College Algebra – Volume 4

Compiled By

Dr. John O. Mubenwafor

Formerly Dean of Academic and Student Affairs
Formerly Chair, Faculty of Natural and Applied Sciences
Senior Lecturer in Mathematics
Turks and Caicos Islands Community College
Grand Turk
Turks and Caicos Islands

1
 INTRODUCTION:
This is the fourth volume in the series. Try to obtain the first volume to get all the valuable
information on the series and how to contact me if you need help.

As I said in previous volumes, it is important for you to select the topics that are relevant to
your college course and let me know if the content of your course is not covered.

Note that College Algebra is the precursor to more advanced courses in Mathematics and it
fulfills mathematics requirement for college graduation. You must, therefore, endeavor to
master the basic concepts so that you can be successful. You are encouraged to go through
the detailed explanations provided in the solved problems, after which you should work
through the Practice Problems.

Note that we can use mathematics as a gateway to explore the universe in which we live.

In this Volume, we shall explore the following topics under Algebraic Operations:
(a) Functions
(b) Remainder Theorem
(c) Factor Theorems
(d) Binomial Theorem
(e) Partial Fraction

Dr. John Mubenwafor

Grand Turk
Turks and Caicos Islands
December 2022

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This text was compiled using various sources. Every effort has, therefore, been made to trace
all the authors as well as publishers. If I have, inadvertently overlooked any, I will be
delighted to make all necessary correction at the very first chance.

John O. Mubenwafor, PhD, ThD

3
 Table of Content
CHAPTER ONE Functions
 Definitions
 Functional Notation
 Inverse Functions
 Composite Functions

CHAPTER TWO Remainder Theorem

 The Remainder Theorem

CHAPTER THREE Factor Theorems

 Zeros or Roots of a Polynomial
 The Factor Theorem
 Using Factor Theorem to solve equations

CHAPTER FOUR Binomial Theorem

 Factorial Notation
 Expansion of Binomial Expressions
 Pascal Triangle

CHAPTER FIVE Partial Fractions

 Types of Partial Fractions
o Type I: Denominator with only distinct linear factors
o Type II: Denominator with distinct irreducible quadratic factors
o Type III: Denominator with repeated factors
 Partial Fractions of Improper fractions

REFERENCES

4
 CHAPTER ONE
Functions
1.0 - Functions
1.1.1 – Definitions
(a) Relations: A relation is a set of ordered pair , e.g.,
, are relations.

Also, are relations.

(b) Domain: The set of all the first elements (or components) of the pair of the relation is
called the domain of the relation. e.g., the domain of the relation:

(c) Range: The set of all the second elements (or components) of the pair of the relation
is called the range of the relation, e.g., the range of the relation:

A relation can be represented diagrammatically, e.g.

x1 y1 x1 y1

x2 y2 x2 y3

x3 y3 x3 yn
: : : :
. . . .
Xn yn xn y2

domain range domain range

(d) Function: A function (or mapping) is a relation in which each element of the domain
is associated with one and only one element of the range. That is, no two ordered pairs
have the same first elements (or components) and different second elements (or
components), e.g. is a function.
is not a function since the ordered pairs
(4,2) and (4, 5) do have the same first components and different
second components.

A one – one mapping or function: e.g.,

x1 y1 1 2
x2 y2 2 3
x3 y3 3 4
: : : :
xn yn n n+1
domain range domain range

5
A many – one mapping or function: e.g.,

x1 y1 -1 5
x2 0
x3 y2 1 6
x4 2
: yn 3 9
xn domain range
domain range

Note: A one – many mapping is not a function.

1.1.2 – Functional Notation

Functions are normally denoted by letters- such as f, g, h, F, G. etc. Consequently, notation
frequently used for a function e.g., f is: e.g., if , we write:

Thus, a function represents a rule that describes how the ordered pairs are formed.

Note that when the domain of a function is not specified, it is assumed to be the set of real
numbers (i.e., )

The value of the range (say, “y”) depends upon the value of the domain (say, “x”). For this
reason, y is called the dependent variable and x is called the independent variable.

is the functional notation and for a particular value of x, represents the value of
the function.

1.1.3 – Solved Examples:

1. Find the range of the relation: with domain .
Solution:
If x = 2, then
If x =4, then
If x = 6, then
Therefore, the range is

2. Given that and , find:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)

Solution:
(i)

6
 (ii)

(ii)

1.1.4 – Practice Problems

1. Determine the range of the relation: where the domain is .
[Answer:

2. If and , find:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
[Answer: (i) –3 (ii) 0 (iii) –10 (iv) –7 (v) –4 (vi) 2]

1.2: Inverse Functions

The inverse of a function f is the set of ordered pairs obtained by interchanging the elements
of the ordered pairs of f. It is denoted by or , e.g., if:
, then

Note that does not mean and the inverse of a function need not be a function.

To obtain the inverse function , we follow these two steps:

(a) Interchange x and y in the equation of the function.
(b) Rearrange (or solve) the resulting equation to make y the subject.

1.2.1 – Solved Examples:

1. Determine the inverse, , of these functions:
(a)

7
 (b)

Solution:
1. (a)
Interchanging, we have

Making y the subject, we have

2. A function h is defined by: , for . Find:

(i) .
(ii) the positive number q such that .

