positive numeri-
cal factor may be omitted or introduced at pleasure; for the
sign of the result is not affected thereby ; in this way fractions
may be avoided.
In this case, we multiply f(#) by 3 to make its first term
divisible by 3 a”.
 THEORY OF EQUATIONS 541

3a —4ex—1)382—6e— 32+43(a
se@—4e—
—22— 2243
3
—6e— 624+9(—-2
=Oatt 8242
7)—1402+7
= apsei. f(t) =2a—1.
Se— 4e—1
D
2xe—1)6e— 8x—2(3e
67 = 3a
— 5a—2
2
—10¢%—4(—5
—1027+5

Substituting —oo for # in f(x), f(a), f(x), and f3(#), the

signs are —, +, —, and +, respectively (§ 760); substituting
0 for a, the signs are +, —, —, +, respectively; and sub-
stituting +. for a, the signs are all +.
Hence, the roots of the equation are all real, and two of
_ them are positive and the other negative (§ 759).
We now substitute various numbers to determine the situa-
tion of the roots:
f@) A@ £2) Le)
L=—O, + = + 3 variations.
x=—1, = + _ 7 3 variations.
eo 0, a5 _ _ + 2 variations.
ea I, — — + + 1 variation.
o= 2, = + + + 1 variation.
Gas 3, + a “f + no variation.
i==100), + as +. - no variation.
We then know that the equation has one root between 0 and
— 1, one between 0 and 1, and one between 2 and 3.
542 ADVANCED COURSE
IN ALGEBRA

762, It will be found useful to con-

struct the graphs of f(#) and f,(#), in
the example of § 761.
The graph of f(#) is the curve
ABC; cutting XX! at A, between
e=0 and «=—1, at B, between x=0
and «=1, and at C, between e=2
and «= 3.
The graph of f,(w) is the dotted curve DE; cutting XX' at
D, between »=0 and ~=—1, and at EH between x=1 and
L= zZ.
To find the abscissas of D and EH, we solve the equation
oe es

Then, ¢=2t V4+3_ 2 + 2.64+ —1.54+ or —.21+.

3 3
If we put «=—.21, in f(«), the result is positive.
/ This shows that D is between O and A.
The graph illustrates in an excellent way the truth of § 758,
IV; that as x increases from a value just below to a value just
above a root of f(#) = 0, ne change takes place in the sign of
Ai(@), while f(«) reduces to zero and changes sign.
763. As x increases from —o to +o, f(#) and f,(#) change
signs alternately, for they are always unlike in sign just before
J(«) changes sign (§ 758, IV); hence, if the roots of f(x)=0
and f(z) =0 are all real, a root of fi(~) =0 lies between every
two adjacent roots of f(#) =0.
That a root of f,(7) = 0 lies between every pair of adjacent
roots of f(x) =0, is admirably shown in the figure of § 762.
764. We will give one more illustrative example.
Determine the number and situation of the real roots of
J(@) =4e0—-—6e%—5=0.
Here, f,(«) =12 a —6; or, 2 a?—1, omitting the factar 6.
20°—-1)42°—6x—5(2e
4e— 2a
—4x—5 . fom)
= Ax ee
 THEORY OF EQUATIONS 543

Paya ih
2
Avt+5)4e2— 2(a
Aes 5s
— da— 2
4.
20g 85
— 20 « — 25
alligg ee S3(a) ea 117,

The last step in the division may be omitted; for we only need to
know the sign of f3(a); and it is evident by inspection, when the
remainder — 5 x — 2 is obtained, that the sign of f3(x) will be —.

F@) A(z) A@) A)

t=—-0, — + — 2 variations.
eie='O, — — + — 2 variations.
1, — + + — 2 variations.
i= 2, + + ae — 1 variation.
B=, a + a — 1 variation.
Therefore, the equation has a real root between 1 and 2, and
two imaginary roots.
In substituting the numbers, it is best to work from 0 in either direc-
. tion, stopping when the number of variations is the same as has been
previously found for + or —o, as the case may be.

EXERCISE 130

Determine the nature of the roots of the following :

ieee 5. 2 —822—8e4+1=0.
2. 84+32—5=0. 6. xt# +203 —522?-10x%—8=0.
3. 28 — 522 -+—-224+6=0. q. 2¢4+3822—38274+1=0.
4. x8 + 42-154 —28=0. 8. a£ +4273 4202-6x4-—7=0.

765. Continuity.
A function of x, f(a), is said to be Continuous at 2 =a when
an indefinitely small change in a produces an indefinitely small
change in f(a).
544 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Consider the rational integral function of x

S (@) = pon” + py" + +++ + Pn’ + Dn
Putting a +h in place of x, we have
S(A+h) = polath +pi(at hy ++ + Pe
Expanding by the Binomial Theorem,
F(A +h) = pot" + pia" + +++ + Prat + Dn
+ terms involving h, 12, -+-, h®
= f(a) + terms involving h, h?, «+, h”.
Then, f(a +h) — f(a) = terms involving h, h’, ---, h”.
If h be taken indefinitely small, f(a+h)—j (a) will be indefi-
nitely small; for the coefficients of h, h’, ---, h” are finite.
Hence, an indefinitely small change in a produces an indefi-
nitely small change in f(a).
That is, a rational integral function of x is continuous at every
value of x.
It follows from the above that the graph of a rational integral
function of x is a continuous line, without breaks.
We have assumed this in the figures of Chap. XIV, §§ 465,
467, 482, and 483, and all the figures of Chap. XX XVII.

766. We will illustrate a discontinuous function of w by a

figure.
Consider the fraction
Put y =—_-
1 ha
x—1
As x increases from —oo to 1, y is
negative, and increases indefinitely in
absolute value.
As & increases from 1 to 0, y is posi-
tive; and commencing with an indefi-
nitely great value, decreases indefinitely.
The graph consists of two branches, 4B and CD; an@ it is
evident that, at «=1, an indefinitely small change in 2 pro-
duces an indefinitely great change in y.
 SOLUTION OF HIGHER EQUATIONS 545

XXXVIII. SOLUTION OF HIGHER EQUATIONS

COMMENSURABLE ROOTS
We shall use the term commensurable root, in Chap. XXXVIII, to
signify a rational root expressed in Arabic numerals.

767. By § 722, an equation of the nth degree in the general

form (§ 712), with integral numerical coefficients, cannot have
as a root a rational fraction in its lowest terms.
Therefore, to find all the commensurable roots of such an
equation, we have only to find all its integral roots.
Again, by § 719, the last term of an equation of the above
form is divisible by every integral root.
Hence, to find all the commensurable roots, we have only to
ascertain by trial which integral divisors of the last term are roots
of the equation.
The trial may be made in three ways:
I. By substitution of the supposed root.
Il. By dividing the first member of the equation by the
unknown number minus the supposed root (§ 183); in this
-ease, the operation may be conveniently performed by Syn-
thetic Division (§ 733).
III. By Newton’s Method of Divisors (§ 769).
In the case of small numbers, such as + 1, the first method
may be the most convenient. ,
The second has the advantage that, when a root has been
found, the process gives at once the depressed equation (§ 716)
for obtaining the remaining roots.
If the number of divisors is large, the third method will
be found to involve the least work.
Considerable work may sometimes be saved by finding a
superior limit to the positive roots, and an inferior limit to the
negative roots (§§ 739, 740); for no number need be tried
which does not fall between these limits.
546 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Descartes’ Rule of Signs (§ 735) may also be advantageously

