Signals and Systems Analysis

Course Code: (ECEG-2121)

Instructor : Abrham Mesfin(MSc.)

email: [email protected]

Course title: Signals and Systems Analysis

ECTS (Credit): 6hr (4hr)
Pre-requisite: Applied Math III
Academic Year: 2019/20
 Course Description
• Classification of signals and their representation as function of time
and frequency domain; Fourier Series & Fourier transform of periodic
and non-periodic signals and their properties; Laplace transform of
signals:- properties and their application; representation of systems:-
classification, convolution integral and system modeling using impulse
response & transfer function;
• Analysis of LTI systems:- using differential equations solution,
frequency response; discrete time signals and systems:- sampled data
(sequences), convolution sum, Z-transform, system analyses in Z-
domain, system function and their realization.

I
 Course Objectives
Students who successfully complete the course will be able to:
▪ Understand and apply the representation different signals,
▪ Classification characterization different signals
▪ analysis of signals and systems in time and frequency domain
▪ properties and their application; representation of systems
▪ Representation of frequency response; discrete and continuous time
signals and systems

II
Text Book:
• Signals and Systems, Second Edition, Simon Haykin and Barry Van Veen,
John, Wiley & Sons, 2003
References:
• Signals and systems, A.P. Oppenheim, A.S. Willsky, I.T. Young, 2001
• Roberts: Signals and Systems: Analysis using Transform Methods and
MATLAB, MJ, International Edition, McGraw Hill, 2003.
• Philip Denbigh: System Analysis and Signal, 1988
• **** AMU – AmiT Digital Library Sources (additionally you can referee)
• drs.amu.edu.et
• ils.amu.edu.et
III
 Evaluation and assessment

Evaluation Description Weight/100% Date

Test I 15%

Assignment I 10%
Lecture
Test II 20%

Quiz 5%

Final Exam 45%

IV
 Chapters
Chapter-1 Introduction to Signal and System
Chapter-2 Time Domain Representations for LTIS
Chapter-3 Fourier Representations for Signals
Chapter-4 Laplace Transform
Chapter-5 Z-transform

V
 Chapter 1

Introduction to Signals and Systems

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 7
 1.1 Introduction to Signal and System
• Signal and System analysis is a fundamental course for electrical,
electronics computer engineering filed.

Definition of terms
• Mathematical model
• Model
• Signal
• System

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 8
Cont.
Mathematical Model: is representation of a system or real world
problem using mathematical expression(language). and
• The process of developing mathematical model is known as
mathematical modeling.
Model: is a simplified form of representation of a system or real world events using :
• Mathematical equation
• Graphs
• Drawing
• Prototype

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 9
Cont.
Signal: is an abstraction of any measurable quantity that is a function of one or
more independent variables such as time(t) and space(x,y,z)which intended
conveys information. Or
• signal: is a set of information of data.
A signal: is formally defined as a function of one or more variables, which
carries information on the nature of physical phenomena.
Example of Signal
Electrical signal
• Voltage v(t) and Current I(t)
Mechanical signal
• Sound signal

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 10
Cont …
Light signal
• Image
When a signal depends on a single variable, the signal is said to be one-
dimensional (single valued) signal.
• A speech signal: is an example of a one dimensional signal whose
amplitude varies with time, depending on the spoken word and who
speaks it.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 11
Cont …
When the function depends on two or more variables, the signal is said
to be multidimensional signal.
• An image is an example of a two dimensional signal, with the
horizontal and vertical coordinates of the image representing the two
dimension.
• In this course we focus on signals involving a single independent
variable.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 12
 System
A system is formally defined as an entity that manipulates one or more
signals to accomplish a function, thereby yielding new signals. or
System: is defined as interconnection of one or more networks in a
designed manner to perform desired task.
• The interaction between a system its associated signals is illustrated
schematically in figure 1.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 13
Cont …
The descriptions of the input and output signals naturally depends on the
intended application of the system:
❑ In an automatic speaker recognition system, the input signal
is a speech (voice) signal, the system is a computer and the output
signal is the identity of the speaker
❑ In a communication system, the input signal could be a speech
signal or computer data, the system itself is made up of the
combination of a transmitter, channel and receiver and the output
signal is an estimate of the original message signal.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 14
Cont …
❑ Electronic Communication System
Input Output
Transmitter (Tx) Channel Receiver (Rx)
Message Message

❑ Electrical Power System

Power Main Station Main Station Customer

Generation Grid High Grid Low Station
voltage voltage
Tx Tx

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 15
 1.2 Classification of Signals
In this course we will restrict our attention to one-dimensional signals
defined as single valued functions of time.
“single valued” means that for every instant of time there is a unique value of
the function.
• This value may be a real number, in which case we speak of a real
valued signal, or
• it may be a complex number, in which case we speak of a complex-
valued signal.
• In either case, the independent variable, namely time, is real valued.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 16
Cont …
• We may identify five methods of classifying signals based on different
features.
1. Continuous –Time and Discrete-Time Signals
2. Even and Odd Signals
3. Period Signal and Non-Periodic Signal
4. Deterministic Signals and Random Signals
5. Causal and Non-causal Signal
6. Energy Signals and Power Signals

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 17
 1. Continuous –Time and Discrete-Time Signals
Continuous-time signals
• A signal x(t) is said to be a continuous-time signal if it is defined
for all time ‘t’.
• Figure 2(a), represents an example of a continuous-time signal
whose amplitude or values varies continuously with time.
• Continuous-time signals arise naturally when a physical waveform
such as an acoustic (audio) wave or light wave is converted in to
an electrical signal.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 18
AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 19
Cont …
• The conversion is effected by means of a transducer; examples include the
microphone, which converts sound pressure variations in to corresponding
voltage or current variations, and
• The photocell, which does the same for light-intensity variations.
Discrete-time
• In the case of DT-signal x[n] is defined only at discrete instant of time.
• Thus, in this case, the independent variable has discrete values only, which are
usually uniformly spaced, see Figure 2(b) is DT-Signal.
• A discrete-time signal is often derived from a continuous-time signal by
sampling it at a uniform rete.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 20
Cont …
• Let T denote the sampling period and ‘n’ denote an integer that may
assume positive and negative values.
• Sampling a continuous-time signal x(t) at time 𝒕 = 𝒏𝑻 yields a sample of
values 𝒙(𝒏𝑻).
• For convenience of presentation, we write:
𝒙 𝒏 = 𝒙 𝒏𝑻 ; 𝒏 = 𝟎, ±𝟏, ±𝟐, ±𝟑, ⋯
• Thus, a discrete-time signal is represented by the sequence numbers
⋯ , 𝒙 −𝟐 , 𝒙 −𝟏 , 𝒙 𝟎 , 𝒙 𝟏 , 𝒙 𝟐 , ⋯

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 21
Cont …
• Such a sequence of numbers is referred to as a time series, written as:
𝒙 𝒏 , 𝒏 = 𝟎, ±𝟏, ±𝟐, ⋯ 𝑜𝑟 𝒔𝒊𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒚 𝒙[𝒏]
the latter natation is used through out this course.

