MTH 112- VECTOR, GEOMETRY AND DYNAMICS

COURSE LECTURER- MR ESOSA ENOYOZE

Phone no- 07035399975

VECTOR,GEOMETRY AND DYNAMICS 1

MTH 1I2- VECTORS, GEOMETRY AND DYNAMICS
Instructions / class rules
• Class attendance is mandatory
• 10 mins lateness is maximum grace for any class.
• Bring a copy of your signed course form for admission
into the class.
• No noise making will be tolerated in class.
• No use of phones, headpiece or any other device in
class. VECTOR,GEOMETRY AND DYNAMICS
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• No receiving of calls (except on special cases).

• Attendance is the pre-requisite for exams.

• Taking notes is Mandatory. (Notes will be marked)

• Be ready to take test any time

VECTOR,GEOMETRY AND DYNAMICS

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 course outline
Week 1-2:Types of vectors: points, line and relative vectors,
geometrical representation of vectors in 1-3 dimension.
Addition of vectors and multiplication by a scalar. Components
of vectors in 1-3 dimensions; direction cosines. Linear
independence of vectors.
Week 3: Scalar and vector products of two vectors. Simple
applications.
Week 4-5: Two dimensional coordinate geometry; straight
lines, point of division of a line, distance between two points,
angle between two lines. VECTOR,GEOMETRY AND DYNAMICS
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Week 6: Equation of circle, tangent and normal to a circle.

Week 7: Properties of parabola, ellipse and hyperbola

Week 8: Kinematics of a particle. Force, momentum and laws of

motion.

Week 9:Motion under gravity, projectiles.

Week 10: Angular momentum. Law of conservation of angular

momentum.
VECTOR,GEOMETRY AND DYNAMICS
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 course outline (cont’d)
Week 11:Work, energy and power, simple harmonic motion.
Motion of a rigid body.

Week 12: Triangle and parallelogram of forces, coplanar forces,

condition for equilibrium of coplanar, couples, centre of gravity.

Week 13: Revision.

Week 14: Examinations.

VECTOR,GEOMETRY AND DYNAMICS
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 week 1

Intended learning outcomes

At the end of this lesson students should be able to:
• Define vectors and scalars
• Represents vectors
• Add and subtract vectors

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 Introduction: Scalar and vector quantities

If you have studied physics, you have encountered this

concept in that part of physics concerned with forces and
equilibrium.
Physicists were responsible for first conceiving the idea of
a vector, but the mathematical concept of vectors has
become important in its own right and has extremely wide
application, not only in the sciences but in mathematics as
well.
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 A quantity which is completely specified by a certain
number associated with a suitable unit without any
mention of direction in space is known as scalar. Examples
of scalar are time, mass, length, volume, density,
temperature, energy, distance, speed etc. The number
describing the quantity of a particular scalar is known as
its magnitude. The scalars are added subtracted, multiplied
and divided by the usual arithmetical laws.
A quantity which is completely described only when both
their magnitude and direction are specified is known as
vector. 9
Examples of vector are force, velocity, acceleration,
displacement, torque, momentum, gravitational force,
electric and magnetic intensities etc. A vector is
represented by a Roman letter in bold face and its
magnitude, by the same letter in italics. Thus V means
vector and V is magnitude.

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 VECTOR REPRESENTATIONS
A vector quantity is represented by a straight line segment, say PQ
The arrow head indicate the direction from P to Q. The length of the
Vector represents its magnitude. Sometimes the vectors are represented
by single letter such as V or .V The magnitude of a vector is denoted by
|V| or by just V, where V means modulus V of which is a positive value

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 Types of Vectors:
1. Unit Vector:
A vector whose magnitude is unity i.e., 1 and direction along the
given vector is called a unit Vector. If a is a vector then a unit
vector in the direction of denoted by â (read as a cap), is given
a
as: ˆ 
a
a
or a  a aˆ
2. Free Vector:
A vector whose position is not fixed in space. Thus, the line of
action of a free vector can be shifted parallel to itself.
Displacement is an example of a free vector as shown in figure 1:

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3. Localized or Bounded Vectors:
A vector which cannot be shifted parallel to
itself, i.e., whose line of action is fixed is called a
localized or bounded vector. Force and momentum
are examples of localized vectors.
4. Coplanar Vectors:
The vectors which lies in the same plane
are called coplanar vectors, as shown in Fig. 2.
5. Concurrent Vectors:
The vectors which pass through the common point are
called concurrent vectors.. 13
In the figure no.3 vectors â ,b̂ and ĉ are called
concurrent as they pass through the same point
6. Negative of a Vector:
The vector which has the same magnitude
as the vector a but opposite in direction to a is
called the negative to â
7. Null or Zero Vector:
It is a vector whose magnitude is zero. We denote the null
vector by O. The direction of a zero vector is arbitrary.
The vectors other than zero vectors are proper vectors or non-
zero vectors.
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Equal Vectors:
Two vectors a and b are said to be equal if they have
the same
magnitude and direction. If a and b are equal vectors
then a = b
9. Parallel and Collinear Vectors:
The vectors a and b are parallel if for any real number
n, a = n b . If
(i) n > 0 then the vectors a and b have the same
direction.
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(ii) n < 0 then a and b have opposite directions.
Now, we can also define collinear vectors which lie along
the same
straight line or having their directions parallel to one
another.
10. Like and Unlike Vectors:
The vectors having same direction are called like vectors
and those
having opposite directions are called unlike vectors.

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Subtraction of vectors
• If a vector b is to be subtracted from a vector a, the
difference vector a-b can be obtained by adding
vectors a and –b.
• The vector –b is a vector which is equal and parallel
to that of vector b but its arrow-head its in opposite
direction. Now the vectors a and b can be added by
the head-to-tail rule. Thus the line AC represents, in
magnitude and direction, the vector a-b
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Properties of vector addition

•Vector addition is cumulative

i.e
a + b = a + b where a and b are any two
vectors.

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Multiplication of a vector by a scalar
•If a is any vectors and K is a scalar, then K a=
aK is a vector with ,magnitude /K/. /a/ i.e,
/K/ times the magnitude of a and whose
direction is that of vector a or opposite to
vector a according as K is positive or
negative resp. in particular a and –a are
opposite vectors.
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Properties of mulitplication of vectors by a
scalar
• The scalar multiplication of a vector satisfies
m(n a)= (mn) a =n(m a)
• The scalar multiplication of a vector satisfies the distributive
laws. i.e
(m + n) a = m a + na
and
m(a+b)=m a + m b
Where m and n are scalars and a and b are vectors
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Magnitude or Modulus of a vector

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 Direction Cosines
Let us consider that the vector OP makes angles , 
r which
and 𝛾 with the coordinate axes OX, OY and OZ respectively.
Then Cos , Cos  and Cos 𝛾 are called the direction cosines of
the vector . They are usually denoted
OP by l, m and n
respectively.

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If 𝑂𝑃 = 𝑟Ԧ = 𝑥𝑖 + 𝑦𝑗 + 𝑧𝑘, then 𝑥, 𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑧
are defined as the direction ratios of the
vector 𝑟Ԧ and 𝑟=
Ԧ 2 2 2
𝑥 + 𝑦 + 𝑧 . since the
angles A, B and C are right angles, in the
right triangles. OAP, OBP and OCP the
direction cosines of 𝑟Ԧ can be written as,

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Therefore the co-efficient of 𝑖, 𝑗 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑘 in the unit vector
are the direction cosines of a vector.

2 2 2 𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑧2
Note 2: 𝑙 + 𝑚 + 𝑛 = 2 + +
𝑟 𝑟2 𝑟2

x y z
2 2 2
x y z
2 2 2
 2  1
r
2
x y z
2 2

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 MTH 112 test- VECTOR, GEOMETRY AND DYNAMICS

INSTRUCTION: ANSWER ALL QUESTIONS TIME ALLOWED: 30 MINS

5𝐴 2𝐵
1.a Find the value of . If A=2i+3j-4k and B=i + j
𝐴+𝐵 2
b. Given a= -4j+8k, b=2i+3j-k, c= i+2k and d=i+2j,find the values of s,p,t, if a
is the resultant of sb,pc and td Ans;p=3,t=1,s=-2

2. the sine of the angle between the vectors 2𝑖 − 𝑗 + 𝑘 and 3𝑖 + 4𝑗 − 𝑘

[hint: find the direction cosine and use the relation sin2 𝜃 + cos −1 𝜃 = 1]
3. If 𝑃𝑄 = 4𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 2𝑘, find 𝑃𝑄
4. If 𝒂 = 2𝑖 + 4𝑗 − 3𝑘 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝒃 = 𝑖 + 3𝑗 + 2𝑘, determine the scalar and vector
products, and the angle between the two given vectors.
5. Find the resultant of 3𝑂𝑃, 6𝑄𝑍, 2𝑃𝑂, 𝑃𝑄, 5𝑂𝑄
 Questions
• Consider the vectors V1=2i-j, V2=i+3j,v3=-2i+j. find scalers,𝛂, 𝛃 such that V3=
𝛂V1 + 𝛃V2.. ANS 𝛂=-1 , 𝛃=0
• Given the vectors R1=3i-2j+k , R2=2i-4j-3k, R3=-i+2j+2k, find the
magnitudes of 2R1-3R2-5R3. ANS: 30
1
• If the cosine of the angle between 𝑈 = 𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 2𝑘 and 𝑉 = 𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 𝑃𝑘 is .
3
Find the value of the parameter p
• If a=5i+j and b=4i-7j Express 3a-2b as a linear combination of i and j and find
3a−2b . Ans 7i+17j, 338 or 13 2
• Find the projection of the vector i-2j+k on 4i-4j+7k.Ans=19/9
5𝐴 2𝐵 5800
• Find the value of . If A=2i+3j-4k and B=i + j…Ans
𝐴+𝐵 2 41
• Given a= -4j+8k, b=2i+3j-k, c= i+2k and d=i+2j,find the values of s,p,t, if a is
the resultant of sb,pc and td Ans;p=3,t=1,s=-2
124
15×15= 225
25×25= 625
35×35= 1225
45×45= 2025
55×55= 3025
65×65=
75×75=
85×85= 125
21 times 29=609
31 times 39=1209
32 times 38=1216
34 times 36=1224
126
At the end of this lesson every student should be able to

• Define dependent and independent variable

• Solve problems on geometry

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 Week 4-5:
Two dimensional coordinate geometry; straight
lines, point of division of a line, distance
between two points, angle between two lines.