employed to shorten the process.
Any multiple root should be removed (§ 754) before apply-
ing either method.
Ex. Find all the roots of at — 152?+ 102+ 24 — 0.
By Descartes’ Rule, the equation cannot have more than two
positive, nor more than two negative roots.
We can write the first member a? (aw — 15) +10x%+4 24; then
no root can be as great as 4 (§ 739).
Changing the sign of the « term, the first member becomes
eo hae = TNee ae Ae
We write this in the form (see Ex. 2, § 739),
Bl
ache ats
— 45) +5x (30) -+24.
Then no negative root can be as small as — 5 (§ 740).
The integral divisors of 24 which are less than 4, and greater
than —5, are +1, +2, +3, and —4.
By substitution, we find that 1 is not, and that —1 is, a root
of the equation.
Dividing the first member by «—2 and x—3 (§ 733), we
have
1+0 —15 +10 +24 |2 1 +0 —15 +10 +24 [38
2 — 22 — 24 3 9 —18 — 24
2—11—12, 0 Rem. 3—- 6— 8, 0ORem.
The work shows that 2 and 3 are roots of the given equation;
and since the equation cannot have more than two positive
roots, these are the only positive roots.
The remaining root may be found by dividing 24 by the
product of —1, 2, and 3 (§ 720), or by the same process as
above.
Dividing the first member by #+ 2, x+3, etc., we have
140-15 4+104+24|-2 140-15 410+424|-3
Og ror Gt 2. Sak CMEBeer
a
Ott Soe Ad 56) POSED
 SOLUTION OF HIGHER EQUATIONS DAT

Pepe beri0eed eed

ee Ge 4
—4 1 6270
The work shows that the remaining root is — 4.
768. By § 728, an equation of the nth degree in the general
form, with fractional coefficients, may be transformed into
another whose coefficients are integral, that of the first term
being unity.
The commensurable roots of the transformed equation may
then be found as in § 767.
Ex. Find all the roots of 4a? —12a?+ 27 x—-19=0.
Dividing through by the coefficient of a’, we have

Proceeding as in § 728, it is evident by inspection that the

multiplier 2 will remove the fractional coefficients; thus the
transformed equation is
27 x 19
x 5}3, 30?
Bin bale
+ ya aES ONE ale
1 ())’

or, v— 62+ 27x%—38=0; (1)

‘whose roots are those of the given equation multiplied by 2.
By Descartes’ Rule, equation (1) has no negative root.
The positive integral divisors of 38 are 1, 2, 19, and 38.
Dividing the first member by x—1, «— 2, etc., we have
qn eT 38) 1 1 16) oT ess2
Bel 2 5 422 ree SRE
ee 16 ZAmROe 0
The work shows that 2 is a root of (1).
The remaining roots may now be found by depressing the
equation; it is evident from the right-hand operation above
that the depressed equation is x? —4x%+4+19=0.
Solving this, g=2+/—15.
Thus the roots of (1) are 2 and 2+-V— 15.
548 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Dividing by 2, the roots of the given equation are

dand 1+ tv 15.
769. Newton’s Method of Divisors.
If a is an integral root of the equation
a” 0") foes + Dy? + Dnt + Pn = 0,
where ;, +++; DP» are integers, then
a" Py Pye +Paadt + P= 9.
Transposing, and dividing by a,
Pn =— Py-1— Pn—ot — ++ — pa”?— a"; (1)
a
from which it is seen that Pe must be an integer.
We may write (1) in the form
aeJEG ee — Dn—o — ++ — pa? — az},

Representing Pe+ Pn—-1 DY Qn—1, and dividing by a,

Yn
a == Par Past Pe
-3 =o

from which it is seen that fot must be an integer.

Proceeding in this way, it is evident that, if a is a root of
Yn-1
a =I Pn—2

the equation, each of the numbers or Yn-2

a ? ]

vp)
ee
or = must be an integer, and ay 1 must equal 0.

We then have the following rule:

Divide the last term of the equation by one of its integral
divisors, and to the quotient add the coefficient of x.
Divide the result by the same divisor, and, if the quotient is an
integer, add to it the coefficient of a. .
Proceed in this manner with each coefficient in succession ;
then, if the divisor is a root of the equation, each quotient will be
integral, and the last quotient added to unity will equal zero.
 SOLUTION OF HIGHER EQUATIONS 549

If a fractional quotient is obtained at any stage, the cor-

responding divisor is not a root of the equation.
Ex. Find all the roots of at — a3 — Te? + 2+6=0.
By Descartes’ Rule, the equation cannot have more than two
positive, nor more than two negative roots.
The integral divisors of 6 are +1, + 2, +3, and + 6.
By actual substitution, we find that 1 and —1 are roots.
We will next ascertain if 2 is a root; a convenient arrange-
ment of the work is shown below:
1—1-—-7+1+46[2,
ys}
=—5 4
The operation is carried out as follows:
Dividing 6 by 2, gives 3; adding 1, gives 4.
Dividing 4 by 2, gives 2; adding —7, gives — 5.
Dividing —5 by 2, the quotient is fractional; therefore, 2
is not a root.
1 —1 —7 +1 +6 (3 1 —1 —7 +1 +6(|-2
—1-2 1 2 —-1 38 1-8
0-38 —6 3 0 2-6 —2
In these cases, each quotient is integral, and the last quotient
added to unity gives 0; therefore, 3 and — 2 are roots.
There is no need of trying +6 in this example, for we know that the
equation cannot have more than two positive roots.

EXERCISE 131

In each of the following, find all the commensurable roots, and the
remaining roots when possible by methods already given :
ee — nO a og —— lo — 0, 4. 22+ 422-— 9x-—386=0.
9. w— 8e7+ 562+14=0- 5. 808+ 4427-—18244+6=0.
8. 78+ 1202+
447 4 48-0. 6. 422+ 1622-72 —39=0
7. 4+ 1003+ 350? + 50”%4 24=—0.
8. c¢— 523+ 20%—16=0.
9. xt — 1522+ 65 22 — 10524 54 =0.
550 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

10. «$+ 823 + 11 a? —32x2%-—60=0.

11. xt —2e% — 1707 +1844+72=0.
12. 424 —12 03 —9024+47x%—30=0.
18. 62¢ —723 — 3727+8%244+12=0.
14. 2° 4+ 8at—7 2? — 103 x? + 692+ 18=0.
15. 3804+203 —182?+8=0.
16. 244+ 22-6224
162 — 32 =0.

RECIPROCAL OR RECURRING EQUATIONS

770. A Reciprocal Equation is one such that if any numbe!

is a root of the equation, its reciprocal is also a root.
It follows from the above that, if u be substituted for a in 2
wv
reciprocal equation, the transformed equation will have the
same roots as the given equation.

771. Let
ane + pyr} + pov"? = at + Pps” + Pn—-1e a /D- = 0 (L

be a reciprocal equation.
Putting t for #, the equation becomes
x

oe oa
uh
a" ge” = op Pay Pet: +p,
2
= 0.
n—

Clearing of fractions, and reversing the order of the terms,

Prt” = Peat zs pews qe + px? + px 2 1=0.

Dividing through by p,,

op Teh
ons tari wre
: isiesecto ae ~=0. @
By § 770, this equation has the same roots as os and henee
the following relations must hold between the coefficients o:
(1) and (2),
Pr-1 Pn-2 Peo Pr ul '
a a ? POO Pe Det
Dx p > Pna Re (3

From the last equation, p,2=1; whence, p,=+1.