• Throughout this course, we use the symbol:

➢′𝒕′ to denote time for a CT-signal and the symbol ′𝒏′ for a DT-signal.
➢Parenthesis (.) are used to denote continuous-valued quantities while
bracket [.] are used to denote discrete-valued quantities.

Monday, March 1, 2021 22

 2. Even and Odd Signals
• A continuous-time signal 𝒙(𝒕) is said to be an even signal if it satisfies the
condition:
𝒙 −𝒕 = 𝒙 𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 ′𝒕′
• A continuous-time signal 𝒙(𝒕) is said to be an odd signal if it satisfies the
condition:
𝒙 −𝒕 = −𝒙 𝒕 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 ′𝒕′
• In other word;
➢Even signals are symmetric about the vertical axis or time origin,
where as odd signals are anti-symmetric (asymmetric) about the time
origin.
Notice: Similar remarks apply to discrete-time signals.
Monday, March 1, 2021 23
Example 1: Develop the Even/Odd decomposition of a general signal
𝒙(𝒕) by applying the definition of even and odd function:
Solution: Let the signal 𝑥(𝑡) be expressed as the sum of two components 𝒙𝒆 (𝒕)
and 𝒙𝒐 (𝒕) as follows:
𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒙𝒆 𝒕 + 𝒙𝒐 (𝒕)
• Define 𝒙𝒆 (𝒕) to be even and 𝒙𝒐 (𝒕) to be odd; that is:
𝒙𝒆 −𝒕 = 𝒙𝒆 𝒕 and 𝒙𝒐 −𝒕 = −𝒙𝒐 𝒕
• Putting 𝑡 = −𝑡; in the expression for 𝒙(𝒕); we may then write
𝑥 −𝑡 = 𝑥𝑒 −𝑡 + 𝑥𝑜 (−𝑡)
𝒙 −𝒕 = 𝒙𝒆 𝒕 − 𝒙𝒐 (𝒕)

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 24
Cont …
• Solving for 𝒙𝒆 𝒕 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒙𝒐 (𝒕), we thus obtain:
𝒙 𝒕 + 𝒙(−𝒕) 𝒙 𝒕 − 𝒙(−𝒕)
𝒙𝒆 𝒕 = 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒙𝒐 𝒕 =
𝟐 𝟐
• The above definition of even and odd signals assume that the signals are real
valued.
• In the case of complex-valued signal, we may speak of conjugate symmetry.
• A complex-valued signal is said to be conjugate symmetric if it satisfies the
condition:
𝒙 −𝒕 = 𝒙∗ (𝒕)
Where the “asterisk” denotes complex conjugate.

Monday, March 1, 2021 25

Cont …
• Let;
𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒂 𝒕 + 𝒋𝒃(𝒕)
Where:
➢𝒂 𝒕 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒃(𝒕) are the real and imaginary part of 𝒙(𝒕) respectively
➢j is the square root of -1
• The complex conjugate of 𝒙(𝒕) is:
𝒙∗ 𝒕 = 𝒂 𝒕 − 𝒋𝒃(𝒕)
• From the previous equation it follows that: a complex values signal 𝒙(𝒕) is
conjugate symmetric if its real part is even and its imaginary part is odd.
• Notice: similar remark applies to a discrete-time signal.
Monday, March 1, 2021 26
Example 2: consider the pair of signals shown in figure 3.
Which of these signals is even and which one is odd?
Example 3: The signals 𝒙𝟏 (𝒕) and 𝒙𝟐 𝒕
shown in figure 3 (a) and (b) constitute the real
and imaginary parts of a complex-valued signal
𝒙(𝒕).
What form of symmetry does 𝒙(𝒕) have?

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 27
 3. Periodic Signal and Non-Periodic Signal
• A periodic signal 𝒙(𝒕) is a function that satisfies the condition:
𝒙 𝒕 =𝒙 𝒕+𝑻 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒕
Where: T is a positive constant
• Clearly, if this condition is satisfied for 𝐓 = 𝑻𝒐 , say, then it is also satisfied for
𝑻 = 𝟐𝑻𝒐 , 𝟑𝑻𝒐 , 𝟒𝑻𝒐 , ⋯.
• The smallest value of T that satisfies the above equation is called the
fundamental period of 𝒙(𝒕).
• The reciprocal of the fundamental period T is called the fundamental
frequency(f) of the periodic signal 𝑥 𝑡 ;

Monday, March 1, 2021 28

Cont …
• We thus formally write;
𝟏
𝒇=
𝑻
• The frequency 𝑓 is measured in hertz (𝑯𝒛) or cycles per second.
• The angular frequency, measured in radians per second, is defined by:
𝟐
𝝎= = 𝟐𝒇
𝑻
• Since there are 𝟐 radians in one complete cycle.
• To simplify the terminology, 𝝎 is often referred to simply as frequency.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 29
Cont …
• Any signal 𝒙(𝒕) for which there is no values of T to satisfy the condition of
periodic signal is called aperiodic or non-periodic signal.

• Figures 4 (a) and (b) presents examples of periodic and non-periodic

signals, respectively.

• The periodic signal shown here represents a square wave of amplitude 𝑨 = 𝟏

and period T and the non-periodic signal represents a rectangular pulse of
amplitude A and duration 𝑻𝟏 .