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 Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Definition: A variable is anything that varies or changes values
according to a given or prevailing situation.
Definition: Independent variable is a variable whose values are
independent of those taken by the dependent variable e.g.
Teacher’s competency is independent of student’s performance.
Definition: Dependent variable is a variable whose values
depend on another variable. e.g the level of students
performance clearly depends on the competency of their
teachers; here student’s performance is a dependent variable.

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 Two Dimensional Co-ordinate Geometry
Definition: A variable is anything that varies or changes values according to a given
or prevailing situation.
Definition: Independent variable is a variable whose values are independent of
those taken by the dependent variable e.g Teacher’s competency is independent of
student’s performance.
Definition: Dependent variable is a variable whose values depend on another
variable. e.g the level of students performance clearly depends on the competency
of their teachers; here student’s performance is a dependent variable.
Definition: A function is a relationship among variable such that any given values
assigned to certain variable determine the values of other variables
Definition: A linear function is one which only the first power of the independent
variable appears in the equation. The graph of a linear function is a straight line
graph e.g. 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 4.
Note: 𝑦 is a dependent variable while 𝑥 is the independent variable 130
 Distance between two point.
Let 𝑍 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃 𝑥2 𝑦2 be the two points, then the distance between 𝑍𝑃 and is given as =
𝑥2 − 𝑥1 2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 2 .
Example
Find the distance between the point 𝑍 −1,5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑃(−2,1)
Solution:
Using the distance formula, the required distance between Z and P is
𝑍𝑃 = 𝑥2 − 𝑥1 2 + 𝑦2 − 𝑦1 2
𝑥1 = −1 𝑥2 = −2
𝑦1 = 5 𝑦2 = 1
𝑍𝑃 = −2 − 1 2 + 1 − 5 2
= 9 + 16
= 25 =5

To find the co-ordinates of the point which divides joins of two given points 𝑥1 𝑦1 and 𝑥2 𝑦2 in
the ratio m1:m2. Two divisions are involved which are:
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 Internal Division
Let Z and P be the two given points with co-ordinates 𝑥1 𝑦1 and 𝑥2 𝑦2 respectively and let
𝑅 𝑥, 𝑦 be the points which divides ZP in the ratio. m1 : m2 internally.
𝑚1 𝑥2 + 𝑚2 𝑥1 𝑚1 𝑦2 + 𝑚2 𝑦1
Then 𝑥 = similarly 𝑦 =
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
The Co-ordinate of R is
𝑚1 𝑥2 + 𝑚2 𝑥1 , 𝑚1 𝑦2 + 𝑚2 𝑦1
𝑚 1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2
𝑥 +𝑥 , 𝑦 +𝑦
Corollary if R is the middle point of ZP, we have 𝑥 = 1 2 𝑦 = 1 2
2 2
Then, the co-ordinate of the middle point of the line joining the points 𝑥1 𝑦1 and 𝑥2 𝑦2 are
𝑥1 + 𝑥2 , 𝑦1 + 𝑦2
.
2 2
External Division
If R now divide ZP externally in the ratio 𝑚1 : 𝑚2 then
𝑚 𝑥 − 𝑚2 𝑥1
𝑥= 1 2 similarly
𝑚1 − 𝑚2
𝑚1 𝑦2 − 𝑚2 𝑦1
𝑦=
𝑚1 − 𝑚2

132
Example
Find the co-ordinates of the point which divides the line joining the point (8,9) and
(−7,4) internally in the ratio 2:3.
Solution 𝒙𝟏 = 𝟖 𝒙𝟐 = −𝟕 𝒚𝟏 = 𝟗, 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟒
The co-ordinates of the point is obtained by substitution.
2 −7 + 3×8
𝑥= =2
2+3
2 4 + 3×9
𝑦= =7
2+3
Example
Find the point which divides the join of (2,1) and (3,5) externally in the ratio 2:3, the point lying
towards the point(3,5).
Solution
Let R 𝑥, 𝑦 be the required point, then we have 𝑚1 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2 = 3
Using the formula for external division we have
𝑚1 𝑥2 − 𝑚2 𝑥1 2 × 3 − 3 ×2
𝑥= = =0
𝑚 1 − 𝑚2 2−3
𝑚1 𝑦2 − 𝑚2 𝑦1 2 𝑥 5 −3 ×1
𝑦= = = −7
𝑚 1 − 𝑚2 2−3
So R is the point(0, −7). 133
The straight line
Equation of a straight line
The equation of a straight line is the relation between x and y which is satisfied by
the co-ordinates of each and every point on the line and by those of no other point.
Equation of a line parallel to the Axes
Let (1) be a line parallel to the axis of 𝑦, at a distance a from it and on the right of
𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, then the equation of the line CD is 𝑥 = 𝑏 if CD is on the left of 𝑦 – 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠,
its equation is 𝑥 = −𝑏. Similarly, the equation of a line parallel to the axis of 𝑥 at
distance d is 𝑦 = 𝑑 (if the line is above the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠) and 𝑦 = −𝑑 if the line is
below the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠.
Gradient of a straight line
The gradient of a line passing through 𝑍(𝑥1 𝑦2 ) is defined as the ratio
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑦−𝑐𝑜−𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
𝑖𝑛 𝑔𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑥−𝑐𝑜−𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑒
From one point to another on the line.
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 Class Work
• show that (3,4), (-3,-2) and (3,-8) are the vertices of an isosceles
triangle.

• Find the co-ordinates of the points (8,9) and (-7,4) internally in the
ratio 2:3

• Find the ratio in which the point (2,1) divides the line joining the points
(1,-2) and (4,7).

• Find the mid-point of the segment AB where A=(1,5) and B=(-3,-1).

• Find the gradient of the line joining the point (3,-6) to (-3,2)
135
Don't struggle to be known;
struggle to know. When you
know, you will be known.

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Class exercise

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SOLUTION

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 T S
y

Let on be the gradient of the line ZP, then P

𝑃𝑅 𝑦 −𝑦
𝑀= = 2 1
𝑍𝑅 𝑥2 − 𝑥1
Angle of slope
x
Z R

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Line ZP makes an angle with the positive 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is called the angle of slope of the line
𝑃𝑅
Gradient of the line 𝑍𝑃 = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃.
𝑍𝑃
Hence the gradient of a line = tangent of the angle the line makes with the positive x-axis.
Example 1
Find the gradient of the line joining (5,4) and (7,8) and the angle of slope of the line.

Solution
Let m be the gradient of the line.
𝑦2 − 𝑦1 8−4 4
Then 𝑚 = = = =2
𝑥2 𝑥1 7−5 2
Let 𝜃 be the angle of slope of the line, thus
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 2
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 (2)
𝜃 = 63.43°

180
 Angles Between two lines
The angles between two lines whose inclination to the 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 are 𝜃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜃2
respectively.
Let 𝜃 and x be the interior and exterior angles between the given lines, then.
𝜃1 = 𝜃 + 𝜃2
𝜃 = 𝜃1 − 𝜃2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃2
∴ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = tan 𝜃1 − 𝜃2 =
1+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃1 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃2
If we put 𝑚1 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚2 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃2
𝑚1 − 𝑚 2
We have 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
1+𝑚1 𝑚2
But if we consider x to be the exterior angle between the line then
𝑚1 − 𝑚2
tan 𝑥 = tan 𝐴 − 𝜃 = −𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 =
1+ 𝑚1 𝑚2

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 y

x
0

Hence the angle becomes

𝑚 𝑚1 2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = ±
1+ 𝑚1 𝑚2
Example
Find the angle between the lines whose slopes are −2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 − 4
Solution
If the angle is 𝜃, then
−2−(−4) −2+4 2 2
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = = = = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 =𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 0.222 = 12.50
1+ −2 (−4) 1+8 9 9
Parallel and perpendicular lines
Condition for parallelism
If the two lines are parallel, the angle between them is zero, hence 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 0 and hence 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 . 182
Example
𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑒𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐵𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝑅
B(3,1), D(4,3), Q(4,6) R(5,8)
Solution
Let 𝑚1 be the gradient of the line joining B and D let me be the gradient of the line
joining Q and R
3−1 2 8−6 2
𝑚1 = = = 2 , 𝑚2 = = =2
4−3 1 5−4 1
Since 𝑚1 = 𝑚2 𝐵𝐷 // 𝑄𝑅.
Condition for perpendicularity
If the lines are perpendicular, then angle between them is a right angle that is 𝜃 =
90° 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = ∞
∴ The denominator 1 + 𝑚1 𝑚2 = 0 or 𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1 => 𝑚2 = −1Τ𝑚1
Hence two lines are perpendicular if the products of their slopes is −1 that is
𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1
183
Example 2
The perpendicularity of lines 𝐵𝐷 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄𝑅
𝐵 5, −1 3,2 2,4 𝑅 5,6 .
2−(−1) −3
𝑚1 = =
3−5 2
−3 2
𝑚2 = × = −1
2 3
Since 𝑚1 𝑚2 = −1, 𝐵𝐷 ⊥ 𝑄𝑅 𝑚𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠 𝐵𝐷 𝑖𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑄𝑅 .
The circle
A circle is a closed plane curve consisting of all point at a given distance
or a locus of points equidistant from a given point. The two main part of
the circle is (i) the Centre (ii) the radius
Equation of a circle with Centre at the origin and radius r
𝑥 − ℎ 2 + 𝑦 − 𝑘 2 = 𝑟2
184
 (h,k)
r

y P(x,y)
r y-k
k)
R
h,
Z(

x-h x

185
A circle Centre (h,k) radius r consider ∆ZPR
ZR=x-h
RP=y-k
Since ∆ZPR is a right-angled ∆1 we have
𝑍𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑄2 = 𝑃𝑄2
Hence (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2
Equation 1 is the equation of a circle Centre (h,k) radius r.
If the Centre of the circle is the origin O,O, then eqn1

P
r y
xR

186
In ∆𝑂𝑃𝑅,
𝑂𝑅2 + 𝑅𝑃2 = 𝑂𝑃2
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2
Examples
Find the equation of the circle Centre (2-1) radius 2 units
Solution
The equation of the circle is (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑟 2
𝑥−2 2+ 𝑦+1 2 =4
𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 + 4 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 1 = 4
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 1 = 0
Find the equation of the circle origin, radius 5 units
Solution
𝑥2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑟2
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 52
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 = 25

187
Find the equation of the circle whose Centre is 1, −2 and passes through −2, 2 .
Solution
Let r be the radius of the circle, then
𝑟 2 = 𝑍𝑃 2
= 1 − (−2 2 + −2 − 2 2
=
1 + 2 2 + −4 2
= 32 + 42
9 + 16
𝑟 2 = 25, 𝑟=5