 SOLUTION OF HIGHER EQUATIONS 551

Then the equations (3) become

Pi=£ Po-y Ps= FE Pay 2° 5
all the upper signs, or all the lower signs, being taken together.
We then have four varieties of reciprocal equations:
1. Degree odd, and coefficients of terms equally distant from
the extremes of the first member equal in absolute value and of
like sign; as, a —2e?—2%2+1=0.
2. Degree odd, and coefficients of terms equally distant from
the extremes of the first member equal in absolute value and
of opposite sign; as, 3a°+2a*—a?+2?—22—3=0.
3. Degree even, and coefficients of terms equally distant
from the extremes of the first member equal in absolute value
and of like sign; as, #*—5a°+62?—52+1=0.
4. Degree even, and coefficients of terms equally distant
from the extremes of the first member equal in absolute
value and of opposite sign, and middle term wanting; as,
ee (ee oh 2 —()
On account of the properties stated above, reciprocal equa-
tions are also called Recurring Equations.

772. Every reciprocal equation of the first variety may be

written in the form
Pot” + pyw"—* + paper? ope? + pe + po= 0,
or, pole” +1) + p(w" +2) + po(a"-? + a”) + + = 0; (1)
or, poe” +1) + pya(a"-? + 1) + pow’(a"-* +1) +--+ =0 ;
the number of terms being even.
By § 142, since n is odd, each of the expressions a"+1,
a" 1 1, etc., is divisible by x +1.
Therefore, — 1 is a root of the equation.
Dividing the first member of (1) by «+1, the depressed
equation is
a 2 gr? ae ggn-3 ps ae aiehb —2 ot 1)

+ py (ar? — 8 4 art — 1 + 0? — x? + 2)
+ p,(a — grt gr — ... ee at — a3 a a0") 4 = Q,
552 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Or, pot"! + (Pi — Do) 2"? + (Po — Pit Po) e+ ++

+ (P2—
Pit Po)® + (Pi — Po)®+ Po= 9;
which is a reciprocal equation of the third variety.
773. Every reciprocal equation of the second variety may
be written in the form
Po” + py + ps"? + +++ — py — px — Py =O,
or, pow” — 1) + p(w “1 — 2) + po(x"? — a) + ++» =0, (1)
or, po(a” — 1) + pye(a”-* — 1) + pye?(a"*# — 1) ++ =0.
Since each of the expressions #” — 1, #"-? —1, etc., is divisi-
ble by «—1, +1 is a root of the equation.
Dividing the first member of (1) by a—1, the depressed
equation is
Pk ee? at Pia ae an 1)
Pie eehte ee te)
pa? 4 et? nee a Fa Et) ese =,
or, pe + (Py + Po) 2"? + (Pat Pi + Po) 2" + +++
+ (Pa + Pit Po) 2"+ (Pr + Po) & + Po = 05
which is a reciprocal equation of the third variety. ,
774. Every reciprocal equation of the fourth variety may be
written in the form
po(a* — 1) + pia" — 2) + pa"? — 2%) +... = 0, ~ A)
or, pox” — 1) + px (a? — 1) + p.p?(o"-*#$— 1) ++. =0;
the number of terms being even (§ 771).
Since each of the expressions a” — 1, 2"-* —1, ete., is divisible
by #— 1, both 1 and —1 are roots of the equation.
Dividing the first member of (1) by a?—1, the depressed
equation is
pola"? + a4 + ar$ +. tat + a? + 1)
+ pi(a"? w"F 4 arT 4... + a? + a8 + or)
+ po(ar* + ar F4 ar 8+... 4 a 4 oto) fo 0,
or pat mye + (pet) at
+ (po + Po)2”+ pt + py= 0;
which is a reciprocal equation of the third variety
 SOLUTION OF HIGHER EQUATIONS 553

775. Every reciprocal equation of the third variety may be

reduced to an equation of half its degree.
Let the equation be
Det + pan} Jboee + p10"? + Pe™ a er oe +...

+ pt + py = 0.
Dividing through by a”, the equation may be written

(2 +3n) tao" ee ae gmt

+Pma(@ +5) + P= 0. (1)

Put epee gy.
z
Rien , e+ <e
aa(ets) peney

erde(erDeed)-C+)
Se) aI, fae
x

Fle 42 ee
x.

saba(oo(e43) (24)
=y(y—2)-—y=y¥
—3y;
Pb pr 1\_ fat

a -4y?
=y(y—3y)—-(y’—-2)=y¥'+ 2; ete.

raba(oeD(ord) )
{n general,

ax ax ax ax

an expression of the rth degree with respect to y.

Substituting these values in (1), the equation takes the form
gay” + gy" + qay™ + +++= 0.
776. It follows from §§ 772 to 775 that any reciprocal equa-
tion of the degree 2m +1, and any reciprocal equation of the
fourth variety of the degree 2m+2, can be reduced to an
equation of the mth degree.

777. He. Solve 2 —52*—138¢ +1327 +52—2=0.

The equation being of the second variety, one root is 1 (§ 773).
504 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Dividing by «—1, ‘the depressed equation is

20 —3e—16¢—324+2=0;
a reciprocal equation of the third variety.

Dividing by 2%, 2(2 is2)= (2a ) ea:

Putting ee,
e and 2 +5=/°
2 — 2 (§ 775), we have

2(y° — 2) —3y—16=0.
Solving this equation, y=4or — 2.

Taking the first value, a+ z= 4, or #—42=—1.

Whence, a= 24+ 3.
Taking the second value, «+ Leon: = or 20° +5e=—2.
2 2
Whence, o=—? or — x
hed

The roots of the given equation are 1, — 2, — - and 2+ V3.

That 2+ V3 and2 — v3 are reciprocals may be shown by multiplying
them ; thus, (2 + V8)(2-—V3)=4-—3=1.

7 EXERCISE 132
Solve the following :
1. 4084+ 2197 + 21la4 4=—0, 8. 28 — 52? —54+1=0.
S. te 1 Ag ae 4. 624+ 1823 -—182%-—6=0.
5. 2404-1003
— 7722-1024 24=—0.
6. 2+ 2e¢—5o84+5a2?-2e—1=0.
7. 505 — 56 xt + 18193 4+ 181 2? — 5624+5=0.
8. 325 + 4a — 23 23 — 23924 42743=0.
9. 625 — 7 e*— 27 08 4.27 024+ 72 —6=0.
10. 1026
—1945 — 19 a4 4 19272 4+192%-—10=0.

778. Binomial Equations. és

A Binomial Equation is an equation of the form w” = a.
Binomial equations are also reciprocal equations, and, in
certain cases, may be solved by the method § 777.
 SOLUTION OF HIGHER EQUATIONS 555

Putting x=ay, the equation «=+ a" becomes y*=+1;

which is a form to which every, binomial equation may be
reduced.
In § 460, methods were given for the solution of the bi-
nomial equations a=+1, #=+1, and 2=+1.
The forms «= +1 may be solved by the method of § 777.
Binomial equations of any degree may be solved by a method involving
Trigonometry.

EXERCISE 133
Solve the following :
perce tll. QF alls San

779. The Cube Roots of Unity.

By Ex. 1, § 460, the roots of the equation 2? =1 are
i, Sy

The third root is the square of the second; for

(So) =e
2
hed A 2

The second root is also the square of the third.