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 30
Cont …

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 31
Example 4:
• Figure 5 shows a triangular wave. What is the fundamental frequency of
this wave? Express the fundamental frequency in units of Hz or rad/s.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 32
• We next consider the case of discrete-time signals. .
• A discrete time signal 𝒙[𝒏] is said to be periodic if it satisfies the condition:
𝒙 𝒏 =𝒙 𝒏+𝑵 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒊𝒏𝒕𝒆𝒈𝒆𝒓𝒔 𝒏
Where N; is a positive integer.
• The smallest value of integer N for which the above equation is satisfied is
called fundamental period of the discrete-time signal 𝒙[𝒏].
• The fundamental angular frequency, or simply fundamental frequency of 𝑥[𝑛] is
defined by:
𝟐
= (in radians)
𝑵

Monday, March 1, 2021 33

Cont …
• The differences between the defining equations for continuous-time and
discrete-time periodic signals should be carefully noted.
➢The earlier equation applies to a periodic continuous-time signal whose
fundamental period T has any positive value.
➢On the other hand, the later equation applies to a periodic discrete-time
signal whose fundamental period N can only assume a positive
integer value.
• Two examples of discrete-time signals are shown in Figure 6 (a) and (b)
below. The signal in Fig. 6(a) is periodic where as that of Fig. 6(b) is
aperiodic.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 34
Example 5: What is the fundamental frequency of the discrete –time
square wave shown in Fig. 6(a)

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 35
 4. Deterministic Signals and Random Signals
• A deterministic signal is a signal about which there is no uncertainty with
respect to its value at any time.
• Accordingly, we find that deterministic signals may be modeled as
completely specified function of time.
➢The square wave shown in figure 4(a) and the rectangular pulse shown in
shown in figure 4(b) are deterministic signals, and so are the signals
shown in figure 6(a) and (b).
• A random signal is a signal about which there is uncertainty before its
actual occurrence.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 36
Cont …
• Such a signal may be viewed as belonging to an ensemble(collective) or
group of signals, with each signal in the ensemble having a different wave
form.
• Moreover, each signal within the ensemble has certain probability of
occurrence.
• The ensemble of such signals is referred to as a random process.
• The “noise” generated in the amplifier of a radio or television receiver is
an example of a random signal. Its amplitude fluctuates between positive
and negative values in a completely random fashion.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 37
 5. Energy Signals and Power Signals
• From examples provided so far, we see that signals may represent a broad
variety of phenomena.
• In many, but not all, applications, the signals we consider are directly related to
physical quantities capturing power and energy in a physical system.
• For example, if 𝒗(𝒕) and 𝒊(𝒕) are, respectively, the voltage and current across
a resistor with resistance R, then the instantaneous power dissipated in this
resistor is defined by:
𝟏 𝟐
𝒑 𝒕 = 𝒗 𝒕 ∗ 𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑹𝒊𝟐 (𝒕)
𝑹

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 38
Cont …
• In both cases, the instantaneous power 𝒑(𝒕) is proportional to the squared
amplitude of the signal. Further more, for a resistance R of 1,
• the two equations take on the same mathematical form.
• The total energy expended over the time interval 𝒕𝟏 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝒕𝟐 is:
𝒕𝟐 𝒕𝟐
𝟏 𝟐
𝑬 𝒕 = න 𝒑(𝒕)𝒅𝒕 = න 𝒗 (𝒕)𝒅𝒕
𝑹
𝒕𝟏 𝒕𝟏

• The average power over this time interval is:

𝒕𝟐 𝒕𝟐
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟐
𝒑𝒂𝒗 = න 𝒑(𝒕)𝒅𝒕 = න 𝒗 (𝒕)𝒅𝒕
𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 𝒕𝟐 − 𝒕𝟏 𝑹
𝒕𝟏 𝒕𝟏
Monday, March 1, 2021 39
 Cont ...
• In signal analysis, it is customary to define power in terms of a 1 resistor,
so that, regardless of whether a given signal 𝒙(𝒕) represents a voltage or a
current, we may express the instantaneous power of the signal as:
𝒑 𝒕 = 𝒙𝟐 (𝒕)
• Based on this convention, we define the total energy of the continuous-
time signal 𝒙(𝒕) as:
𝑻Τ𝟐
∞
𝑬 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 න 𝒙𝟐 (𝒕)𝒅𝒕 = න 𝒙𝟐 (𝒕) 𝒅𝒕
𝑻→∞ −∞
−𝑻Τ𝟐

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 40
Cont ...
• And its average power as:
𝑻Τ𝟐
𝟏
𝑷𝒂𝒗 = 𝒍𝒊𝒎 න 𝒙𝟐 (𝒕)𝒅𝒕
𝑻→∞ 𝑻
−𝑻Τ𝟐

• From the last equation, we readily see that the average power of a periodic
signal is 𝒙(𝒕) of fundamental period T is given by:
𝑻Τ𝟐
𝟏
𝑷𝒂𝒗 = න 𝒙𝟐 (𝒕)𝒅𝒕
𝑻
−𝑻Τ𝟐

Monday, March 1, 2021 41

Cont …
• The square root of the average power 𝒑𝒂𝒗 is called the root meal-square
(rms) value of the signal 𝒙(𝒕).
• In the case of discrete-time signal 𝒙[𝒏], the integrals are replaced by
corresponding sums. Thus the total energy of 𝒙[𝒏] is defined by:
∞

𝑬 = ෍ 𝒙𝟐 [𝒏]
𝒏=−∞
And its average power is defined by:
𝑵
𝟏
𝑷𝒂𝒗 = 𝐥𝐢𝐦 ෍ 𝒙𝟐 [𝒏]
𝑵→∞ 𝟐𝑵
𝒏=−𝑵

Monday, March 1, 2021 42

Cont …
• Here again, the average power in a periodic signal 𝒙[𝒏] with fundamental
period N is given by:
𝑵−𝟏
𝟏
𝑷𝒂𝒗 = ෍ 𝒙𝟐 [𝒏]
𝑵
𝒏=𝟎
❖A signal is referred to as an energy signal, if and only if the total energy of
the signal satisfies the condition:
𝟎<𝑬<∞
• On the other hand, it is referred to as a power signal, if and only if the
average power of the signal satisfies the condition:
𝟎 < 𝑷𝒂𝒗 < ∞
Monday, March 1, 2021 43
Cont …
• The energy and power classifications of signals are mutually exclusive.
• In particular:
➢An energy signal has zero average power, whereas a power signal has
infinite energy.
➢Periodic signals and Random signals are usually viewed as power
signals, where as signals that are both deterministic and non-periodic
are energy signals.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 44
Example 6:
• What is the total energy of:
a) the rectangular pulse shown in figure 7(a)?
b) the discrete-time signal shown in figure 7(b)?
• What is the average power of:
c) the square wave shown in figure 7(c)?
d) the triangular wave shown in figure 7(d)?
e) The periodic discrete-time signal shown in figure 7(e)?