Hence the equation of the circle Centre (1, − 2) and radius 5 units is
(𝑥 − 1)2 + (𝑦 + 2)2 = 52
𝑥 − 1 𝑥 − 1 + 𝑦 + 2 𝑦 + 2 = 25
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑦 + 4 = 25
𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑦 + 4 = 25
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 5 = 25
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 5 − 25 = 0
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑥 + 4𝑦 − 20 = 0

188
 The equation of a circle
Let C(a, b) be the centre and r the radius of the circle. Let P(x, y) be any
point on the circumference of the circle, then
CP = r
C𝑃2 = 𝑟 2
Now from the expression for the distance between two points, we have
𝑥 − 𝑎 2 + 𝑦 − 𝑏 2 = 𝑟 2 −−−−−−−− −(1)
which is the required equation.
If we let a = b = 0, the centre of the circle will be the origin and the
equation reduces to
𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 = 𝑟 2 −−−−−−−−− −(2)
Equation (1) may be written as:
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 −2𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑏𝑦 + 𝑎2 +𝑏 2 = 𝑟 2
The equation of a circle is thus of the form 189
 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +2𝑔𝑥 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑐 = 0 −−−−−−−−−− −(3𝑎)
Where 𝑔, 𝑓, 𝑐 𝑎𝑟𝑒 constants. Conversely (3) can be written
𝑥 2 + 2𝑔𝑥 + 𝑔2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑓𝑦 + 𝑓 2 = 𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐 ------------------(3b)
Comparing (3b) with (1), we see that (3a) represents a circle centre (-g,-
f), radius 𝑔2 + 𝑓 2 − 𝑐
In general, the equation of a circle is such that
(i) the coefficients of 𝑥 2 and 𝑦 2 are equal;
(ii) there is no term in xy.

Example 1: Find the equation of the circle centre ( - 3, 4), radius 7.

The equation is

190
Example 2 Find the centre and radius of the circle 4𝑥 2 +4𝑦 2 -12x
+5 =0.

Example 3 Find the equation of the circle centre ( + 4, -7) which

touches the line 3x + 4y - 9 = 0.
• The equation of the circle with AB as diameter A, B are the
points 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 , 𝑥2 , 𝑦2
Exercises: Find the centre and radius of the following circles:
2 2
• 𝑥 +𝑦 +2𝑥 + 6𝑦 + 6 = 0
2 2
• 9𝑥 + 9𝑦 + 27𝑥 + 12𝑦 + 19 = 0
• 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 5𝑥 = 0
• 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −2𝑎𝑥 + 2𝑏𝑦 + 2𝑏 2 = 0(𝑎, 𝑏 constant) 191
The equation of a circle through three non-collinear points
Let the equation of the circle be 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒙 + 𝟐𝒇𝒚 + 𝒄 =
𝟎, and the three points be 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 , 𝒙𝟐 , 𝒚𝟐 𝒙𝟑 , 𝒚𝟑 .Since the
circle passes through all three points, the co-ordinates of each
point must satisfy the equation of the circle.
Hence:
𝒙𝟏 𝟐 +𝒚𝟏 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒙𝟏 + 𝟐𝐟𝒚𝟏 + 𝒄 = 𝟎
𝒙𝟐 𝟐 +𝒚𝟐 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒙𝟐 + 𝟐𝐟𝒚𝟐 + 𝒄 = 𝟎
𝒙𝟑 𝟐 +𝒚𝟑 𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒙𝟑 + 𝟐𝐟𝒚𝟑 + 𝒄 = 𝟎
are three simultaneous equations which can be solved for g, f
and c.
192
Example 1: Find the equation of the circle
through the points 6,1 , 3,2 , 2,3 .

Example 2: Find the equation of the circle

through the points 0,0 , 3,1 , 5,5 .

Example 3: Find the equation of the circle

through the points 5,0 , 6,0 , 8,1 .
193
The equation of the tangent at the point 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 on the circle 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟐 + 𝟐𝒈𝒙 + 𝟐𝒇𝒚 + 𝒄 = 𝟎

Differentiating the equation with respect to x, we have:

𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑦
2𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 2𝑔 + 2𝑓 =0
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑥

Therefore,
𝑑𝑦 𝑥+𝑔
=−
𝑑𝑥 𝑦+𝑓
hence, the gradient of the tangent at the point 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 is :
𝑥1 +𝑔
−
𝑦1 +𝑓
Thus by
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑚 𝑥 − 𝑥1 , the equation of the tangent is:
𝑥1 +𝑔
𝑦 − 𝑦1 = − 𝑥 − 𝑥1
𝑦1 +𝑓 194
 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑦𝑓 − 𝑦1 2 − 𝑦1 𝑓 = −𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑥1 2 − 𝑔𝑥 + 𝑔𝑥1
𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑦𝑦1 +𝑔𝑥 +𝑓𝑦 = 𝑥1 2 +𝑦1 2 + 𝑔𝑥1 +𝑓𝑦1
Now add 𝒈𝒙𝟏 + 𝐟𝒚𝟏 + 𝒄 to both sides to obtain:
𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑦𝑦1 +𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑥1 +𝑓 𝑦 + 𝑦1 + 𝑐 = 𝑥1 2 +𝑦1 2 + 2𝑔𝑥1 +2𝑓𝑦1 +𝑐 = 0
Because 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 lies on the circle . Hence the required equation
is:
𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑦𝑦1 +𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑥1 +𝑓 𝑦 + 𝑦1 + 𝑐

195
Example:
Find the equation of the tangent at the point − 3Τ2 , 1 on the circle
4𝑥 2 +4𝑦 2 −12𝑥 + 24𝑦 − 55 = 0.

Exercise:
Find the equation to the tangent to the following circles at the given
points.
• 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −5𝑥 − 𝑦 + 4 = 0 at 1,0
• 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 −10𝑦 = 0 at 3,9
• 2𝑥 2 +2𝑦 2 +𝑥 − 11𝑦 − 1 = 0 at −2,5
• 𝑥 2 +𝑦 2 +3𝑥 − 3𝑦 − 38 = 0 at 1,1
• 9𝑥 2 +9𝑦 2 −12𝑥 + 42𝑦 − 236 = 0 at −2,3
196
 Angles
The angle between two straight lines is given by :
−1 𝑚1 −𝑚2
tan 1+𝑚1 .𝑚2

Where 𝑚1 and 𝑚2 are the gradients of the two lines.

Examples
Find the angle between the lines 𝑦 = 𝑥Τ3 + 4Τ3 and 𝑦 = 𝑥Τ2 + 5Τ8.
𝑚1 =1Τ3 and 𝑚2 = 1Τ3 .
Exercise: Find the angle between the following pairs of lines
• 3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 7 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 4𝑥 − 5𝑦 + 2 = 0 .
• 𝑦 = 3𝑥 + 4 and 𝑦 = 2𝑥 − 1
• 5𝑥 − 6𝑦 + 7 = 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 6𝑥 + 5𝑦 − 3 = 0
197
Properties of parabola, ellipse and hyperbola

198
Define Parabola
A Parabola is a locus of points, equidistant from a given point, called the focus and from a given line called the directrix.

The line 𝐴𝐵 a distance of 𝑎 from the 𝑦 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠 is called the directrix

The line 𝐴𝐹 is called the axis of symmetry.
Since 𝐵𝑃 = 𝐹𝑃
𝐵𝑃2 = 𝐹𝑃2
∴ (𝑥 + 𝑎)2 = (𝑥 − 𝑎)2 + (𝑦 − 0)2
∴ 𝑥 2 + 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 = 𝑥 2 − 2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑎2 + 𝑦 2
2𝑎𝑥 = −2𝑎𝑥 + 𝑦 2
4𝑎𝑥 = 𝑦 2
199
Hence the equation of parabola is 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥
The line segment through the focus, and ⊥ to the axis symmetry and with end
points 𝑅 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑄 𝑜𝑛 the parabola, is called the LATUS RECTUM. The point V is
called the Vertex of the parabola. Length of latus rectum= 4𝑎. Special cases
(a)

200
(b)

(c)

201
(d)

If the vertex of the parabola 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 is translated to the point 𝑥1 𝑦1 , the equation of the corresponding parabola
becomes.
(𝑦 − 𝑦1 )2 = 4𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥1 ).
The above equation is said to be in the standard or canonical form
Example
Find the focus and directrix of the parabola 𝑦 2 = 16𝑥
Solution
By comparing 𝑦 2 = 16𝑥 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥
16𝑥 = 4𝑎𝑥
16𝑥
𝑎=
4𝑥
𝑎 = 4 Hence, the focus is (4,0) while the directirx is 𝑥 = −4
202
 REMEMBER the following regarding the parabola, 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥.

1. AXIS of the parabola is x-axis i.e y=0

2. Vertex of the parabola is the origin (0,0)
3. The tangent at the vertex is the y-axis i.e x=0
4. co-ordinates of the focus S≡ 𝑎, 0
5. co-ordinates of Z≡ −𝑎, 0
6. Length of the latus rectum is 4a.
7. Equation of the directrix is 𝑥 = −𝑎
8.Equation of the latus rectum is 𝑥 = 𝑎
9. co-ordinates of the ends of latus rectum are 𝐿 ≡
′
𝑎, 2𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿 ≡ 𝑎, −2𝑎 203
Find the equation of the parabola whose vertex is the origin and whose focus is the
point 𝐹(5,0)
Solution
Let the equation of parabola be 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥
The focus 𝐹 𝑎, 0 = (5,0)
∴𝑎=5
Hence the equation of the parabola is 𝑦 2 = 20𝑥
Write down the equation of the parabola 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 − 12𝑥 + 40 = 0 in its canonical
form and hence find
The vertex ii) The focus (iii) the directrix of the parabola
Solution
Given 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 − 12𝑥 + 40 = 0
𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4 − 12𝑥 + 36 = 0
𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4 = 12𝑥 − 36
(𝑦 − 2)2 = 12(𝑥 − 3)
204
Hence, the vertex is (3, 2)
Since 4𝑎 = 12 ⇒ 𝑎 = 3, The focus is 3 + 3,2) = (6,2)
The directrix is 𝑥 = 3 − 3 = 0
Equation of the Tangent to 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟒𝒂𝒙 at the point 𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟏
𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥
By differentiating implicitly
𝑑𝑦
2𝑦 = 4𝑎
𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 4𝑎
=
𝑑𝑥 2𝑦
2𝑎
= At the point 𝑥1 𝑦1
𝑦
𝑑𝑦 2𝑎
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑦1
∴ 𝑦1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑦1 𝑦 = 𝑦12 = 2𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑎𝑥1

205
Since 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 is on 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥, it implies that 𝑦12 = 4𝑎𝑥1
Thus 𝑦𝑦1 − 4𝑎𝑥1 = 2𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑎𝑥1
𝑦𝑦1 = 2𝑎𝑥 − 2𝑎𝑥1 + 4𝑎𝑥1
𝑦𝑦1 = 2𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑥1 )
Equation of Normal to 𝒚𝟐 = 𝟒𝒂𝒙 at the point 𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟏
Recall that the normal to a curve at the point 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 is ⊥ to the tangent at the
point 𝑥1 𝑦1 .
2𝑎 −𝑦
Since the gradient of the tangent at 𝑥1 𝑦1 𝑖𝑠 , the gradient of normal is
𝑦1 2𝑎
thus the equation of the normal becomes
𝑦−𝑦1 −𝑦1
=
𝑥−𝑥1 2𝑎
∴ 2𝑎𝑦 − 2𝑎𝑦1 + 𝑥1 𝑦1 is the equation of the normal to the parabola 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 at
the point 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 on the parabola.