Hence, if the second root be denoted by , the three cube
roots of unity are 1, w, and ow”.
. @ 3 il
Since w3 = 1, they are 1, w, and — or --
(>) Ww

780. If the second root be denoted by a, the three roots are

a, dw, and aw’; for these equal o, w”, and w® or 1, respectively.
In like manner, if the third root be denoted by a, the three
roots are a, dw, and dw”.
Hence, if either of the cube roots of a number be denoted
by a, the other two roots are aw and aw”.

CUBIC EQUATIONS

781. A Cubic Equation is an equation of the third degree

(§ 113), containing but one unknown number.
556 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGERRA

782. By § 732, the cubic equation

+ px" + px + p= 0,
where p, is not zero, may be transformed into another whose
second term shall be wanting by substituting y — a for x.
Hence, every cubic equation can be reduced to the form
| e+ar+b=0.

783. Cardan’s Method for the Solution of Cubics.

Let it be required to solve the equation «+ ax+b=0.
Putting «=y+2, the equation becomes
yptsyyte+2%t+ayt+2)+b=9,
or, pte+tBsyztajyy+z)+b=0.
We may give such a value to z that 3 yz-+ a shall equal zero.
Whence, Z=— re (4)

Then, ytetb=0. (2)

Substituting the value of z from (1) in (2), we have
ene or y + bp =<.
27 ¥? 27
This is an equation in the quadratic form (§ 468).
Solving by the rules for quadratics, we have

1
Oe ee
a
eR S ©)
cen
Then by @), #=—y—b=—3 T+ (4)
Taking the upper signs before the radicals, in (8) and (4),

NED CEE) ©
and substituting in the equation «= y-+2z, we have

The dower signs before the radicals give the same value of x.
The other two roots may be found by depressing the given
equation (§ 716).
 SOLUTION OF HIGHER EQUATIONS 507

784. Ex. Solve the equation a3 +32—62+20=0.

We first transform the equation into another whose second _
term shall be wanting.
Putting nay—S=y-1 (§ 782), we have

y—3y+3y—1+3y—6y+3—6y+6+420=0,
or, y—Iy+28=0.
To solve the latter equation, we substitute a=—9 and
b = 28 in (5), § 783.
Thus, y= V — 14 +-/196
—27 + V — 14 — 196—27
= V¥=14 7-27 =—1—3=—4
Therefore, e=y—1=—65,
Dividing the first member of the given equation by x+5,
the depressed equation is
v’—2e2+4=0.
Solving, e=1+-/—8.
Thus, the roots of the given equation are — 5 and 1+ V—3.

: EXERCISE 134
Solve the following:
1. #8 — 24a” —72=0. 6. 2+602+
27% —86=—0.
Mee le ell Ona, 7%, 02+ 9424+ 12%— 144 =0.
8. “2+ 72% + 152 =0. 8. 22+02-—3844+ 36=—0.
Ate be pote ie O05 9. «2 —2e7—1527+ 36=0.
5. 22 —3 22+ 48% + 52 —0. 10. 22 —42?+82-—8=0.
11. Find one root of 73+ «+—2=0.
A cubic equation having a commensurable root is solved more easily by
the method of § 767 than by Cardan’s rule.
2 3
785. If h is any one of the cube roots of —3+ ats q
2 3
and k& any one of the cube roots of —S-Vtt+, the three
cube roots of the first expression are h, hw, and hw’, and the
three cube roots of the second are k, kw, and kw’ (§ 780).
558 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

This would apparently indicate that a has nine different

values.
But by (1), § 783, yz= a) that is, the product of the terms
whose sum is a value of # must be 5
Hence, the only possible values of # are
h+k, ho+ko*, and hw*+ ko;
for in each of these the product of the terms is hk; that is,
ae Col a ry. :
———— eae while in any other case the product is
a or — a=o
either —=w
3 3
Putting for w and w* their values (§ 779), the second and
third values of # become
n(=te 8)4 1(= 9)
2 2

and n(— vey eS) :

Hence, the three values of x are

pi ha a ps sae) A ee

Thus in the example of § 784, h =—landk=—8.

Then the values of y are — 4, 2+ V—3, and 2—V—3.

EXERCISE 135
Solve the following :
1. #8+12%+4+12=—0. 2. 8 +182—6=0.

786. Discussion of the Solution.

If n= 4] _} Ae a eee 4-3-7BFa)
— NG a ee 4127
the roots of «+ ave+b=0 are

n+k, and —SEE PE V—3 (5 785).

i
SOLUTION OF HIGHER EQUATIONS 559

3
1. If a is positive, or if a is negative and = numerically
2
less than °, hand & are real and unequal.
Therefore, one root is real, and the other two pure imagi-
nary or complex.
3 2
2. If ais negative, and = numerically equal to a hand k
7
are real and equal, and h — k is zero.
Hence, the roots are all real, and two of them are equal.
3 2
3. If ais negative, and = numerically greater than * the
values of h and k involve pure imaginary numbers.
In this case, h must have some value of the form h'+ k'i,
where h' and k’ are real (§ 713).

:
That is, eg:
n=ai( 5 at Nata)
2g + helt.
I (1)

Then, k= ies —\7+ yah—kli (§ 424).

Therefore, h+k=2h', and h—k=2 ki.
Then the three roots are 2h! and —h' + kiV—3.
Minas, 2h’ and =— fh! a kh! ~/3.
Therefore, the roots are real and unequal.
In the above case, Cardan’s method is of no practical value, for since
there is no method in Algebra for finding the cube root of an expression
in the form of a rational expression plus a quadratic surd (§ 368), the
values of h and & cannot be found; in this case, which is called the
Irreducible Case, Cardan’s method is said to fail.
It is possible, in cases where Cardan’s method fails, to find the roots
by Trigonometry (see § 789); but in practice it is easier to find them by
§ 767, or by Horner’s method (§ 794), according as the equation has or
has not a commensurable root.

787. Consider the equation a+ ax’+be+c=0

Putting «=y— :, the equation becomes

ae eefel
Oy
y = aye + OE
SECMe
op mn Dijcasee
ae +24 by toxaL
560 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Or, pre S10ye 2 a —9 =ab-+ + 27 Cay. (1)

Transforming the equation into another whose coefficients

shall be integral, that of the first term being unity (§ 728), we
have ye +3(3b—a2)y
+2 a®—9 ab+27 c=0,
whose roots are respectively 3 times those of (1).
Then it follows from § 786 that:
1. If 36—a? is positive, or if 30—da? is negative and
4 (3b —a*)? numerically less than (2 a? —9 ab + 27 c)’, the given
cubic has one real and two pure imaginary or complex roots.
2. If 3b—a?’ is negative, and 4(3 b — a’)® numerically equal
to (2 a3 — 9 ab + 27 c)’, the roots are all real, and two of them
equal.
“3. If 36—a’is negative, and 4(3 6 — a’)® numerically greater
than (2 a®— 9 ab + 27 c)’, the roots are all real and unequal.

788. Solution of Cubic Equations by Trigonometry in Cardan’s

Irreducible Case.
To solve the equation «®—ax—b=0,
3 2
where a is positive, and a > - (Compare § 786, 3.)