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 45
AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 46
 1.2 Basic operations on Signals
• In particular, we may identify a two classes of operations; described as:
1) Operations performed on dependent variables:
▪ Amplitude scaling, Addition/Subtraction, Multiplication,
Differentiation, and Integration
2) Operations performed on independent variables:
▪ Time scaling, Reflection, and Time shifting

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 47
 1. Operations performed on dependent variables
Amplitude Scaling:
• Let 𝒙(𝒕) denotes a continuous time signal.
• The signal 𝒚(𝒕) resulting from amplitude scaling applied to 𝒙(𝒕) is defined
by:
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒄𝒙(𝒕)
Where: c is the scaling factor.
• According to the above equation, the value of 𝑦(𝑡) is obtained by multiplying
the corresponding values of 𝑥(𝑡) by the scalar c.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 48
 Cont …
• A physical example of a device that performs amplitude scaling is an
electronic Amplifier.
• A resistor also performs amplitude scaling when 𝒙(𝒕) is a current, c is the
resistance and 𝑦(𝑡) is the output voltage.
• In a similar manner, for discrete-time signals we write:
𝒚 𝒏 = 𝒄𝒙[𝒏]
Addition signals:
• Let 𝑥1 (𝑡) and 𝑥2 (𝑡) is defined by:
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙𝟏 𝒕 + 𝒙𝟐 (𝒕)

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 49
Cont …
• A physical example of a device that adds signals is an audio mixer which
combines music and voice signals.
• In a similar manner, for discrete time signals we write:
𝒚[𝒏] = 𝒙𝟏 [𝒏] + 𝒙𝟐 [𝒏]
Multiplication of signals:
• Let 𝒙𝟏 (𝒕) and 𝒙𝟐 (𝒕) denote a pair of continuous-time signals.
• The signal 𝒚(𝒕) resulting from the multiplication of 𝑥1 (𝑡) by 𝑥2 (𝑡) is
defined by:
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙𝟏 (𝒕)𝒙𝟐 (𝒕)

Monday, March 1, 2021 50

Cont …
• That is, for each prescribed time ‘t’ the value of 𝑦(𝑡) is given by the product
of the corresponding values of 𝑥1 (𝑡) and 𝑥2 (𝑡).
• A physical example of 𝑦(𝑡) is an AM radio signal, in which 𝑥1 (𝑡) consists
of an audio signal plus a DC component, and 𝒙𝟐 (𝒕) consists of a
sinusoidal signal called a carrier wave.
• In a similar manner, for discrete-time signals we write:
𝒚[𝒏] = 𝒙𝟏 [𝒏]𝒙𝟐 [𝒏]

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 51
Cont …
Differentiation of signal:
• Let 𝑥(𝑡) denote a continuous-time signal.
• The derivation of 𝑥(𝑡) with respect to time is defined by:
𝒅
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙(𝒕)
𝒅𝒕
• For example, an inductor performs differentiation.
• Let 𝑖(𝑡) denote the current flowing through an inductor of inductance L, as
shown in figure 8.
• The voltage 𝒗(𝒕) developed across the inductor is defined by:
𝒅
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑳 𝒊(𝒕)
𝒅𝒕
Monday, March 1, 2021 52
Cont …
Integration of signal:
• Let 𝑥(𝑡) denote a continuous-time signal.
• The integral of 𝑥(𝑡) with respect to time ‘t’ is defined by:
𝒕
𝒚 𝒕 = න 𝒙(𝝉) 𝒅
−∞
Where:  is the integration variable.
• For example, a capacitor performs integration. Let 𝒊(𝒕) denote the current
flowing through a capacitor of capacitance C, as shown in figure 9.
• The voltage 𝑣(𝑡) developed across the capacitor is defined by;
𝟏 𝒕
𝒗 𝒕 = න 𝒊(𝝉)𝒅
𝑪 −∞
Monday, March 1, 2021 53
 2. Signal operations performed on independent variables

Time Scaling:
• Let 𝒙(𝒕) denote a continuous time signal.
• The signal 𝒚(𝒕) obtained by scaling the independent variable, time t, by a
factor ‘a’ is defined by:
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙(𝒂𝒕)
➢If 𝒂 > 𝟏, the signal 𝒚(𝒕) is a compressed version of 𝒙(𝒕).
➢If 𝟎 < 𝒂 < 𝟏, the signal 𝒚(𝒕) is a expanded (stretched) version of
𝒙(𝒕).
• The two operations are illustrated in figure 10 below.

Monday, March 1, 2021 54

Cont …

• In discrete-time case, we write:

𝐲 𝐧 = 𝐱 𝐤𝐧 , 𝐤>𝟎
Which is defined only for integer values of k.
➢If k>1, then some values of the discrete-time signal 𝒚[𝒏] are lost, as
illustrated in figure 11 for k = 2.
AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 55
 Cont …

Reflection:
• Let 𝒙(𝒕) represents a continuous-time signal.
• Let 𝒚(𝒕) denote the signal obtained by replacing time ‘t’ by ‘-t’, as shown by:
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙(−𝒕)
• The signal 𝒚(𝒕) represents a reflected version of 𝒙(𝒕) about the amplitude
axis.
AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 56
AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 57
Cont …
• The following cases are of special interest.
➢Even Signals: for which we have 𝐱 −𝐭 = 𝐱(𝐭) for all ‘t’; that is, an
even signal is the same as its reflected version.
➢Odd Signal: for which we have 𝒙 −𝒕 = −𝒙(𝒕) for all ‘t’; that is, an
odd signal is the negative of its reflected version.
• Similar observation apply to discrete-time(DT) signals.
Example 7:
• Consider the triangular pulse 𝒙(𝒕) shown in figure 13(a).
Find the reflected version of 𝒙(𝒕) about the amplitude axis.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 58
Cont …
Solution:
• Replacing the independent variable ‘t’ in 𝑥(𝑡), with ‘-t’, we get the result
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙(−𝒕) shown in figure 13(b).
Note that: for this example, we have:
𝒙 𝒕 = 𝟎 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕 < −𝑻𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕 > 𝑻𝟐
Correspondingly, we find that:
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝟎 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕 > 𝑻𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒕 < −𝑻𝟐

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 59
Example 8:
• Find the composite signal 𝒚 𝒏 = 𝒙 𝒏 + 𝒙[−𝒏] for the discrete-time signal 𝑥[𝑛]
defined by:

1 𝑛=1
i. 𝑥 𝑛 = ቐ−1 𝑛 = −1
0 𝑛 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 > 1

1 𝑛 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 1
ii. 𝑥 𝑛 =ቊ
0 𝑛 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 > 1
Answer: for i: 𝒚 𝒏 = 0 for all integer values of n.