206
Example
Find the equation of the tangent to parabola 𝑦 2 = 12𝑥 at the
point (3,6)
Solution
2 2
By comparing 𝑦 = 12𝑥 with 𝑦 = 4𝑎𝑥, 𝑎 = 3
The equation of the tangent at 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 is
𝑦𝑦1 = 2𝑎 𝑥 + 𝑥1 , since 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 = (3,6)
Equation of tangent is
6𝑦 = 2 × 3 𝑥 + 3 ⇒ 6𝑦 = 6(𝑥 + 3)
Thus 6𝑦 − 6𝑥 − 18 = 0 or 𝑦 − 𝑥 − 3 = 0

207
5 The equation of the normal to parabola 𝑦 2 = 16𝑥 at the point
Comparing 𝑦 2 = 16𝑥 with 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 ⇒ 𝑎 = 4
The equation of the normal at the point 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 is 2𝑎𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦1 =
2𝑎𝑦1 + 𝑥1 𝑦1
Hence the equation of the normal at 1, −4 is
2 4 𝑦 − 4𝑥 = 2 4 −4 + 1 × (−4)
8𝑦 − 4𝑥 = −32 − 4
8𝑦 − 4𝑥 = −36
8𝑦 − 4𝑥 + 36 = 0
2𝑦 − 𝑥 + 9 = 0

208
6 The tangent and the normal to the parabola 𝑦 2 = 20𝑥 at the point meet the x-axis at the point A and B respectively. Show
𝐴𝐵2 = 𝐴𝑇 2 + 𝑇𝐵2

Comparing 𝑦 2 = 20𝑥 with 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥

𝑎=5
Equation of the tangent to the parabola 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 at 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 is
𝑦𝑦1 = 2𝑎(𝑥 + 𝑥1 )
Hence, the equation of the tangent to 𝑦 2 = 20𝑥 at (5,10) is
10𝑦 = 10(𝑥 + 5)
∴𝑦 =𝑥+5
When 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = −5. Hence the point A has coordinates (−5,0)
Equation of the normal to 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 at the point 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 is
2𝑎𝑦 + 𝑥𝑦1 = 2𝑎𝑦1 + 𝑥1 𝑦1
209
Hence the equation of the normal at (5,10) is
10𝑦 + 10𝑥 = 10 10 + 5 × 10
10𝑦 + 10𝑥 = 150
When 𝑦 = 0, 𝑥 = 15
Hence the points B has coordinates (15,0)
𝐴𝐵2 = (15 + 5)2 +02
= 202 = 400
𝐴𝑇 2 = (5 + 5)2 +(10 − 0)2
252 + 102 = 200
𝑇𝐵2 = (15 − 5)2 + (0 − 10)2
102 + 102 = 200
𝐴𝑇 2 + 𝑇𝐵2 = 200 + 200 = 400
Hence 𝐴𝐵2 = 𝐴𝑇 2 + 𝑇𝐵2
210
The Ellipse
An eclipse is the locus of a point P, moving in a plane such that the sum of it distance from two
fixed point 𝐹1 and 𝐹2 called Foci, is a constant.

The point 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 , 𝑣3 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣4 are called the vertices of the ellipse.

The line segment 𝑣1 , 𝑣2 is called the major axis while the line segment 𝑣3 𝑣4 is
called the minor axis.
The point 0 is called the Centre of the ellipse
From the figure above,
𝑣1 , 𝑣2 = 2𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣3 , 𝑣4 = 2𝑏 211
Also,
From the locus condition we want
𝑓2 𝑃 + 𝑃𝑓1 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
Then P is on 𝑣1
𝑓2 𝑃 + 𝑃𝑓1 = 𝑓2 𝑣1 + 𝑣1 𝑓1
= 𝑓2 𝑣1 + 𝑣2 𝑓2
= 𝑣1 𝑓1 + 𝑓2 𝑣2
= 𝑣1 𝑣2 = 2𝑎
Thus 𝑓2 𝑃 + 𝑃𝑓1 = 2𝑎
∴ (𝑥 + 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 + (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 =2a
∴ (𝑥 + 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 = 2𝑎 − (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2
(𝑥 + 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 = (2𝑎 − (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 )2
= 4𝑎2 − 4𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 + (𝑥 + 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2
∴ 𝑥 2 + 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑦 2
= 4𝑎2 − 4𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 − 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐 2 + 𝑦 2

212
 ∴ 2𝑐𝑥 = 4𝑎2 − 4𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 − 2𝑐𝑥.

4𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎2 − 4𝑐𝑥

𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑐𝑥
2 2 𝑐𝑥
∴ (𝑥 − 𝑐) + 𝑦 = 𝑎 −
𝑎
𝑐2 2
(𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑎2 − 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑥
𝑎2
𝑐2 2
∴ 𝑥2 − 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐2 + 𝑦2 = 𝑎2 − 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑥
𝑎2
2 2 2 2 𝑐2 2
∴𝑥 +𝑦 +𝑐 = 𝑎 + 2𝑥
𝑎
𝑐2 2
∴ 𝑥 − 2 𝑥 + 𝑦2
2
= 𝑎2 − 𝑐 2
𝑎
2
𝑎 −𝑐 2
2 2
𝑥 + 𝑦 = 𝑎2 − 𝑐 2
𝑎2

213
Dividing through by 𝑎2 − 𝑐 2 , we have
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ = 1 -------------(1)
𝑎2 𝑎2 − 𝑐 2
From ∆𝑂𝑃𝐹1 in the above figure,
𝑎2 = 𝑏2 + 𝑐 2
𝑏 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑐 2 ----------------(2)
Substituting 𝑏 2 and 𝑎2 − 𝑐 2 in equation (1), we have
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ = 1 (𝑎 > 𝑏)--------------- (3)
𝑎2 𝑏2
Equation (3) is the canonical or standard equation of an ellipse with
major axis horizontal.
Similarly, if the major axis is vertical, it can be shown that
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ = 1 Gives the equation of the ellipse.
𝑎2 𝑏2
214
Example
𝑥2 𝑦2
Find four vertices and foci of the ellipse + =1
4 16
Solution
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑦2
By comparing + = 1 with 2 + 2 =1
4 16 𝑎 𝑏
We have,
𝑏 2 = 4, ⇒ 𝑏 = ±2
𝑎2 = 16, ⇒ 𝑎 = ±4
Hence the four vertices are 𝑣1 0,4 , 𝑣2 0, −4 , 𝑣3 2,0 , 𝑣4 −2,0 .
Since 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 = 16 − 4 = 12 ⇒ 𝑐 = ±3.46
Hence the foci are 𝑓1 0,3.46 and 𝑓2 0, −3.46

215
Change or Origin
Recall that, the canonical form of the equation of an ellipse Centre
origin is
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ = 1 (with major axis on x-axis)
𝑎2 𝑏2
If the Centre of the ellipse is transferred to the point (𝑥 ′ , 𝑦 ′ ) in such a
way that the axes are parallel to the 𝑥 and 𝑦 axes, then the new
canonical form of equation of the ellipse becomes.
(𝑥−𝑥 ′ )2 (𝑦−𝑦 ′ )2
+ = 1 (With major axis horizontal)
𝑎2 𝑏2
(𝑥−𝑥 ′ )2 (𝑦−𝑦 ′ )2
+ = 1 (With major axis vertical)
𝑏2 𝑎2

216
Example
Find the equation of the ellipse 25𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 − 50𝑥 − 16𝑦 − 59 = 0 in the canonical form and
hence,
Determine
The coordinates of the Centre of the ellipse;
The four vertices of the ellipse
The two foci of the ellipse
Solution
25𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 − 50𝑥 − 16𝑦 − 59 = 0
25𝑥 2 + 50𝑥 + 4𝑦 2 − 16𝑦 = 59
25 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 4 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 = 59
25 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 − 1 + 4 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4 − 4 = 59
25 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 + 4 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4 − 25 − 16 = 59
25 𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 + 1 + 4 𝑦 2 − 4𝑦 + 4 − 41 = 59
25(𝑥 − 1)2 + 4(𝑦 − 2)2 = 100
(𝑥−1)2 (𝑦−2)2
∴ + =1
4 25