Putting «= 2m cos A, the equation becomes

8 m® cos? _A —2 am cos'A—b=0;
a b
or, 4 coe A= cop A ==();
m 2m
It is proved in Trigonometry (see Ex. 16, p. 35, Wells’ Com-
plete Trigonometry) that
4 cos* A =cos3 4+ 3 cos A.
b
Whence, cos3 4+ 3 cos A — e cos A — 0.
m 2m3

Or, cos 3.A + (3ms)

a
cos A— b> =O. (1)
 SOLUTION OF HIGHER EQUATIONS 061

We may take m so that 3 0; then m=4/%. (2)

m 3
Then (1) becomes cos 3 A= pace
2m?
Substituting in this the value of m from (2),

ae
b e
[27 (3)

Since, by hypothesis, ae
2A 2, WB have 2x 2 sale
27 4
Taking the square root of both members of the inequality,
b. [27
=4/— <1.
2 Va -
Then, the value of 3.4 in (3) is possible, since its cosine
iS<l.
Let z be the least positive angle whose cosine equals Ne
Then, one value of 3 roeis:2.
Two other values are 27+2z and 22—z; for the cosines of
these angles are equal to the cosine of z.
Then, SA=2, Or 2a 23

- and n=2moos A= 24/4cos a or 24|" cos Gree

where z is given by the equation cos z =t a

a
An equation of the third degree cannot have more than
three different roots; so that these are the only values of 2.

789. Hx. Solve the equation

w&—4a—2=0.

Here, G34,
b= 2;

then, coset
27

By logarithms, log cos z= ;(log 27 — log 64).

562 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

log 27= 1.4314

log 64= 1.8062
2)19.6252 — 20
log cosz= 9.8126 —10
Then, = 49° 29.3'.

Thus, — 16° 29.8',

and 2 t=2
Af
Then, the values of x are:

ubcos 16° 29.8',

ye cos (120° + 16° 29.8") = i cos 136° 29.8"

se aR sin 46° 29.8’,

and Ve3 cos (120° — 16° 29.8") = ae3 cos 103° 30.2!
ee: Vie sin 13° 30.2!,
log ye =5 (log 16 — log 3) = +(1.2041—.4771)=.3635. (1)
log cos 16° 29,8’ = 9.9817 — 10. (2)
log sin 46° 29.8’ = 9.8606 — 10. (3)
log sin 13° 30.2! = 9.3683 — 10. (4)
Adding (2), (8), and (4) to (1), the logarithms of the abso-
lute values of a are
0.38452, 0.2241, and 9.7318 — 10.
The numbers corresponding to these are .
2.214, 1.675, and .5393.
Then, v= 2,214, — 1.675, or —.5393.
 SOLUTION OF HIGHER EQUATIONS 563

If the given equation had been «3 — 4% + 2=0, we should have had

a=4, b =— 2; and cos z would have been — en

If cose =~)", cos (r — 2) =— cosz= cl

64
We should then have found 7 — z = 49° 29.3’, and 2 = 130° 80.7’.
The three values of x would then have been:

V5 cos 43° 30.2', and e cos (120° + 43° 30.2/).

We should have found # = 1.675, — 2.214, or 5393.
In any case where a and @ are positive, z is acute, and the equation
has one positive and two negative roots ; if @ is positive and b negative,
zis obtuse, and the equation has two positive and one negative root.

/ EXERCISE 136
Solve the following :
lege 4g — 1 — 0) 8. 24-692 —7—1=0.
2. 8—624+3=0. 4, 8 —3x27-—2e4+1=0,

BIQUADRATIC EQUATIONS
790. A Biquadratic Equation is an equation of the fourth
degree, containing but one unknown number.

Euler’s Method for the Solution of Biquadratics.

By § 732, every biquadratic equation can be reduced to the
form + av+ba+c=0. (1)
Let e=u+y+z; then,
VP=wtyt2+
Quy +2 yz2+22u,
or, aw — (wr ty? +2) = 2 (uy + yz +20).
“eid both members, we have
—2e(W+ytAt+wW+ yt 2 =4 (uy + yz + eu)?
=4 (wy?
+ ye? + 27u”) + 8 uyz(uty
+2).
Substituting # for uw+y-+42, and transposing,
—2e?(wW+y +2) —8 uyze
+(w+yt 2) —4 (wy + ye + 2’) =0.
564 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

This equation will be identical with (1) provided

a=—2(v+y+2’),
b=—8 uyz, (2)
and cH (+74 2 —4(wy + ye? + 2’).

Then, wry te=—s, and utyiet = 2

ae
——e¢
2,9 + 92?
Also,
wy? 242 + 2u?
2 gee
= +e mte ees
mie Teeens
si

If, now, we form the cubic equation

B — (u? ak y? =f 2”) fedak (uy? as yn" as zu") f= wyZ? — 0,

the values of ¢ will be wu’, y’, and 2? (§ 718).

Hence, if the roots of the cubic equation

fe aca aayBaal @ eee

b?
+5 tT 6 64 Co
be J, m, and n, we shall have
u=tvil, y=ivVm, and z=+V*n.
Now x=u+y-+2; and since each of the numbers wu, y, and
z has two values, apparently # has eight values.
But by (2), the product of the three terms whose sum is a
value of x must be — 3°
Hence, the only values of # are, when 0 is positive,
= VL fi ge he ty
Vi-Vm+vVn, and Vi+Vm —Vn;
and when 0 is negative,
Vit-vVn+vVn, Vi-Vm—V*n,
—Vi+Vm—Vn, and —Vi-Vm+vV*n.
Equation (3) is called the auwiliary cubic of (1).

791. Ex. Solve the equation xt— 46 2?—24%+4 21=0.

Here, a=— 46, b=— 24, c= 21.
 SOLUTION OF HIGHER EQUATIONS 565

24 bias
Whence, = 16 c= 127, and reat

Then the auxiliary cubic is @— 23 ?+127t—-9=0.

By the method of § 767, one value of ¢ is 9.
Dividing the first member by t—9, the depressed equation
is ?—14¢+1=0.
Solving, t=7+V49—1=7+4Vv3.
Proceeding as in § 392, we have
V(7 £4V3)=V(4 + 2V12
+ 3)=24 V3.
Then since 6 is negative, the four values of a are
eetOd 2 Oo,BO Vo / B,
239443, and) 8-2 = V3 +29 3.
favic (.— 1) — 3-2/5, andi o— 0/0,

; EXERCISE 137
Solve the following :
1. at — 6022+ 80 x + 384 =0.
. 2 — 44424 164+ 192 =—0.
xt — 4042+ 644-4 128 =0.
at — 54 x2 — 216 & — 243 = 0,
vt — 22 42-12% 448=—0.
wD
Aaat+403
—442 — 374 — 42-0.

' 792. Discussion of the Solution.