2 𝑛 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 = 1
for ii: 𝒚 𝒏 = ቊ
0 𝑛 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 > 1

Monday, March 1, 2021 60

Cont …
Time Shifting:
• Let 𝒙(𝒕) denote a continuous-time signal.
• The time-shifted version of 𝑥(𝑡) is defined by:
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙(𝒕 − 𝒕𝒐 )
Where 𝑡𝑜 is the time shift.
➢If 𝑡𝑜 > 0, the waveform representing 𝑥(𝑡) is shifted intact/whole to
the right, relative to the time axis.
➢If 𝑡𝑜 < 0, it is shifted to the left.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 61
Example 9:
• Figure 14(a) shows a rectangular pulse 𝒙(𝒕) of unit amplitude and unit
duration. Find 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙(𝒕 − 𝟐).
Solution:
In this example, the time shift 𝒕𝒐 equals 2
time units we get the rectangular pulse 𝒚(𝒕)
shown in figure 14(b).
The pulse 𝒚(𝒕) has exactly the same shape
as the original pulse 𝒙(𝒕); it is merely shifted
along the same axis.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 62
Cont …
• In the case of discrete-time signal 𝒙[𝒏], we define its time-shifted version as
follows:
𝒚 𝒏 = 𝒙[𝒏 − 𝒎]
Where the shift 𝑚 must be an integer; it can be positive or negative.
Example 10:
• Find the time-shifted signal 𝐲 𝐧 = 𝐱[𝐧 + 𝟑] for the discrete-time signal
𝐱[𝐧] defined by:
1 𝑛 = 1, 2
𝑥 𝑛 = ቐ−1 𝑛 = −1, −2
0 𝑛 = 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 > 2

Monday, March 1, 2021 63

 Precedence/Priority Rule For Time Shifting And Time
Scaling
• Let 𝒚(𝒕) denote a continuous-time signal that is derived from another
continuous-time signal 𝒙(𝒕) through a combination of time-shifting and time-
scaling, as described here:
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝒙(𝒂𝒕 − 𝒃)
• The relationship between 𝑦 𝑡 and 𝑥(𝑡) satisfies the following conditions:
𝒃
𝒚 𝟎 = 𝒙 −𝒃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒚 = 𝒙(𝟎)
𝒂
Which provide useful checks on 𝒚 𝒕 in terms of corresponding values of 𝒙(𝒕).

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 64
• To correctly obtain 𝒚(𝒕) from 𝒙(𝒕), the time-shifting and time-scaling
operations must be performed in the correct order. .
• The proper order is based on the fact that the scaling operation always
replaces “t” by “at”, while the time-shifting operation always replaces “t” by
“t-b”.
• Hence the time-shifting operation is performed first on 𝑥(𝑡), resulting in an
intermediate signal 𝑣(𝑡) defined by:
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝒙(𝒕 − 𝒃)
• The time-shift has replaced “t” in 𝑥(𝑡) by 𝑡 − 𝑏.
• Next, the time scaling operation is performed on 𝑣(𝑡).
• This replaces “t” by “at”, resulting in the desired output:
𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑣 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑥(𝑎𝑡 − 𝑏) Monday, March 1, 2021 65
Example 11:
• Consider the rectangular pulse 𝑥(𝑡) of unit amplitude and duration of 2 time
units depicted in figure 15. Find 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑥(2𝑡 + 3).

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Cont …
• Suppose next that we purposely do not follow the precedence rule; that is, we
first apply time scaling, followed by time shifting.
• For the given signal 𝑥(𝑡), shown in figure 16(a), the wave forms resulting
from the application of these two operations are shown in figure 16(b) and (c)
respectively.
• The signal 𝑦(𝑡) so obtained fails to satisfy the condition of the equation:
𝒚 𝒃Τ𝒂 = 𝒙(𝟎)

Monday, March 1, 2021 67

Example 12:
• Find 𝑦 𝑛 = 𝑥[2𝑛 + 3] for a discrete-time signal 𝑥[𝑛] defined by:
1 𝑛 = 1, 2
𝑥 𝑛 = ቐ−1 𝑛 = −1, −2
0 𝑛 = 0, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑛 > 2

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 68
 1.3 Elementary Signals
• There are several elementary signals that feature prominently in the study of
signals and system.
• The list of elementary signals includes:
➢Exponential and Sinusoidal Signals
➢Step Function
➢Impulse Function and
➢Ramp Function
• These elementary signals serve as building blocks for the construction of more
complex signals.

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 Exponential Signals
• A real exponential signal, in its most general form, is written as:
𝒙 𝒕 = 𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒕
Where both “B” and “a” are real parameters.
• The parameter “B” is the amplitude of the exponential signal measured at 𝒕 = 𝟎.
• Depending on weather the other parameter “a” is positive or negative, we may
identify two special cases:
➢Decaying Exponential, for which 𝒂 < 𝟎
➢Growing Exponential, for which 𝒂 > 𝟎

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 Cont …
• These two forms of an exponential signal are illustrated in figure 18.
• If 𝑎 = 0, the signal 𝑥(𝑡) reduces to a DC signal equal to the constant “B”.
• For a physical example of an exponential signal, consider a “lossy” capacitor, as
depicted in figure 19.
➢The capacitor has capacitance C, and the loss is represented by shunt resistance R.
➢The capacitor is charged by connecting a battery across it, and then the battery is
removed at 𝑡 = 0.
➢Let 𝑉𝑜 denote the initial value of the voltage developed across the capacitor.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 71
Cont …

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 72
Cont …
• From figure 19 we readily see that the operation of the capacitor for 𝒕 ≥ 𝟎 is
described by:
𝒅
𝑹𝑪 𝒗 𝒕 +𝒗 𝒕 =𝟎
𝒅𝒕
Where 𝒗(𝒕) is the voltage measured across the capacitor at time 𝒕.
• The above equation is a differential equation of order one.
• Its solution is given by:
𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑽𝒐 𝒆−𝒕Τ𝑹𝑪
Where the product term 𝑅𝐶 plays the role of a time-constant.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 73
 Cont …
• These equation shows that the voltage across the capacitor decays
exponentially with time at a rate determined by the time constant RC.
➢The larger the resistance R (i.e. the less lossy the capacitor), the slower will
be the rate of decay of 𝒗(𝒕) with time.
• In discrete-time it is common practice to write a real exponential signal as:
𝒙 𝒏 = 𝑩𝒓𝒏
• The exponential nature of this signal is readily confirmed by defining:
𝒓 = 𝒆
For some .