217
Hence
The coordinates of the Centre (1,2)
(𝑥−1)2 (𝑦−2)2 (𝑥−𝑥 ′ )2 (𝑦−𝑦 ′ )2
Comparing + with + = 1, we have 𝑏 2 = 4, 𝑏 = ±2, 𝑎2 = 25,
4 25 𝑏2 𝑎2
𝑎 = ±5
Hence, the vertices on the vertical axes are
𝑉1 0 + 𝑥 ′ , 𝑎 + 𝑦 ′ = 𝑉1 1,7 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝑉2 0 + 𝑥 ′ , −𝑎 + 𝑦 ′ = 𝑉2 (1, −3)
The vertices on the horizontal axes are
𝑉3 𝑏 + 𝑥 ′ , 0 + 𝑦 ′ = 𝑉3 (3,2) and
𝑉4 −𝑏 + 𝑥 ′ , 0 + 𝑦 ′ = 𝑉4 (−1,2)
Since 𝑐 2 = 𝑎2 − 𝑏 2
25 − 4
= 21
The two foci are
𝐹1 0 + 𝑥 ′ , 𝑐 + 𝑦 ′ = 𝐹1 1, 21 + 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑
𝐹2 0 + 𝑥 ′ , 𝑐 + 𝑦 ′ = 𝐹2 (1, − 21 + 2)
218
Equation of the tangent at 𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 𝒕𝒐 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝑬𝒍𝒍𝒊𝒑𝒔𝒆
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ = 1 Differentiating implicitly
𝑎2 𝑏2
2𝑥 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
+ =0
𝑎2 𝑏2 𝑑𝑥
2𝑦 𝑑𝑦 −2𝑥
= 2
𝑏2 𝑑𝑥 𝑎
𝑑𝑦 −2𝑥 𝑏2
∴ = 2 ∙
𝑑𝑥 𝑎 2𝑦
−𝑏2 𝑥
= 2
𝑎 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 −𝑏2 𝑥1
At the point x1 , y1 ; =
𝑑𝑥 𝑎2 𝑦1
The equation of the tangent becomes
𝑦−𝑦1 −𝑏2 𝑥1
= 2
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑎 𝑦1
𝑎2 𝑦1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = −𝑏 2 𝑥1 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
2 2 2 2 2
𝑎 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑎 𝑦1 = −𝑏 𝑥1 𝑥 + 𝑏 𝑥1
2 2 2 2 2
𝑎 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑏 𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑎 𝑦1 − 𝑏 𝑥1 = 0 ----------- (1)
219
As the point x1 , y1 is on the ellipse
𝑥1 2 𝑦2
2 + 2=1 or
𝑎 𝑏
𝑏 2 𝑥12 + 𝑎2 𝑦12
− 𝑎2 𝑏 2 ------------ (2)
From equation (1)
𝑎2 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑏 2 𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑎2 𝑦12 + 𝑏 2 𝑥12 = 0 --------(3)
Substituting 𝑎2 𝑏 2 in (2) for 𝑎2 𝑦12 + 𝑏 2 𝑥12 in (3)
𝑎2 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑏 2 𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑎2 𝑏2 = 0
∴ 𝑎2 𝑦𝑦1 + 𝑏 2 𝑥𝑥1 − 𝑎2 𝑏 2 ----------- (4)
Dividing equation (4) through by 𝑎2 𝑏 2
𝑦𝑦1 𝑥𝑥1
𝑏2 + 2 = 1 or
𝑎
𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦1
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
220
 𝑥2 𝑦2
Hence, the equation of the tangent to the ellipse + = 1 at point (𝑥1 𝑦1 ) on the ellipse is
𝑎2 𝑏2
𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦
+ 𝑏21 = 1
𝑎2
Equation of the Normal at 𝐱 𝟏 𝐲𝟏 𝐭𝐨 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐄𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐩𝐬𝐞
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ 𝑏2 = 1
𝑎2
𝑥2 𝑦2
From 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 = 1
𝑑𝑦 −𝑏2 𝑥
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑎2 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 −𝑏2 𝑥
At 𝑥1 𝑦1 , 𝑑𝑥 = 𝑎2 𝑦1
1
Let 𝑚 be the gradient of the normal, then
𝑚 = − 1ൗ𝑑𝑦
𝑑𝑥
𝑎2 𝑦1
= 𝑏2 𝑥1
The equation of the normal becomes
𝑦−𝑦1 𝑎2 𝑦1
= 𝑏2 𝑥
𝑥−𝑥1 1
𝑏 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑎2 𝑦1 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
2

𝑏2 𝑥1 𝑦− 𝑏2 𝑥1 𝑦1 = 𝑎2 𝑦1 𝑥 − 𝑎2 𝑦1 𝑥1 )
𝑏2 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑎 2 𝑥𝑦1 = 𝑏2 𝑥1 𝑦1 − 𝑎2 𝑦1 𝑥1 )
∴ 𝑎2 𝑥𝑦1 − 𝑏2 𝑥1 𝑦 = 𝑎2 𝑦1 𝑥1 − 𝑏2 𝑥1 𝑦1
∴ 𝑎2 𝑥𝑦1 − 𝑏2 𝑥1 𝑦 = (𝑎2 − 𝑏2 )𝑥1𝑦1

221
Find the equations of the tangent and normal to the ellipse 4𝑥 2 + 25𝑦 2 = 100 at the point −3, 8Τ5
Solution
Writing 4𝑥 2 + 25𝑦 2 = 100, we have
𝑥2 𝑦2
+ = 1 ⇒ 𝑎 = 5 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑏 = 2
25 4
Equation of tangent at (𝑥1 𝑦1 ) is
𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦1
+ =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
Hence, the equation of the tangent at −3, 8Τ5 is
𝑥 −3 𝑦 8Τ5
+ = 1
52 22
−3𝑥 8𝑦
+ =1
25 20
∴ −12𝑥 + 40𝑦 = 100
∴ −3𝑥 + 10𝑦 = 25
∴ 10𝑦 − 3𝑥 − 25 = 0
Equation of the normal at (𝑥1 𝑦1 ) is
𝑎2 𝑥𝑦1 − 𝑏 2 𝑥1 𝑦 = (𝑎2 − 𝑏 2 )𝑥1 𝑦1
Hence, the equation of the normal at −3, 8Τ5 is
25𝑥 8Τ5 − 4 −3 𝑦 = 25 − 4 −3 8Τ5
40𝑥 + 12𝑦 = 21 −24Τ5

222
 200𝑥 + 60𝑦 = −504
200𝑥 + 60𝑦 + 504 = 0
50𝑥 + 15𝑦 + 126 = 0
The Hyperbola
A hyperbola is the locus of 𝑎 point 𝑃, moving in a plane such that its distances from two fixed
points called foci have a constant difference.

223
The locus condition is that
𝑃𝐹1 − 𝑃𝐹2 = 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
When P is at 𝑉2
𝑃𝐹1 = 𝑐 + 𝑎, 𝑃𝐹2 = 𝑐 − 𝑎
𝑃𝐹1 − 𝑃𝐹2 = 𝑐 + 𝑎 − (𝑐 − 𝑎)
𝑃𝐹1 − 𝑃𝐹2 = 2𝑎

224
Hence
∴ (𝑥 + 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 − (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 = 2𝑎
∴ (𝑥 + 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 = 2𝑎 + (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2
∴ (𝑥 + 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎2 + 4𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 + (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2
∴ (𝑥 + 𝑐)2 = 4𝑎2 + 4𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 + (𝑥 − 𝑐)2
∴ 𝑥 2 + 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐 2 = 4𝑎2 + 4𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑥 2 − 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐 2
4𝑐𝑥 = 4𝑎2 + 4𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2
𝑐𝑥 = 𝑎2 + 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2
𝑐𝑥
= 𝑎 (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2
𝑎
𝑐𝑥
= −𝑎 = (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2
𝑎
𝑐𝑥 2
−𝑎 = (𝑥 − 𝑐)2 + 𝑦 2
𝑎

225
𝑐2 2 2 2
2 𝑥 − 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑎 = 𝑥 − 2𝑐𝑥 + 𝑐2 + 𝑦2
𝑎
𝑐2 2 2 2 2 2
𝑥 − 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑐 − 𝑎
𝑎2
𝑐2 2 2 2 2
− 1 𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑐 − 𝑎
𝑎2
𝑐 2 −𝑎2 2 2 2 2
𝑥 − 𝑦 = 𝑐 − 𝑎
𝑎2
2 2
Divide through by 𝑐 − 𝑎
𝑥2 𝑦2
2 − = 1 putting 𝑏 2 = 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2
𝑎 𝑐 2 −𝑎2
𝑥2 𝑦2
2 − =
1 ------------ (1)
2
𝑎 𝑏
The points 𝑉1 (𝑎, 0) and 𝑉2 (−𝑎, 0) are called the vertices of the
hyperbola.
The points 𝐹1 (𝑐, 0) and 𝐹2 (−𝑐, 0) are called the foci of the hyperbola.
226
Asymptotes of the Curve
Consider again equation (1)
𝑥2 𝑦2
− =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
The left-hand side of the equation is a difference of two squares, hence by factorizing we have
𝑥 𝑦 𝑥 𝑥
− + =1
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎 𝑎
𝑥 𝑦 1 𝑎𝑏
− = 𝑥 𝑦=
𝑎 𝑏 + 𝑏𝑥+𝑎𝑦
𝑎 𝑏
𝑥 𝑦 𝑎𝑏
Thus − = ------------ (2)
𝑎 𝑏 𝑏𝑥+𝑎𝑦
Consider the RGS of equation (2)
𝑎𝑏
𝑎𝑏 𝑥 𝑎𝑏
= 𝑎𝑦 , 𝐴𝑠 𝑥 → ∞, →0
𝑏𝑥+𝑎𝑦 𝑏+ 𝑏 𝑏𝑥+𝑎𝑦
𝑎𝑏
𝑎𝑏 𝑦 𝑎𝑏
Also = 𝑏𝑥 , 𝐴𝑠 𝑦 → ∞, →0
𝑏𝑥+𝑎𝑦 +𝑎 𝑏𝑥+𝑎𝑦
𝑦

227
So as 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 approach infinity the expression on the RHS of (2)
approaches zero
Hence, the expression of the LHS of (2) must also approach zero as
𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 approach infinity.
Thus as 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 approach infinity
𝑥 𝑦
− →0
𝑎 𝑏
𝑥 𝑦 𝑏
The straight line − = 0 or 𝑦 = 𝑥 is called an oblique asymptote.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑎
𝑏
The curve is symmetrical about the x-axis, so the line 𝑦 = − 𝑥 is also
𝑎
another oblique asymptote.
𝒙𝟐 𝒚𝟐
Equation of Tangent at the point 𝐱𝟏 𝐲𝟏 𝐭𝐨 − =𝟏
𝒂𝟐 𝒃𝟐
Consider the equation of the hyperbola
228
 𝑥2 𝑦2 2 𝑥 2 − 𝑎2 𝑦 2 = 𝑎2 𝑏2
− = 1 ⇒ 𝑏
𝑎2 𝑏2
Since x1 y1 lies on the curve, we have
2 2
𝑏 2 𝑥1 − 𝑎2 𝑦1 = 𝑎2 𝑏 2 ----------(3)
𝑥2 𝑦2
From 2 − 2 = 1
𝑎 𝑏
2𝑥 2𝑦 𝑑𝑦
− 2 =0
𝑎2 𝑏 𝑑𝑥
𝑑𝑦 𝑏2 𝑥
∴ = 2
𝑑𝑥 𝑎 𝑦
𝑑𝑦 𝑏2 𝑥1
At x1 y1 , = 2 Equation of tangent becomes
𝑑𝑥 𝑎 𝑦1
𝑦−𝑦1 𝑏2 𝑥1
= 2
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑎 𝑦1
𝑎2 𝑦1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = 𝑏 2 𝑥1 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
2 2
𝑎2 𝑦1 𝑦 − 𝑎2 𝑦1 = 𝑏 2 𝑥1 𝑥 − 𝑏 2 𝑥1
2 2
∴ 𝑎2 𝑦1 𝑦 − 𝑏 2 𝑥1 𝑥 = 𝑎2 𝑦1 − 𝑏 2 𝑥1
2 2
∴ 𝑏2 𝑥1 𝑥 − 𝑎2 𝑦1 𝑦 = 𝑏 2 𝑥1 − 𝑎2 𝑦1 ------------------(4)