The auxiliary cubic of «+ ax’ + ba +c=0is
oO) a —A2e ce
Caer ~ 16 Weer fees ek (1)

Since the last term is essentially negative, the equation

must have either three positive, one positive and two nega-
tive, or one positive and two pure imaginary or complex roots
(§ 718).
Transforming the equation into another whose coefficients
shall be integral, that of the first term being unity (§ 728), we
have + 2a?+ (a?—4c)t-B=0, (2)
whose roots are respectively 4 times those of (1).
 566 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Denoting 2a, a?—4c, and — 0? by a’, b’, and c’, respectively,

it is necessary, before we can determine the nature of the roots
of (2), to compute the values of 30'— a!’ and 2a!*—9a'b'+
27 c' (§ 787).
Now, 30'— a’? =3(a? —4c) -40=— (+4120),
and = 2a!?— 9a/b' + 27 c'=16 a® — 18 a(a?— 4c) — 278”
= — (2a°— 72 ac + 27 0’).
Then it follows from § 787 that:
1. If a?+12c is negative, or if a?+12 ¢ is positive and 4 (a?+
12)? less than (2a?— 72 ae + 270°)’, the auxiliary cubic has
one positive and two pure imaginary or complex roots.
If Vi=p, Vm=q+rv—1, and Vn=q—rv —1, the
roots of the biquadratic are
—pit2gq and p+t2rv
—1, or pt2q and —p+2rv —1,
according as 0 is positive or negative.
That is, the biquadratic has two real and two pure imagi-
nary or complex roots.
2. If a?+12¢ is positive, and 4(a?+12c)® is equal to
(2 a’ — 72 ae + 27 b*)’, the cubic has two roots equal.
If Vn = Vm, the roots of the biquadratic are
—Vilt2Vm, Vi, and Vi, or ViIt2Vm, — V1, and —V1,
according as 0 is positive or negative.
That is, the biquadratic has two roots equal.
2
3. If a’ +12¢ is positive and 4(a? +12c)® greater than
(2 a® — 72 ac + 27 b*)*, the cubic has either three positive, or
one positive and two negative roots.
In the first case, the roots of the biquadratic are all real;
in the second case, they are all pure imaginary or complex.
4. Ifa’ +12c=0 and 2a?—72ac
+ 27b?=0, thene=——.
» 12
Substituting from the third equation in the second,
€ 2 OD 4A

8.@° +27 b= 0, or a= — 253; whence, a?— 4¢ =“ =o

\
\
)
 SOLUTION OF HIGHER EQUATIONS 567

In this case, the auxiliary cubic becomes

Se Fahne Ouknrgt ida er

8 Le}

B—<p3??
mn +
16 640’ ( ue ‘
and each of its roots is equal to ee
The roots of the biquadratic are — .=)
st 1 1 1 Di te Dae,
38 b3 bs se di ee a
ee pt According: as is positive or
negative; that is, the biquadratic has three roots equal.
5. If a?—4c=0 and. b=0, the biquadratic becomes
2 2
at + aut?+ =0,or (#+5)=0

and its roots are eae and Ne <:

That is, the biquadratic has two pairs of equal roots.

INCOMMENSURABLE ROOTS

793. We will now show how to find the approximate nu-

merical values of those roots of an equation which are not
commensurable (§ 767).
794. Horner’s Method of Approximation.
Let it be required to find the approximate value of the root
between 3 and 4 of the equation
Coe —2e-- oi 0:
We first transform the equation into another whose roots
shall be respectively those of the first diminished by 3 (§ 733).
1-3 —2 +6 [a
Sorte (heucece
R Oooo
he et
Beg
3
iG
 568 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

The transformed equation is y¥°+6y+7y—1=0. (1)

We know that equation (1) has a root between 0 and 1.
If, then, we neglect the terms involving 7° and y’, we may
obtain an approximate value of y by solving the equation
7y—1=0; thus, approximately, y=.1 and x= 3.1.
Transforming (1) into an equation whose roots shall be
respectively those of (1) diminished by .1, we have
1 +6 47 —1 &S
t= Void SeyGL 761
6.1 7.61 — .239
lane
6.28.23
#4
6.3
The transformed equation is
246.32 + 8.23 2—.239
=0. (2)
Neglecting the z2* and 2” terms, we have, approximately,
.239
== 33 02,
“Teas
Thus, the value of # to two places of decimals is 3.12.
Transforming (2) into an equation whose roots shall be
respectively those of (2) diminished by .02, we have
1 +63 +823 —239 |.02
_.02 1264 167128
6.32. 8.3564 — 071872
02 1268
6.34 8.4832
02
6.36
The transformed equation is
u> + 6.36 wu? + 8.48382 u— .071872 = 0. <
Dividing .071872 by 8.4832, we have .008 suggested as the
2 fourth figure of the root.
\

\
 SOLUTION OF HIGHER EQUATIONS 569

Thus, the value of x to three places of decimals is 3.128.

The process may be continued until the value of the root
has been found to any desired degree of precision.
The work is usually arranged in the following form, the
coefficients of the successive transformed equations being
denoted by (1), (2), (8), ete.:
hae =o $B |3.128
aed rhal 0
0 = yeaa
oe _9 761
Ser (te 7 Po yree 4050
“8 61 167128
(1) 6 fo OES
a! _
62
6.1 { (2). 8.23
ra 1264.
6.2 8.3564
1 1268
(2) 63 (8) 8.4832
02
6.32
02
6.34
_.02
(3) 6.36
We derive from the above the following rule for finding the
approximate value of a positive incommensurable root:
Find by §§ 741 or 742, or by Sturm’s Theorem (§ 758), the
integral part of the root. (Compare § 743.)
Transform the given equation into another whose roots shall be
respectively those of the first diminished by this integral part.
Divide the absolute value of the last term of the transformed
equation by the absolute value of the coefficient of the first power
of the unknown number, and write the approximate value of the
result as the neat figure of the root.
570 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Transform the last equation into another whose roots shall be

respectively those of the first diminished by the figure of the root
last obtained, and divide as before for the next figure of the root;
and so on.
In practice, the work may be contracted by dropping such decimal
figures from the right of each column as are not needed for the required
degree of accuracy.

In determining the integral part of the root, it will be found convenient

to construct the graph of the first member of the given equation,

795. To find the approximate value of a negative incommen-

surable root, transform the equation into another which shall
have the same roots with contrary signs (§ 726), and find the |
corresponding positive incommensurable root of the transformed
equation.
The result with its sign changed will be the required negative
root.

796. In finding any particular root-figure by the method of

§ 794, we are liable, especially in the first part of the process,
to get too great a result; the same thing occasionally happens
when extracting square or cube roots of numbers.
Such an error may be discovered by observing the signs of
the last two terms of the next transformed equation; for since
each root-figure obtained as in § 794 must be positive, the last
two terms of the transformed equation must be of opposite sign.
If this is not the case, the last root-figure must be diminished
until a result is obtained whieh satisfies this condition.
Let it be required, for example, to find the root between 0
and — 1 of the equation 2? + 4 2?—9a—5=0.
Changing the signs of the a term and the independent term
(§ 726), we have to find the root between 0 and 1 of the equa-
tion a —4a°—9x2%+5=0 (§ 795).
Dividing 5 by 9, we have .5 suggested as the first root-figure;
but it will be found that in this case the last two terms of the
first transformed equation are — 12.25 and —.875.
 SOLUTION OF HIGHER EQUATIONS 571

This shows that .5 is too great; we then try .4, and find that
the last two terms of the first transformed equation are of
opposite sign.
The work of finding the first three root-figures is shown
below :
—4 — 9 +5 |
469
ed wee — 4.176
= 5.6 — 10.44 (lyr 624
4 =e —es064
eel) 172 (2) 110936
A Sey
Gy 28 — 11.8844
06 — 1608
sO Am (2) — 42,0452
06
— 2.68
06
(3) = 2,62
The required root is — .469, to three places of decimals.
797. In case too small a number is taken for the root-figure,
the number suggested for the next root-figure will be greater
than .09.
' Let it be required, for example, to find the root between 0
and 1 of the equation
ve—2e -+-3a—1=—0:
Dividing 1 by 3, we have .3 suggested as the first root-
figure. 1 _92 38 ey [.3
See BT TAT
Sah De)
tae ete bY)
Bay 2.07
&
casi!
The number suggested by the next division is greater than
1; showing that too small a root-figure has beea taken.
572 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

798. If the coefficient of the first power of the unknown

number in any transformed equation is zero, the next figure
of the root may be obtained by dividing the absolute value of
the last term by the absolute value of the coefficient of the square
of the unknown number, and taking the square root of the result.
For if the transformed equation is y* + ay? +) =0, it is evi-
dent that, approximately, ay?+6=0, or y= V=
a
We proceed in a similar manner if any number of consecu-
tive terms immediately preceding the last term are zero.
Horner’s method may be used to find any root of a number approxi-
mately ; for to find the nth root of @ is the same thing as to solve the
equation a —a=0.