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 74
Cont …
• Figure 20 illustrates the decaying and growing forms of a discrete-time
exponential signal corresponding to 𝟎 < 𝒓 < 𝟏 and 𝒓 > 𝟏, respectively.
• This is where the case of discrete-time exponential signals is distinctly
different from continuous-time exponential signals.
• Note that: when 𝒓 < 𝟎, a discrete-time exponential signal assume alternating
signs.
• The exponential signals shown in figures 18 and 20 are real valued
• It is possible for an exponential signal to be complex-valued.

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AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 76
Cont …
• The mathematical forms of complex exponential signals are the same as those
shown in equations:
𝒙 𝒕 = 𝑩𝒆𝒂𝒕 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝒙 𝒏 = 𝑩𝒓𝒏
With some differences explained here.
• In the continuous-time case, the parameter “B” or parameter “a” or both
assume complex values.
• Similarly, in discrete-time case, the parameter “B” or parameter “r” or both
assume complex values.
• Two commonly encountered examples of complex exponential signals are
𝐞𝐣𝛚𝐭 and 𝐞𝐣𝐧
Monday, March 1, 2021 77
 SINUSOIDAL SIGNAL
• The continuous-time version of a sinusoidal signal, in its most general form, may be
written as:
𝒙 𝒕 = 𝑨 ∗ 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 + 𝜱)
Where:
➢A is the amplitude
➢ω is the frequency in radians per second and
➢Φ is the phase angle in radians
• Figure 21(a) presents the wave form of a sinusoidal signal for 𝐴 = 4 𝑎𝑛𝑑 Φ = + Τ6
• A sinusoidal signal is an example of a periodic signal, the period of which is:
𝟐
𝑻=
𝝎
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AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 79
Cont …
• We may readily prove the periodicity property of a sinusoidal signal by using
the above equation to write:
𝒙 𝒕 + 𝑻 = 𝑨 ∗ 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝎 𝒕 + 𝑻 + 𝜱
= 𝑨 ∗ 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 + 𝝎𝑻 + 𝜱)
= 𝑨 ∗ 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕 + 𝟐𝝅 + 𝜱)
= 𝑨 ∗ 𝒄𝒐𝒔(𝝎𝒕 + 𝜱)
=𝒙 𝒕
Which satisfies the defining condition of a periodic signal.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 80
Relation Between Sinusoidal and Complex
Exponential Signals
• Consider the complex exponential 𝒆𝒋 .
• Using Euler’s identity, we may expand this term as:
𝒆𝒋 = 𝒄𝒐𝒔 + 𝒋𝒔𝒊𝒏
• This result indicates that, we may express the continuous-time sinusoidal
signal of:
𝐱 𝐭 = 𝐀 ∗ 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝛚𝐭 + 𝚽)
as the real part of the complex exponential signal:
𝑩𝒆𝒋𝝎𝒕
Monday, March 1, 2021 81
Cont …
Where B is itself a complex quantity defined by:
𝐁 = 𝐀𝐞𝐣𝚽
• That is, we may write:
𝑨 ∗ 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 + 𝜱 = 𝑹𝒆{𝑩𝒆𝒋𝝎𝒕 }
Where 𝑹𝒆{ } denotes the real part of the complex quantity enclosed inside the
braces.
• We may readily prove this relation by noting that:
𝑩𝒆𝒋𝝎𝒕 = 𝑨𝒆𝒋𝜱 𝒆𝒋𝝎𝒕
= 𝑨𝒆𝒋(𝝎𝒕+𝜱)
= 𝑨 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝝎𝒕 + 𝜱 + 𝒋𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕 + 𝜱
Monday, March 1, 2021 82
Cont …
• Previously the sinusoidal signal is defined in terms of a cosine function.
• Of course, we may also define a continuous time sinusoidal signal in terms of
a sine function, as shown by:
𝒙 𝒕 = 𝑨 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 + 𝜱
• Which is represented by the imaginary part of the complex exponential signal
𝑩𝒆𝒋𝝎𝒕 .
• That is, we may write:
𝑨 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝝎𝒕 + 𝜱 = 𝑰𝒎{𝑩𝒆𝒋𝝎𝒕 }
Where 𝑰𝒎{ } denotes the imaginary part of the complex quantity enclosed
inside the braces.

Monday, March 1, 2021 83

 STEP FUNCTION
• The discrete-time version of the step function, commonly denoted by 𝑢[𝑛],
is defined by:
𝟏, 𝒏≥𝟎
𝒖𝒏 =ቊ
𝟎, 𝒏<𝟎
Which is illustrated in figure 27(a).
• The continuous-time version of the step function, commonly denoted by
𝑢(𝑡), is defined by:
𝟏, 𝒕≥𝟎
𝒖(𝒕) = ቊ
𝟎, 𝒕<𝟎
Which is illustrated in figure 27(b).
Monday, March 1, 2021 84
AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 85
Cont …
• A similar remark applies to 𝑢[𝑛] in the context of a discrete-time system.
• The step function 𝑢(𝑡) may also be used to construct other discontinuous
wave forms, as illustrated in the following examples.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 86
Example 15:
• Consider the rectangular pulse 𝒙(𝒕) shown in figure 28a. This pulse has an
amplitude A and duration T. Express 𝒙(𝒕) as a weighted sum of two step
functions.
Solution:
The rectangular pulse 𝑥(𝑡)
may be written in mathematical
terms as follows:
𝑨 𝟎 ≤ 𝒕 ≤ 𝑻Τ𝟐
𝒙 𝒕 =ቊ
𝟎 𝒕 ≥ 𝑻Τ𝟐
Where: 𝑇 = 1
Monday, March 1, 2021 87
Cont …
• The rectangular pulse 𝒙(𝒕) is represented as the difference between two time
shifted step functions, as illustrated in figure 28 (b) and (c).
• On the basis of this figure we may express 𝑥(𝑡) as:
𝒙 𝒕 = 𝑨𝒖 𝒕 + 𝑻Τ𝟐 − 𝑨𝒖 𝒕 − 𝑻Τ𝟐
Where 𝑢(𝑡) is the step function.
Example 16: A discrete-time signal 𝑥[𝑛] is defined by:
𝟏 𝟎≤𝒏≤𝟗
𝒙𝒏 =ቊ
𝟎 𝒐𝒕𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒘𝒊𝒔𝒆
Using 𝑢[𝑛], describe 𝑥[𝑛] as the superposition of two step functions.