229
From (3)
2 2 2 2
𝑏 𝑥1 − 𝑎 𝑦1 = 𝑎2 𝑏 2 Substituting this into equation (4)
𝑏 2 𝑥1 𝑥 − 𝑎2 𝑦1 𝑦 = 𝑎2 𝑏 2 ------------ (5)
Dividing (5) through by 𝑎2 𝑏 2 , we have
𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦1
2 − 2 =1
𝑎 𝑏
Hence the equation of the tangent to the hyperbola
𝑥 𝑦2
− 2 = 1 at the point (𝑥1 𝑦1 ) is
𝑎 𝑏
𝑥𝑥1 𝑦𝑦1
2 − 2 =1
𝑎 𝑏

230
Equation of Normal at the point (𝒙𝟏 𝒚𝟏 ) to the Hyperbola
𝑥2 𝑦2
− 2=1
𝑎2 𝑏
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑑𝑦 𝑏 2 𝑥1
From 2 − 2 = 1, = 2 at the point 𝑥1 𝑦1 ; then
𝑎 𝑏 𝑑𝑥 𝑎 𝑦1
𝑎2 𝑦1
𝑚 = 2 . Thus the equation of the normal is
𝑏 𝑥1
𝑦−𝑦1 𝑎2 𝑦1
=− 2
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑏 𝑥1
𝑏 2 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑦1 = −𝑎2 𝑦1 (𝑥 − 𝑥1 )
𝑏 2 𝑥1 𝑦 − 𝑏 2 𝑥1 𝑦1 = −𝑎2 𝑦1 𝑥 + −𝑎2 𝑦1 𝑥1
∴ 𝑏 2 𝑥1 𝑦 + 𝑎2 𝑥1 𝑦 = 𝑎2 𝑦1 𝑥1 + 𝑏 2 𝑦1 𝑥1
∴ 𝑎2 𝑥𝑦1 + 𝑏 2 𝑥𝑦1 = (𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 )𝑥1 𝑦1
As the required equation of normal at 𝑥1 𝑦1

231
Change of Origin
𝑥2 𝑦2
The Centre of the − = 1 is the origin. If the centre is changed to the point 𝑥 ′ 𝑦 ′ , the new equation
hyperbola 2
𝑎 𝑏2
of the hyperbola in the canonical form is
2 2
𝑥−𝑥 ′ 𝑦−𝑦 ′
− =1
𝑎2 𝑏2
Example
Find the vertices and foci of the hyperbola 25𝑥 2 − 16𝑦 2 = 400 in the canonical form.
Solution
𝑥2 𝑦2 𝑥2 𝑦2
By comparing − = 1 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ − = 1
16 25 𝑎2 𝑏2
𝑎2 = 16 ⇒ 𝑎 = ±4, 𝑏 2 = 25 ⇒ 𝑏 = ±5
Hence the vertices are
𝑣1 4,0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑣2 (−4,0)
Also, 𝑏2 = 𝑐 2 − 𝑎2
𝑐 2 = 𝑏 2 − 𝑎2
= 25 + 16 = 41
𝑐 = ± 41
Hence the foci are 𝑓1 41, 0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓2 − 41, 0

232
Equation of the normal at 𝑥1 , 𝑦1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎2 𝑥𝑦1 + 𝑏 2 𝑥1 𝑦 = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2 𝑥1 𝑦1
Thus the equation of the normal at (−2,0) is
4 𝑥 0 + 9 −2 𝑦 = 4 + 9 −2 (0)
−18𝑦 = 0
𝑦=0
Parametric Equations of Curves
All the equations we have dealt with so far are in the form 𝑦 = 𝑓 𝑥 . here a direct
relationship between 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 is given. For example, 𝑦 = 2𝑥 + 1 is the equation of
a straight line,
𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 4𝑥 − 2𝑦 − 1 = 0 is the equation of a circle and 𝑦 2 = −6𝑥 is the
equation of a parabola. This form is called the Cartesian equation.
Sometimes, it is however, more convenient to express both 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 in terms of a
third variables, called a parameter that is 𝑥 = 𝑓 𝑡 , 𝑦 = 𝑔 𝑡 . Each value of the
parameter 𝑡 gives a value of 𝑥 and a value of 𝑦.
233
Parameter Equations of the Straight Line
The parameter equations of a straight line passing through a
given point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) and inclined to the axis of 𝑥 at an angle 𝜃 are
given by
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1
= cos 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 = sin 𝜃
𝑟 𝑟
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1
Or = 𝑟 𝑎𝑛𝑑 =𝑟
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
𝑥−𝑥1 𝑦−𝑦1
Or = =𝑟
cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃
𝑥 = 𝑥1 + 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃, 𝑦 = 𝑦1 + 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
These are parameter equations of a straight line through the
point (𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) with inclination 𝜃.
234
It also follows that the parametric co-ordinates of any point on the given line at a distance 𝑟 from
(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ) are (𝑥1 + 𝑟 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦1 + 𝑟 sin 𝜃).
Examples
Find the parameter equations of the line through the point (3, −2) having inclination equal to
135°.
Solution
We have 𝑥 = 3 + 𝑟 cos 135°, 𝑦 = −2 + 𝑟 sin 135°
𝑥 = 3 − 𝑟 cos 45° , 𝑦 = −2 + 𝑟 sin 45°
𝑟 𝑟
Or 𝑥 = 3 − , 𝑦 = −2 +
2 2
2 2
Or 𝑥 = 3 − 𝑟, 𝑦 = −2 + 𝑟
2 2

235
Find the parametric equations of the line which has equation 𝑥 − 3𝑦 =
1+ 3
Solution
1
𝑥 − 3𝑦 = 1 + 3 ⇒ 𝑦 = 𝑥−1− 3
3
We first find a point on the line. Substituting 𝑥 = 1, we get 𝑦 = −1.
Therefore (1, −1) is on the line.
1
The slope of the line is and so the inclination of the line is 30°. Thus
3
parametric equations of the line are.
𝑥 = 1 + 𝑟 cos 30° , 𝑦 = −1 + 𝑟 sin 30°
3 1
𝑥 =1+ 𝑟, 𝑦 = −1 + 𝑟
2 2

236
Parametric Equation of a circle (𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐 )
Let the equation of a circle be 𝒙𝟐 − 𝒚𝟐 = 𝒂𝟐
Let 𝑝(𝑥1 𝑦1 ) be any point on the circle and
Let 𝜃 be the angle of inclination to 𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠, then
𝑥 = 𝑎 cos 𝜃 , 𝑎 sin 𝜃
Are the parametric equations. And the parametric coordinates are
(𝑎 cos 𝜃 , 𝑎 sin 𝜃).
If the equation of the circle is in the form (𝑥 − ℎ)2 + (𝑦 − 𝑘)2 = 𝑎2
Then the parametric equations are
𝑥 = ℎ + 𝑎 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 − 𝑘 = 𝑎 sin 𝜃 𝑖. 𝑒
𝑥 = ℎ + 𝑎 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑘 + 𝑎 sin 𝜃
Where 𝜃 is the parameter, the coordinates are (ℎ + 𝑎 cos 𝜃 , 𝑘 +
𝑎 sin 𝜃)
237
Examples
Show that 𝑥 = 1 + 4 cos 𝜃 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 3 + 4 sin 𝜃 is a circle. Find
the centre and radius of the circle.
Solution
We obtain the Cartesian equation by eliminating the parameter.
Remember that
(cos 𝜃)2 + (𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃)2 = 1
𝑦−3 𝑥−1
Sin 𝜃 = , cos 𝜃 =
4 4
𝑦−3 2 𝑥−1 2
+ =1
4 4
2 2 2
(𝑦 − 3) + 𝑥 + 1 = 4
Centre = 1,3 and radius = 2 238
Parametric Equations of the Parabola (𝒚𝟐 = 𝟒𝒂𝒙)
𝑦 2𝑥
The equation 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 can be written as = = 𝑡, say
2𝑎 𝑦
𝑦 2𝑎𝑡
Then 𝑦 = 2𝑎𝑡 and 𝑥 = 𝑡 = 𝑡 = 𝑎𝑡 2
2 2
Hence the parametric equations of the parabola 𝑦 2 = 4𝑎𝑥 are 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 2𝑎𝑡. where 𝑡 is the parameter. The
coordinates are(𝑎𝑡 2 , 2𝑎𝑡).
Examples
Find the parametric equations of the parabolas
𝑦 2 = 12𝑥 (b) 𝑥 2 = −12𝑦 (c) 𝑦 2 = 4(𝑥 − 2)
Solution
𝑦 2 = 12𝑥, in this case 𝑎 = 3
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑥 = 3𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 6𝑡
𝑥 2 = −12𝑦 in this case 𝑎 = −3
Since for the parabola 𝑥 2 = 4𝑎𝑦, 𝑥 = 2𝑎𝑡 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑡 2 , therefore the parametric equations for the given
parabola are
𝑥 = 6𝑡, 𝑦 = −3𝑡 2
𝑦 2 = 4(𝑥 − 2) in this case 𝑎 = 1
The parametric equations are
𝑥 − 2 = 𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 2𝑡
𝑥 ′ = 2 + 𝑡 2 , 𝑦 = 2𝑡

239
dynamics

240
Mth 112 (Vector, Co-ordinate Geometry and Dynamics) test

INSTRUCTIONS

•Answer all questions

•Use foolscap paper only
•No side talk
241
 Mth 112 test
𝑥2 𝑦2
1.Find four vertices and foci of the ellipse + = 1 (4 marks)
9 25
2. Find the equation of the ellipse 25𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 − 50𝑥 − 16𝑦 − 59 = 0 in the
canonical form and hence,
Determine
i. The coordinates of the Centre of the ellipse; (5 marks)
ii. The four vertices of the ellipse (3 marks)
iii. The two foci of the ellipse (2 marks)
3. The square 𝐴 2,4 , B 3,4 , C 3, −5 ,and D 𝑥, 𝑦 , has the co-ordinate of
P −1,2 at the centre of the square find 𝑥 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦. (3 marks)
4. Find the angle between the lines 2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1 and 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 5. (4 marks)