799. If an equation has two or more roots which have the

saine integral part, the first decimal root-figure of each must
be obtained by the method of §§ 741 or 742, or by Sturm’s
Theorem.
If two or more roots have the same integral part, and also
the same first decimal root-figure, the second decimal root-
figure of each must be obtained by the method of §§ 741 or
742, or by Sturm’s Theorem; and so on.
Horner’s method may be used to determine successive figures in the
integral, as well as in the decimal, portion of the root.

Tf all but one of the roots of an equation are known, the remaining
root may be found by changing the sign of the coefficient of the second
term of the given equation, and subtracting the sum of the known roots
from the result (§ 720).
EXERCISE 138
Find the root between:

1. 1 and2, of 22 —922+
23% —16=0.
4 and 5, of 8 —4a2?-44+412=0.
. Oand —1, of a + 822-92 —12=0.
—2 and — 3, of #2 —3a2-92%+44=0.
. 8and 4, of «2 —6a2+15%—19
=0.
wOn
wo
pPp
. Oand 1, of ef-- e+ 292 =e = 1 = 0:
 SOLUTION OF HIGHER EQUATIONS 573

7. 2 and
3, of xt —323+
4” —5=0.
8. — land
— 2, of at—223-—322?4+2-—2=0.
Find all the real roots of the following :
C. 9. 28 +202-a2—-1=0. 13. 28 —42+2%—1=0.
10; 2? — 2¢2? —T7e2—1=0. 14. 23 — x? —15%+ 28-0.
— 1. w—62?+2xe%+6=0. 15. «*—622+4
112+ 21=0.
12. wt +203 -—5=0. 16. «t — 6734 6224+ 8%4+1=0.
Find the approximate values of the following:
w 1%. V3. 18. V/21. 19) ¥/7. 20. 34.
800. We may now give general directions for finding the
real roots of any equation of the form
i + pe =F ks + Pn +), == 0,

with integral numerical coefficients:

1. Determine by Descartes’ Rule (§ 735) limits to the number
of positive and negative roots.
2. Find a superior limit to the positive roots, and an infe-
rior limit to the negative roots (§§ 739, 740).
3. Divide the firsts member by #—1,2%—2,%+4+1,2+42,
etc., as explained in § 767.
1 this way all the commensurable roots, if any, will be
found, and possibly all the incommensurable roots may be
located.
4, If the incommensurable roots are not all located, apply
Sturm’s Theorem; observing that, if the first member and its
first derivative have a common factor, the given equation has
multiple roots (§ 754).
5. Approximate to the decimal coca of the incommen-
surable roots by Horner’s method.
801. Newton’s Method of Approximation.
Find two consecutive numbers a and }, one greater and the
other less than a root of the equation (§ 741) ; and suppose a
to be nearer the root than 0.
Let a+ y be the actual value of the root, and substitute in
the given equation a + y for a.
574 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Then, y is small; and by neglecting the terms involving 7’, 7’,

etc., an Ry ae value of y is obtained, which, when added to
a, gives a', a first approximation to the value of a.
Sabsttute in the given equation a! +z for a.
Then by neglecting the terms involving 2’, 2, etc., we obtain
an approximate value of z which, when added to a', gives a
second approximation to the value of a.
The process may be continued until the root is found to any
desired degree of precision.
1. Find the root between 2 and 3, and near 2, of the
equation pen eD aiSure ay,

Putting «= y+ 2, we have

(y+ 2)? -—2(y¥+2)-—5=0, ory+ 6y' + 10y-1=0.

Then, approximately, 10 y —1=0, or y=.1.
Thus, 2.1 is a first approximation to the value of a.
Putting in the given equation «=z + 2.1, we have
Po b.oe 4 11-23 2-061 — 0.
Then, approximately, 11.2324 .061 = 0, and z=— .005+4.
Thus, 2.095 is a second approximation to the value of a.
The approximate values of y, z, etc., should be obtained to one signifi-
cant figure.

2. Find the root between — 5 and — 6, and near — 6, of the

equation a? — a? — 25+ 81=0.
Putting «= y — 6, we have y® — 197? + 95y — 21=0.
Then, approximately, 95 y — 21=0, and y =.2+.
Thus, — 6 + .2, or — 5.8, is a first approximation to the value
of a.
Putting in the given equation # = z — 5.8, we have
2 — 18.42? + 87.522— 2.752
= 0.
Then, approximately, 87.52 2— 2.752 = 0, and z= 03%
Thus, —5.8+ .03, or — 5.77, is a second approximation to
the value of a.
 SOLUTION OF HIGHER EQUATIONS 575

EXERCISE 139

. Find the root between 1 and 2, and near 1, of

x? —3027-—2274+5=0.

. Find the root between 0 and 1, and near 1, of

w+2e02—e%—-1=0.
. Find the root between — 2 and — 3, and near — 2, of
we —3822?-—34%+18=0.

. Find the root between — 2 and — 3, and near — 3, of

w4+2027-5x4%—T=0.
. Find the root between 3 and 4, and near 4, of
2 —6024+9x%—3=0.
. Find the root between — 5 and — 6, and near — 5, of
28 —20?—23”%+70=0.
 APPENDIX sy is

APPENDIX
CAUCHY'’S PROOF THAT EVERY EQUATION HAS A ROOT
802. We will first prove that, if n is a positive integer, each of the
equations ;
a ee and ee ty

has a root of the form a + bi, where a and } are real numbers, either of
which may be zero,

Ly sete als
It is evident that 1 is a root of this equation.

Il. «” =—1, where n is odd.

It is evident that — 1 is a root of this equation.

Ili. « =— 1, where n is even.

Let n = 2m, where m is a positive integer; then, #2" =— 1.
Extracting the square root of each member, «” = + 2.
The latter forms are included in the four following cases.

IV. x” =i, where n is odd.

If m is a positive integer, 7#"+1= 7 (§ 411); hence, if n is of the form
4m +1, 7 is a root of the equation.
Again, (— ¢)#m+3 = — j4mt+8 = —(— 7) (§ 411) =7; hence, if n is of the
form 4m + 3, —7 is a root of the equation.

V. x” =1, where n is even.

Let n = 2%, where p is an odd integer ; then, ae? =F,
Let x2” = y; then y» =i, and, by IV, y=7 or — 7 according as p is of
the form 4m + 1 or4m+3; that is, a — 7 or —i.
The value of « may be obtained from this equation by q successive
extractions of the square root; and since it has been proved that the
square root of a+ bi, where a and 6 are real, can be expressed in the
form a + bi (§ 420), it follows that « can be expressed in the form a + Di.

VI. 2” =—i, where n is odd.

By § 411, (— i)4m+1 =— imt1=—7; hence, if n is of the form4 m+1,
—7isa root of the equation.
Again, i#+8 ——7; hence, if n is of the form 4m + 3, 7 is a root.
578 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

VII. 2” =— i, where n is even.

As in V, x may be obtained in the form a + bi.