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 88
 IMPULSE FUNCTION
• The discrete-time version of the impulse,
commonly denoted by δ[𝑛], is defined by:

𝟏 𝒏=𝟎
𝜹[𝒏] = ቊ
𝟎 𝒏≠𝟎
Which is illustrated in figure 29.
• The continuous-time version of the unit impulse, commonly denoted by
𝜹(𝒕), is defined by the following pairs of relations:
∞
𝜹 𝒕 =𝟎 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒕 ≠ 𝟎 𝒂𝒏𝒅 න 𝜹 𝒕 𝒅𝒕 = 𝟏
−∞

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 89
Cont …
➢The first equation says the impulse 𝜹(𝒕) is zero everywhere except at
the origin.
➢The second equation says that the total area under the unit impulse is
unity.
• The impulse 𝜹(𝒕) is also referred to as the “Dirac Delta Function”.
Note That:
➢the impulse 𝜹 𝒕 is the derivative of the step function 𝐮(𝐭) with respect to
time t.
➢Conversely, the step function 𝒖(𝒕) is the integral of the impulse 𝜹(𝒕)
with respect to time t.

Monday, March 1, 2021 90

 RAMP FUNCTION

• The impulse function 𝜹 𝒕 is the derivative of the step function 𝒖(𝒕) with
respect to time.
• By the same token, the integral of the step function 𝒖(𝒕) is a ramp function
of unit slope.
• This latter test signal is commonly denoted by 𝒓(𝒕), which is formally defined
as follows:

𝒕, 𝒕≥𝟎
𝒓 𝒕 =ቊ
𝟎 𝒕<𝟎

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Cont …
• Equivalently, we may write:
𝒓 𝒕 = 𝒕𝒖(𝒕)
• The ramp function 𝐫(𝐭) is shown graphically in figure 32(a).
• As a test signal, the ramp function enables us to evaluate how a continuous-
time system would respond to a signal that increases linearly with time.
• The discrete-time version of the ramp function is defined by:
𝒏 𝒏≥𝟎
𝒓𝒏 =ቊ 𝑜𝑟 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑙𝑦 𝒓 𝒏 = 𝒏𝒖[𝒏]
𝟎 𝒏<𝟎
• It is illustrated in figure 32(b)

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 Classification of System
Continuous-time and discrete-time system
• The signals may be of the continuous-time or discrete-time variety, or a
mixture of both.
• Let the overall operation "𝑯“ denote the action of a system.
• Then the application of a continuous-time signal 𝒙(𝒕) to the input of the
system yields the output signal described by:
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑯{𝒙 𝒕 }

Monday, March 1, 2021 93

Cont …
• Figure 33 (a) shows a block diagram representation of 𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑯{𝒙 𝒕 }.
• Correspondingly, for the discrete-time case, we may write:
𝒚 𝒏 = 𝑯{𝒙 𝒏 }
Where the discrete-time signals 𝒙 𝒏 and 𝒚 𝒏 denote the input and output
signals, respectively, as depicted in figure 33(b)

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 Example 17:
• Consider a discrete-time system whose output signal 𝒚[𝒏] is the average of the
three most recent values of the input signal 𝑥 𝑛 , as shown by:
𝟏
𝐲 𝐧 = (𝐱 𝐧 + 𝐱 𝐧 − 𝟏 + 𝐱 𝐧 − 𝟐 )
𝟑
• Such a system is referred to as a “moving average system” for two reason.
➢First: 𝒚 𝒏 is the average of the sample values 𝒙 𝒏 , 𝒙 𝒏 − 𝟏 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒙 𝒏 − 𝟐
➢Second: the value of 𝒚 𝒏 changes as 𝒏 moves along the discrete –time axis.
• Formulate the operator ‘H’ for this system; hence develop a block diagram
representation for it.

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AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 96
Cont …
Example 18: Express the operator that describes the input-output relation:
𝟏
𝒚 𝒏 = (𝒙 𝒏 + 𝟏 + 𝒙 𝒏 + 𝒙 𝒏 − 𝟏 )
𝟑
In terms of the time-shift operator S.

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 SYSTEMS CLASSIFICATION

The properties of a system describe the characteristics of the operator H

representing the system.
In what follows, we study some of the most classification on bases properties
of systems, such as:
➢Stability ➢Linearity
➢Memory ➢Time invariance
➢Causality

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 Stable and non-Stable System
• A system is said to be “Bounded-Input Bounded-Output” (BIBO) stable
if and only if every bounded input results in a bounded output.
• The output of such a system does not diverge if the input does not
diverge.
• To put the condition for BIBO stability on a formal basis, consider a
continuous-time system whose input-output relation is as described by
𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑯{𝒙 𝒕 }.
➢The operation H is BIBO stable if the output signal 𝒚 𝒕 satisfies the
condition:
𝒚(𝒕) ≤ 𝑴𝒚 < ∞ 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒕

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Cont …
Whenever the input signals 𝒙(𝒕) satisfy the condition:
𝒙(𝒕) ≤ 𝑴𝒙 < ∞ 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒕
• Both 𝑴𝒙 and 𝑴𝒚 represent some finite positive numbers.
• We may describe the condition for the BIBO stability of a discrete-
time system in a similar manner.
• From an engineering perspective; it is important that a system of
interest remains stable under all possible operating conditions.
• It is only then that the system is guaranteed to produce a bounded output for
a bounded input.
• Unstable systems are usually to be avoided, unless some mechanism
can be found to stabilize them. Monday, March 1, 2021 100
Example 19:
• Show that the moving average system described in example 17 is BIBO stable.
𝟏
𝒚 𝒏 = (𝒙 𝒏 + 𝒙 𝒏 − 𝟏 + 𝒙 𝒏 − 𝟐 )
𝟑
Solution: Assume that:
𝒙[𝒏] < 𝑴𝒙 < ∞ 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒏
Using the given input output relation, we may write:
𝟏 𝟏
𝒚[𝒏] = 𝒙[𝒏] + 𝒙 𝒏 − 𝟏 + 𝒙 𝒏 − 𝟐 ≤ ( 𝒙 𝒏 + 𝒙 𝒏 − 𝟏 + 𝒙 𝒏 − 𝟐 )
𝟑 𝟑
1
≤ 𝑀𝑥 + 𝑀𝑥 + 𝑀𝑥 = 𝑀𝑥
3
Since, 0 < 𝑦[𝑛] = 𝑀𝑥 < ∞ 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑛, the moving average system is stable.