5. If 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 5 = 0 is the equation of a circle. Find the centre and its

radius. (3 marks)
6. Find the equation of the circle through the points 0,0 , 3,1 , 5,5 . (6 marks)
242
dynamics

243
Isaac Newton Sr.
Sir Isaac Newton was an English mathematician, astronomer, theologian, author
and physicist who is widely recognized as one of the most influential scientists of all
time and a key figure in the scientific revolution. (Wikipedia)
Born: 4 January 1643, Woolsthorpe Manor, United Kingdom
Died: 31 March 1727, Kensington, London, United Kingdom
Spouse: Hannah Ayscough (m. 1642–1642)
Education: Trinity College, Cambridge (1667–1668),

Quotes
• If I have seen further than others, it is by standing upon
the shoulders of giants.
• I can calculate the motion of heavenly bodies, but not the 244
Sir Isaac Newton PRS (/ˈnjuːtən/;[6] 25 December 1642 – 20
March 1726/27[1]) was an
English mathematician, astronomer, theologian, author and physicist (de
scribed in his own day as a "natural philosopher") who is widely
recognised as one of the most influential scientists of all time and a key
figure in the scientific revolution. His book Philosophiæ Naturalis
Principia Mathematica ("Mathematical Principles of Natural
Philosophy"), first published in 1687, laid the foundations of classical
mechanics. Newton also made pathbreaking contributions to optics, and
he shares credit with Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz for developing the
infinitesimal calculus.
Newton's Principia formulated the laws of motion and universal
gravitation that dominated scientists' view of the physical universe for the
next three centuries. 245
By deriving Kepler's laws of planetary motion from his mathematical
description of gravity, and using the same principles to account for
the trajectories of comets, the tides, the precession of the equinoxes, and
other phenomena, Newton removed the last doubts about the validity of
the heliocentric model of the Solar System and demonstrated that
the motion of objects on Earthand of celestial bodies could be accounted
for by the same principles. Newton's theoretical prediction that the Earth
is shaped as an oblate spheroid was later vindicated by the geodetic
measurements of Maupertuis, La Condamine, and others, thus
convincing most Continental European scientists of the superiority
of Newtonian mechanics over the earlier system of Descartes.

246
Newton also built the first practical reflecting telescope and developed a
sophisticated theory of colour based on the observation that
a prism decomposes white light into the colours of the visible spectrum.
Newton's work on light was collected in his highly influential
book Opticks, first published in 1704. He also formulated an empirical
law of cooling, made the first theoretical calculation of the speed of
sound, and introduced the notion of a Newtonian fluid. In addition to his
work on calculus, as a mathematician Newton contributed to the study of
power series, generalised the binomial theorem to non-integer
exponents, developed a method for approximating the roots of a
function, and classified most of the cubic plane curves.

247
Newton was a fellow of Trinity College and the second Lucasian
Professor of Mathematics at the University of Cambridge. He was a
devout but unorthodox Christian, who privately rejected the doctrine of
the Trinity and who, unusually for a member of the Cambridge faculty of
the day, refused to take holy orders in the Church of England. Beyond
his work on the mathematical sciences, Newton dedicated much of his
time to the study of alchemy and biblical chronology, but most of his
work in those areas remained unpublished until long after his death.
Politically and personally tied to the Whig party, Newton served two brief
terms as Member of Parliament for the University of Cambridge, in
1689–90 and 1701–02. He was knighted by Queen Anne in 1705 and he
spent the last three decades of his life in London, serving
as Warden (1696–1700) and Master (1700–1727) of the Royal Mint, as
well as president of the Royal Society 248
• Isaac Newton
• Albert Einstein
• Michael Faraday
• James Clerk Maxwell
• Galileo Galilei
• Charles Darwin
• Marie Curie
• Stephen Hawking
• Thomas Edison
249
 Dynamics
Motion
Newton’s three laws of motion are indeed the foundation of the
study of Dynamics
Newton’s first law: States that every body continues in a state of
rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless it is compelled by
forces to change that state.
A force may be regarded as an external measure such as the push
from another body or the influence of the earth’s attraction
which we call weight. The tendency of a body to continue in a
state of rest or uniform motion is called inertia and its measure is
the mass of the body. While mass is a scalar
250
Quantity, weight is a vector quantity. The S. I. unit of force is the
Newton (N).
Newton’s second law: the rate of change of momentum of a body
is proportional to the applied force, and is in the direction of this
force.
The momentum of a body is defined as the product of its mass
and its velocity. Momentum of a body is a vector quantity and its
direction is the same as that of the velocity. Symbolically,
𝑑(𝑚𝑉) 𝑑𝑣
F= = 𝑚
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
F = 𝑚𝑎
Where 𝑎 is the acceleration of the body. When a force F acts on a
body of mass m it produces acceleration a in the direction of 251
the force F.
Newton’s third law of motion: States that to every
action there is an equal and opposite reaction. For
example, the driving wheels of a car exert a backward
force on the surface of the road. This is immediately
followed by an equal and opposite reaction which
pushes the car forward, and if this reaction exceeds
the sum of the various resisting forces, the car has a
forward acceleration.
252
 Exercises
1. A body of mass 8kg which is initially at rest is
acted upon by a force (4-t)N. determine the
velocity of the body 5 seconds later and the
corresponding distance travelled.
2. A driver applies a braking force of 400t N to a car
of mass 200kg. If the initial velocity of the car is
20m/s, determine when the car comes to rest and the
corresponding distance.
253
3. A body of mass 8kg is moving in a straight line
10
under the action of a force Newtons towards a
𝑥
fixed point O in that straight line, where 𝑥 metres is
the distance of the body from O, determine its
2
velocity when it has travelled 𝑚.
5

254
 today’s topic:
Work, energy and power

255
Don't worry about your difficulties
in Mathematics. I can assure
you mine are still greater.
~Albert Einstein
256
Isaac Newton(25 December 1642-20 March 1726)-
know for Newtonian Mechanics, Universal
Gravitation, Calculus, Newton’s laws of
motion, Optics, Binomial Series, Principia,
Newton’s Method .
257
Albert Einstein(14 march 1879-18 April 1955)
Known for General relativity, Special relativity, Photoelectric effect, 𝐸 = 𝑚𝑐 2 (mass- energy
equivalence),
•𝐸 = ℎ𝑓 (Planck-Einstein relation), Theory of Brownian motion, Einstein field equations ,Bose–
Einstein statistics, Bose–Einstein condensate ,Gravitational wave ,Cosmological constant
,Unified field theory, EPR paradox ,Ensemble interpretation ,List of other concepts

Albert Einstein Quotes

• Insanity: doing the same thing over and over again and expecting different results.
• Imagination is more important than knowledge.
• The important thing is not to stop questioning. Curiosity has its own reason for existing.258
Michael Faraday:22 September 1791 – 25 August
1867) was an English scientist who contributed to the
study of electromagnetism and electrochemistry. His
main discoveries include the principles
underlying electromagnetic induction, diamagnetism
and electrolysis.
259
James Clerk Maxwell (13 June 1831 – 5 November 1879) was a
Scottish[2][3] scientist in the field of mathematical physics.[4]His
most notable achievement was to formulate the classical theory
of electromagnetic radiation, bringing together for the first
time electricity, magnetism, and light as different
manifestations of the same phenomenon. Maxwell's
equations for electromagnetism have been called the "second
great unification in physics"[5] after the first one realised
by Isaac Newton. 260
Galileo Galilei

261
Charles Darwin

262
•Marie Curie

263
Thomas Edison

264
•Stephen Hawking

265
 today’s topic:
Work, energy and power

266
In the study of mechanics, when a point moves in a straight line
With velocity 𝑣 and constant acceleration (a), then
𝑣 = 𝑢 + 𝑎𝑡
1 2
𝑥 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 -------------(1)
2
𝑣 2 = 𝑢2 + 2𝑎𝑥
Where u, x and v are respectively the initial velocity, distance
covered and velocity at time t. The equations in (1) can only be
used when the acceleration is constant not for circular or
simple harmonic motions.

267
Motion on an inclined plane

Supposing an object of mass m is on a smooth plane which is

inclined at an angle 𝜃 to the horizontal, then the forces acting
on it are its own weight mg and the reaction R of the plane.
From fig. above (R-mgcos 𝜃) is the combined force which
acts in a direction perpendicular to the plane where the
268
 𝑅 − 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 = 𝑚 × 0 = 0
Alternatively, resolve R and mg perpendicular to the plane to
obtain 𝑅 = 𝑚𝑔𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃.
Let the force 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 act downward the plane with acceleration
a, then 𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃=𝑚𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑎 = 𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
Alternatively, resolve R and mg along the plane to obtain
𝑚𝑔𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃=ma
For a rough inclined plane with 𝜇 as its coefficient of friction, the
frictional force is given by 𝜇R.
Then, R=mgcos𝜃 as in the case of smooth plane.
And mgsin𝜃-𝜇𝑅 = 𝑚𝑎 −−−−−−− − 2
In (2) substitute for R and simplify to obtain: 269
 𝑎 = 𝑔 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 − 𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 −−−−− − 3
If the object has to slide down the plane, the 𝑎 >
0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑔 > 0, sin 𝜃 − 𝜇𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 > 0, 𝑖. 𝑒 𝜇 <
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
This means that the angle of friction must be less
than the angle at which the plane is inclined.

270
 Work
When a force acts on a body and this process results
in the movement of the body then the force is said to
do work on the body.
Work done is calculated as the product of the force
F and distance x which the point of application of
the force F moves from point A to point B. The S.I.
unit of work is the Joule which is the work done
when the point of application of a force 1N moves a
distance of 1m. 271
Example 1. An object is pulled horizontally through 6m at
a steady speed by a force of 15N. Find the work done if the
force (a) is in the direction of motion (b) is inclined at an
angle of 30° to the horizontal.

Example 2. Calculate the work done when a horizontal

force pulls a mass of 30kg through 3m along a rough
horizontal floor whose coefficient of friction is 0.2.