803. We will now consider the general case.

To prove that the general equation of the nth degree
a” + pyer—l + pont? +. + Dnt + Pn = 0 @)
has a root of the form @ + bi, where a and 6 are real numbers.
Substituting a + bi for x in (1), we have
(a+ bi)” + piCa + Bi)" + +++ Pn—-1(a + bt) + pn = 9.
Expanding by the Binomial Theorem, and collecting the real and
imaginary terms, we shall have a result of the form
U+ Vi=0, (2)
where Uand Vare real numbers.
We will now prove that such real values may be found for @ and 6 as
will make U=0 and V=0.
We will first prove that such real values may be found for @ and 6 as
will make U24+ V2=0.
As a and } change in value, U and V also change; and if U2+ V2
cannot become zero for any values of @ and b, it must have some positive
real minimum value.
Let a and 8 be the values of @ and b, respectively, for which U2+ V2
has this minimum value.
Let P+ Qi be the value of the first member of (1) when a + fi is
substituted for x; then P? + @? is the minimum value of U2 + V2.
Writing a + Bi +h in place of 2 in (1), we have
(a+ Bit h)™+ pi(at Bith)r1 + + pnala + Bit h)+ pn =.
Expanding by the Binomial Theorem, and arranging the result in
ascending powers of h,
(a + Bt)"+ pia + Bi} + + + pn-i(a + Bi) + Pn
+ h[n(a + Bi)™-1 + py(n — 1) (a + Bi)? + oe + Dna]
+ (terms involving h2, h3, -+-, h™)=0. (3)
The first line of (3) is equal to P + Qi.
The coefficients of some of the powers of h may be zero; but they
cannot all be zero, since the coefficient of h” is unity.
Let h™ be the lowest power of h whose coefficient is not zero; and
denote its coefficient by R + Si, where R and § are not both zero."
Then (8) becomes P+Qi+(R + Sivan
+ (terms involving powers of h higher than the mth) = 0.
 APPENDIX 579

Let this be denoted by P!+Q%=0. . (4) -

Now let h = ct, where c is a positive real number, and ¢ a root of the
equation 7 = 1 ori =— 1.
By § 802, ¢ is in either case a number of the form @ + bi.
Then, P'+Qi=P+Qie(R4+ Sijom+-.
Whence (§ 419), . Pa Ps few =,
and Q'=Q + Som +---.
Therefore, P24 Q? = P2+Q?+2(PR+QS8)c™ +o.
That is, P?24Q?— P?—-Q@=+2(PR+QS8)cm
+ (terms involving powers of ¢ higher than the mth). (6)
If PR+QS is not zero, c may be taken so small that the sign of the
second member will be the same as that of + 2(/PR+@Q/S)c™.
Hence, if PR + QS is positive, the sign of P2 + Q’ — P2 — @? may be
made negative by taking =—1; andif PR+@QS is negative, the sign
of P’? + Y’? — P? — Q? may be made negative by taking # =+ 1,
Thus, in either case, P’? + Q” can, by properly choosing ¢ and ¢, be
made less than P? + Q?.
If PR + QS=0, let =+ 7 in (4).
By § 802, ¢ is in either case a number of the form a + bi.
Then, P+ Qi= P+ Qi4(R+ Sijiem+ +
= P+ Qit(Ri- S)om+ +.
Whence, P'’= PF Scr+ «,
and Q'=Q+ Bem +
Therefore, Prt Q?= P+ Q?+2(QR— PS)cem+ ++.
That is, P24 Q2— P?— Q?=+42(QR— PS)c™+ -.
Now, (PR + QS)?+(QR — PS)? = P?R? + Q2S? + Q2R? + P28?
= (P?+ Q?)(f? + §?).
And since, by hypothesis, P?+ @? is not zero, and R and S are not
both 0, it follows that (PR + QS)?+ (QR — PS)? is not zero.
But PR+ QS=0, and hence QR — PS is not zero.
Therefore, if c be taken sufficiently small, the sign of P’?+ Q/?— P?— @?
will be the same as the sign of +2(QR — PS)c”; and we can ensure that
this sign shall be negative by taking ¢” =— i when QR — PS is positive,
and ¢»=7 when Qf — PS is negative.
580 ADVANCED COURSE IN ALGEBRA

Thus, by properly choosing h, P!?+ Q’2 may be made less than P?+ Q?;
that is, a value of U2+ V2 may be obtained which is less than P?+ Q?,
and the latter is not aminimum value of U?+ V2.
Hence, no positive real number can be a minimum value of U?+ V?;
and therefore values of @ and b can be found which will make U?+ V?2=0.
If U2+V2=0, U2=— V2, and V= Vi.
Then, by § 418, V=0 and V=0.
Hence, such real values may be found for a and 6 as will make U=0
and V=0.
We will now prove that the values of a and 6 which make U2?+ V2=0
are finite.
The first member of (1) may be written

x w pk

Putting a + bi in place of x, we have

U+ Vi=(a+
Vi=(a+ biyn[14+—
di) [ + ae Pa
te mete oe
Be
eeePek 6
(6)
Consider the term

Pale ores PAG = be ee

(a+ bi)” [(a+bi)(a—bi)]" (a?+ 6%)"

Pr a” —ra’—bi — AGC = 1) a’—2h2 + |

~ (@+ 8)" 2
= A,+ Bi, say.

Gh)s
me a2 + « =

vet Gel
Now, 4A,=
(a -7 [@

= 1 r #(r—1) 1 r—2 1 )
=, -\— - : ah) Es ib
(a)a EE (2)a Can
b
|
Now if a and 6 are indefinitely increased in absolute value, @ + 2 and
ae : . ; : b2 az, &
= + b are indefinitely increased in absolute value, for — and - have the
a
same signs as a and b, respectively.
Hence, if @ and b are indefinitely increased in absolute value, A, is
indefinitely diminished in absolute value ; as also is B,.
Thus (6) may be written s
U+ Vi= (a+ di)™[1 + A+ Bi], (7)
where A’ and B’ are indefinitely diminished in absolute value when a and
b are indefinitely increased in absolute value.
 APPENDIX 581

If a — bi be substituted for in (1), we shall have a result which may

be obtained from (7) by simply changing the signs of the terms involy-
PG seh, U—Vi=(a—bi)"[1 +A’ — Bi}. (8)
Multiplying (7) and (8), U2+V2=(a@+ b?)"[(1+ A!)?+ B?]. (9)
The second member of (9) increases indefinitely when a and 0 are in-
definitely increased in absolute value, for (a? + b?)” increases indefinitely,
and (1 + A’)? + B” approaches the limit 1.
Hence, U2 + V2 cannot be zero when a and 8, or either of them, are
indefinitely increased in absolute value, and therefore the values of a and
6 which make U24+ V2 =0 are finite.

804. The demonstration of § 803 holds whether the coefficients of the

terms in equation (1) are real, imaginary, or complex.
It follows from the above that /—a, where n is any even integer and a
a positive real number, and Va + bi, where n is any positive integer and
a and 6 any real numbers, can be expressed in the form c+ di, where
ec and d are real numbers.
That is, any even root of a negative real number, or any root of a
pure imaginary or complex number, can be expressed as a pure imaginary
or complex number. (Compare §§ 420, 424, and 439.)
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