Monday, March 1, 2021 101

Example 20:
• Consider a discrete-time system whose input-output relation is defined by:
𝒚 𝒏 = 𝒓𝒏 𝒙[𝒏]
Where 𝒓 > 𝟏. show that this system is unstable.
Solution: Assume that the input signal 𝐱[𝐧] satisfies the condition:
𝒙[𝒏] < 𝑴𝒙 < ∞ 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒏
• We then find that:
𝒚[𝒏] = 𝒓𝒏 𝒙[𝒏] = 𝒓𝒏 . 𝒙[𝒏]
• With 𝐫 > 𝟏, the multiplying factor 𝒓𝒏 diverges for increasing 𝒏. Accordingly, the
condition that the input signal is bounded is not sufficient to guarantee a bounded
output signal, and so the system is unstable.

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 MEMORY and MEMORYLESS
• A system is said to possess memory, if its output signal depends on the
past values of the input signal.
• In contrast, a system is said to be memoryless if its output signal depends
only on the present value of the input signal.
• For example; a resistor is memoryless since the current 𝒊(𝒕) flowing
through it in response to the applied voltage 𝒗(𝒕) is defined by:
𝟏
𝒊 𝒕 = 𝒗(𝒕)
𝑹

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 Cont …
• Where: R is the resistance of the resistor.
• On the other hand, an inductor has memory, since the current 𝒊(𝒕)
flowing through it is related to the applied voltage 𝑣(𝑡) as follows:
𝟏 𝒕
𝒊 𝒕 = න 𝒗 𝝉 𝒅𝝉
𝑳 −∞
Where: L is the inductance of the inductor.
• That is, unlike a resistor, the current through an inductor at time 𝑡 depends
on all past values of the voltage 𝑣(𝑡); the memory of an inductor extends
into the infinite past.

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Cont …
• The moving system of example 17 described by the input-output relation:
𝟏
𝒚 𝒏 = (𝒙 𝒏 + 𝒙 𝒏 − 𝟏 + 𝒙 𝒏 − 𝟐 )
𝟑
has memory, since the value of the output signal 𝑦 𝑛 at time 𝑛 depends on
the present and two past values of the input signals 𝑥[𝑛].
• On the other hand, a system described by the input-output relation:
𝒚 𝒏 = 𝒙𝟐 [𝒏]
Is memoryless, since the value of the output signal 𝑦[𝑛] at time 𝑛 depends
only on the present value of the input signal 𝑥[𝑛].

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 CAUSALITY
• A system is said to be causal if the present value of the output signal
depends only on the present and/or past values of the input signal.
• In contrast, the output signal of a non causal system depends on future
values of the input signal. For example,
𝟏
𝒚 𝒏 = (𝒙 𝒏 + 𝒙 𝒏 − 𝟏 + 𝒙 𝒏 − 𝟐 )
𝟑
is causal. On the other hand, the moving average system described by:
𝟏
𝒚 𝒏 = (𝒙 𝒏 + 𝟏 + 𝒙 𝒏 + 𝒙 𝒏 − 𝟏 )
𝟑
is non-causal, since the output signal 𝑦 𝑛 depends on a future value of the
input signal, namely 𝒙 𝒏 + 𝟏 .
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 LINEARITY
• A system is said to be linear, if it satisfies the principle of superposition.
• That is, the response of a linear system to a weighted sum of input signals is
equal to the same weighted sum of output signals, each output signal being
associated with a particular input signal acting on the system independently of all
the other input signals.
• A system that violates the principle of superposition is said to be nonlinear.
• Let the operator H represent a continuous-time system.
• Let the signal applied to the system input be defined by the weighted sum:
𝑵

𝒙 𝒕 = ෍ 𝒂𝒊 𝒙𝒊 (𝒕)
𝒊=𝟏

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Cont …
• Where 𝐱𝟏 𝐭 , 𝐱𝟐 𝐭 , ⋯ , 𝐱𝐍 (𝐭) denote a set of input signals, and 𝒂𝟏 , 𝒂𝟐 , ⋯ , 𝒂𝑵
denote the corresponding weighting factors.
• The resulting output signal is written as:
𝑵

𝒚 𝒕 =𝑯 𝒙 𝒕 = 𝑯 ෍ 𝒂𝒊 𝒙𝒊 (𝒕)
𝒊=𝟏

• If the system is linear, we may (in accordance with the principle of superposition)
express the output signal 𝑦(𝑡) of the system as:
𝑵

𝒚 𝒕 = ෍ 𝒂𝒊 𝒚𝒊 (𝒕)
𝒊=𝟏

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Cont …
• Where 𝐲𝐢 (𝐭) is the output of the system in response to the input 𝒙𝒊 (𝒕) acting alone;
that is,
𝒚𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑯 𝒙𝒊 (𝒕)
• The weighted sum equation describing the output signal 𝒚(𝒕) is of the same
mathematical form as that of the weighted sum equation describing the input signal
𝒙(𝒕).
• Substituting the equation 𝒚𝒊 𝒕 = 𝑯 𝒙𝒊 (𝒕) in to the weighted sum equation
describing the output signal 𝒚(𝒕), we get:
𝑵 𝑵

𝒚 𝒕 = ෍ 𝒂𝒊 𝒚𝒊 (𝒕) = ෍ 𝒂𝒊 𝑯{𝒙𝒊 𝒕 }
𝒊=𝟏 𝒊=𝟏

AMiT-ECE SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO SIGNALS AND SYSTEMS Monday, March 1, 2021 109
Cont …
• Recall these equations:
𝑵 𝑵

𝒚 𝒕 = 𝑯 ෍ 𝒂𝒊 𝒙𝒊 (𝒕) 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒚 𝒕 = ෍ 𝒂𝒊 𝑯{𝒙𝒊 𝒕 }

𝒊=𝟏 𝒊=𝟏

• For a Linear-Discrete-Time system, the principle of superposition is described in a

similar manner.

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Time-Invariant and Time-Varying Systems
A system is called time-invariant if a time shift (delay or advance) in
the input signal causes the same time shift in the output signal. Thus, for a
continuous-time system, the system is time-invariant.
X(t±𝑻) CT- Time-Invariant
Y(t±𝑻).
system

For a discrete-time system, the system is time-invariant (or shift-invariant) if

X[n±𝐊] DT- Time-Invariant

y[n±𝐊]
system

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 END OF
CHAPTER ONE
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