272
 Revision questions
1. If A and B are (3, 4, 5) and (6, 8, 9). Find 𝐴𝐵 .
2. If the positions vectors of A and B are (I + 2j + 4k) and
(2i + 3j + 5), find the position vector of A and point C
such that it divides AB in the ratio 2:3. Find the midpoint.
3. Find the projection of vector i – 2j + k on 4-4j+4k
4. Find the angle between the vector A = 2i + 6j + 3k and
B = 12i – 4j + 3k.
5. Find the vector that is added to 2i – j + k to produce an
orthogonal vector of 3i – 4j + 4k
273
6. Find the resultant of 3𝑂𝑃, 6𝑄𝑍, 2𝑃𝑂, 𝑃𝑄, 5𝑂𝑄
7. A constant force 𝑃 = 2i – 5j + 6k and Q = -I + 2j – k
act on a particle. Determine the work done when the
particle is displace from A to B with the position vector of
A and B being 4i – 3j – 2k and 6i+j-k respectively.
8. Find the magnitude of the vector and the resultant
where A= 2i – j + k and B= 3i – k.
9. Find a unit vector perpendicular to both of the vector A
= 2i – 3j + 4k and B = 7i – 5j + k
10. Determine x and y by using vector such that the point
(-1, 3, 2) , (-4, 2 , -2) and (5, x, y) lie on a straight line.
274
11.If 𝑎Ԧ x 𝑟Ԧ = b x 𝑎Ԧ and 𝑎Ԧ . 𝑏 = 3, where a = 2i + j –k and b= -I –
2j + k, then find r and x.
5𝐴 |2𝐵 |
12. Find the value of if A = 2i + 3j – 4k and B = I + j
|𝐴+𝐵 |2
13. If Ʃ1 = (1, 2, 3, 2x) and ϰ = (x, 0, -3, 1) such that the dot
Ʃ ϰ
product of ϰ and Ʃ is -3. Find
Ʃ+ ϰ 2
14. Given A = -4i + 8k, B = 2i + 3j – k and C = I +2k and D = I
+ 2j. find the values of I, p, t if a is the resultant of SB, SP and
TD.
15. Find the unit vector orthogonal to A and B where A = 2i + 3j
+ k and B = 2i + 5k.
275
16. Determine the value of P if the vectors A = 2i +j + 4k, B =
3i + (2 + p)j + 2k and C = I + pj + 8k are linearly dependent
(meaning determinant = 0).
17. The magnitude and direction of a constant force are given by
A = 5i + 2j + 6k. Find the work done by the force if the point of
application of the force moves from P = 2i – 2j + 4k to R = 8i +
6j – 2k.
18. What is the vector sum of 3(OA), 6(BZ), 2AO, AB and
5(OB)?
19. Find the value of P such that A = 2i – j + k, B = I + 2pj - k, C
= 3i + k + 5k are coplanar.
20. The angle between a and b is cos-1 8Τ21. Find P given that276
21. Find the unit vector having the same direction as the
resultant of the vector r1 = 2i + 4j – 5k and r2 = I + 2j + k
22. Find the scalar ϰ and β if C is the resultant of ϰA and ϰB
where A = 2i + 3k, B = 4i – 6k and C = 20i – 6k.
23. f A = 3i – 7j + 2k and B = bi + 4j – k are orthogonal vectors.
Express 3A – 2B as a linear combination of I j and k
24. Find the angle between the vector A = -I + j + k and B = I
+ 2j + 3k to the nearest degree. Given the vectors R1 = 3i – 2j +
k, R2 = 2i – 4j – 3k and R3 = -I – 2j + 2k. Find the magnitudes of
R1 + R2 + R3.
25. If E = 3i – j – 2k and F = 2i + 3j + k. find |E x F|.
277
 2 5
26. For what angle are these vectors a = 3 , b = −2 and C
1 −4
10
= −13 mutually perpendicular?
19
27. The vectors G = I + 3j – 2k and H = 4i – 2j + 4k, evaluate |
3G + 2H |.
28. Find the unit vector parallel to the resultant of the vectors P1
= 2i + 4j – 5k and P2 = I + 2j + 3k.
29. If A = 2i – 3j – k and B = I + 4j – 2k, evaluate the following
cross products A x B.
30. Evaluate (2i – j) ( 3i + l). 278
31. A x B = 0 and A and B are null vectors, then A and B are?
32. If A = 2i – 3j – k and B = I + 4j – 2k. Evaluate the following
cross products B x A.
33. Given the vectors R1 = 3i – 2k + l, R2 = 2i – 4j – 3k and R3 =
-I + 2j + 2k, find the magnitude of 2R1 -3R2 - 5R3 .
34. What is the magnitude of the vector 3i + 2j – k.
35. Let A be one vector of direction cosine (l, m, n) and let B be
another vector of direction cosines ( L|, m| , n| ). Let Ѳ be
the angle between them, if the vector A and B are perpendicular
to each other, then ll| + mm| + nn| equals?

279
36. Add the following vectors A = 3i + 4j – 12k B = I +
12k and C = I – j + k.
37. If A and B are two vectors with magnitudes a and b
respectively and Ѳ is the angle between them, then the
scalar products A.B is given by?
38. Determine the value of Q if the magnitude of 3i + qj –
2k is 7.
39. Find the angle between the vector M = 2i + 3j + 4k
and N = 4i – 3j + 2k.

280
 Questions
40. Consider the vectors V1=2i-j, V2=i+3j,v3=-2i+j. find
scalers,𝛂, 𝛃 such that V3= 𝛂V1 + 𝛃V2.. ANS 𝛂=-1 , 𝛃=0
41. Given the vectors R1=3i-2j+k , R2=2i-4j-3k, R3=-
i+2j+2k, find the magnitudes of 2R1-3R2-5R3. ANS: 30
42. If the cosine of the angle between 𝑈 = 𝑖 + 2𝑗 + 2𝑘 and 𝑉 =
1
𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 𝑃𝑘 is .
3
Find the value of the parameter p
43. If a=5i+j and b=4i-7j Express 3a-2b as a linear combination
of i and j and find 3a−2b . Ans 7i+17j, 338 or 13 2
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44. Find the projection of the vector i-2j+k on 4i-
4j+7k.Ans=19/9
5𝐴 2𝐵
45. Find the value of . If A=2i+3j-4k and
𝐴+𝐵 2
5800
B=i+j…Ans
41
46. Given a= -4j+8k, b=2i+3j-k, c= i+2k and d=i+2j,find the
values of s,p,t, if a is the resultant of sb,pc and td
Ans;p=3,t=1,s=-2

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Most loyal student
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Most interested in the course

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1. Find the distance between (3, -2) and (-4, 5).
2. Find the midpoint of a straight line joining (-4, 2) and
(2, -4).
3. Find the equation of the straight line joining the point
(1, 3) to the intersection of the lines x + y – 1= 0 and 2x-
3x-7=0.
4. Find x if the distance between A(2, 1) and Q(x, 7) is 10.
5. Find the equation of a circle centre (-3,4), radius 7.
6. Find the equation of the circle through (6,1), (3,2) and
(2,3).
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7. Find the equation of the tangent at the point (−3 ,1) on the circle 4𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 −
2
12𝑥 + 24𝑦 − 55 = 0
8. The points A and B divide the line joining P(3, 2) and Q(7, 9) internally and
externally in the ratio 5:4. Find the co-ordinates of A and B
A, B and C are respectively the three points (-5, 2), (3, 4) and (7, 5). Find ;
The ratio in which B divides AC.
The ratio in which C divides AB
9. Find the equation of the ellipse 25𝑥 2 + 4𝑦 2 − 50𝑥 − 16𝑦 − 59 = 0 in the
canonical form and hence,
Determine
The coordinates of the Centre of the ellipse;
The four vertices of the ellipse
The two foci of the ellipse

10. Find the angle between the lines 2𝑥 − 𝑦 = 1 and 4𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 5.

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11. Find the point of intercession of a line 2x+5y+11=0 which is a tangent to the circle 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 2𝑥 − 8𝑦 − 12 = 0

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 INSTRUCTIONS
1.Use only foolscap paper
2.Sit according to your department
3.Attendance is compulsory
4.All question carries equal marks
5.No side talk will be tolerated.
6.The use of handset or headpiece is prohibited.

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 mth 112 first test
1. Define the following terms:
a. Vector Quantity b. Scalar Quantity
c. List 4 types of vectors you know.
d. Show that 𝟑𝑶𝑷 + 𝟔𝑸𝒁 + 𝟐𝑷𝑶 + 𝑷𝑸 + 𝟓𝑶𝑸 = 𝟔𝑶𝒁 (10 marks)

2a. Find real numbers 𝒙, 𝒚 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒛 such that 𝒙𝒊 + 𝟐𝒚𝒋 − 𝒛𝒌 + 𝟑𝒊 − 𝒋 =

𝟒𝒊 + 𝟑𝒌
b. If 𝒂 = 𝟑𝒊 − 𝒋 − 𝟒𝒌, 𝒃 = −𝟐𝒊 + 𝟒𝒋 + 𝟑𝒌 and 𝒄 = 𝒊 − 𝟐𝒋 + 𝒌. Find
the unit vector parrallel to 𝟑𝒂 − 𝟐𝒃 + 𝟒𝒄.
c. Consider the vectors 𝑽𝟏 = 𝟐𝒊 − 𝒋, 𝑽𝟐 = 𝒊 + 𝟑𝒋, 𝑽𝟑 = −𝟐𝒊 + 𝒋. Find
scalars 𝛼, 𝛽 such that: 𝑽𝟑 = 𝜶𝑽𝟏 + 𝜷𝑽𝟐 . (10 marks)
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3a. Given 𝒂 = 𝟐𝒊 + 𝟑𝒋 + 𝟓𝒌, 𝒃 = 𝟒𝒊 + 𝒋 + 𝟔𝒌, find the following
(i) 𝒂. 𝒃 (ii)𝒂 × 𝒃 (iii) The Sine of the angle between 𝑎 and 𝑏.
b. If the Cosine of the angle between
1
𝑴 = 𝒊 + 𝟐𝒋 + 𝟐𝒌 and 𝑵 = 𝒊 − 𝟒𝒋 − 𝒑𝒌 is 3. Find the value of the
parameter 𝒑. (10 marks)

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 MTH 112 TEST 30 MINUTES
1.If 𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 − 4𝑥 − 8𝑦 + 5 = 0 is the equation of a
circle. Find the centre and its radius.
2. Find the equation of the circle through the points
0,0 , 3,1 , 5,5 .
3. Find x if the distance between A(2, 1) and Q(x, 7) is 10.
4. Show that the equation of the tangent at the point
𝟐 𝟐
𝒙𝟏 , 𝒚𝟏 on the circle 𝒙 + 𝒚 + 𝟐𝒈𝒙 + 𝟐𝒇𝒚 + 𝒄 = 𝟎 𝐢𝐬
𝑥𝑥1 + 𝑦𝑦1 +𝑔 𝑥 + 𝑥1 +𝑓 𝑦 + 𝑦1 + 𝑐

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