Solution:

2. (i)
Interchanging, we have

(ii) If

Factorizing,

8
3. A function f is defined, for , by: , where a is constant. Given that:
, calculate the possible values of a.

Solution:

3. , ,
Interchanging, we have

Now,

So, if , then

Factorizing, we have

1.2.2 – Practice Problems

1. Find the inverse of the function: , where . Sketch the graph of
the functions f and .

[Answer: ]

2. A function f is defined by: . Find:

(i)
(ii)

9
 [Answer: (i) (ii) 16/17]

3. Given that: , and that and , find the value of a and

of b.
[Answer: , ]

4. The function f with domain is defined by .

(i) Sketch the graph of f and state the range of f.
(ii) Find , where denotes the inverse of f.
(iii) Calculate the value of x for which .
[Answer: (ii) 2(4/x – 1) (iii) 2]

5. The function f is given by:

, , .
(a) Determine the range of f.
(b) Find the value of x for which .
(c) Find in terms of x.
[Answer: (a) (b) –2 (c) ]

6. Given , , , find the inverse function .

[Answer: , ]

1.3: Composite Functions

Two functions f and g can be combined to give a composite function. “the f composite of g”
is denoted by

For this function to exist, the domain of f must be contained in the range of g.

Note: , therefore, the order of the composite function is important. The

composite function is determined by:
(a) finding , and then
(b) finding

1.3.1 – Solved Examples:

1. If , and ,
find:
(i)
(ii)

10
Solution:
(i)

(ii)

2. Given that , and ,

Show that

Solution:
We must first find the function , then find its inverse,

We can now find the inverse, by interchanging x and y in

Taking log of both sides to base 2, we have

Also,

Interchanging, we have

Also,

Interchanging,

Taking log of both sides to base 2,

11
3. If f and g are functions given by:
, ;
, .
(a) Show that , ;
(b) Find all the values of x for which .

(c) Show that . Sketch a graph of . Hence, or otherwise,

solve the equation .

Solution:
, and , .
(a)

(b) If , then

Let , then we have

Factorizing, we have

(c)

If , then

12
 Factorizing, we have

,
,

4. Find the inverse of , and hence solve the equation .

Solution:

Let

Interchanging x by y, we have

The solution of the equation can be found by finding the value of

Note: We can extend composite functions to include for any f, g, h for which
the composites are defined (as in the example below).

5. Given , ;
, ;
+
, ;
Find .

Solution:

13
1.3.2 – Practice Problems

1. If f and g are functions given by: , where p is a constant, and

, find:
(i) an expression for .
(ii) the value of p for which .
[Answer: (i) (ii) –1]

2. If f and g are functions given respectively by and ,

, where a and b are constants.
(i) Find an expression for .
(ii) Given that and that , calculate the value of a and of
b.

[Answer: (i) (ii) a = 1, b = 3]

3. Functions f and g are defined by: , , and .

(a) Find: , and .
(b) Calculate the value of x for which .

[Answer: (a) , (b) –7/4]

4. If f and g are functions given by:

, , .
, , ,
find:
(a) the range of f,
(b) the inverse function , stating its domain,
(c) the composite function , stating its domain,

(d) the solution of the equation

[Answer: (a) (b) , (c) ,

(d) x = 7/6, x = 3]

5. If f and g are functions given by: , , and .

(i) find expressions for , , and .

14
 (ii) find the value of x for which .

[Answer: (i) , , ; (ii) 7]

6. If and , find and . Hence show that:

and .

[Answer: , ]

7. If f and g are functions given by:

, ,
, , .

(i) show that: , , , and express in similar form.

(ii) find .

[Answer: (i) , , , (ii) ]

8. If f is a function given by , , ,
find, in a similar form, the functions:
(a) (b)
(c) Calculate and

[Answer: (a) , (b) , (c) 9, ⅔]

9. If f and g are functions given as follows:

, , ; , ,
(a) determine the range of , and the range ,
(b) explain briefly why the function does not exist,
(c) find:
(i) an expression for ,
(ii) the domain and range of the function ,
(d) state briefly why the inverse function of g does not exist,
(e) Find an expression for , giving the domain and range of
[Answer: (a) , (b) Range but domain of ,
(c) (i) (ii) , (d) g(x) two values of x (e) x2/4 + 5, ,
]

15
10. If f and g are functions given by:

, ; , .
(a) Find an expression, in terms of x, for .
(b) Find an expression, in terms of x, for the composite function ,
(c) Given that there is a function h such that , find .

[Answer: (a) (b) (c) ]

11. Functions f and g are defined as follows:

, , , .
(i) Explain why f has an inverse while g does not
(ii) State the domain and range of , and sketch the graph of .
[Answer: (i) f is one to one, g is not (ii) , ]

12. Given that and , simplify: .

[Answer: ]

13. If f and g are functions given over the set of real numbers by:
, ,
(a) State the range of g.
(b) Sketch the graphs of the inverse functions and .

(c) explain, giving a reason, the number of roots of the equation

(d) evaluate , and give your answer correct to 2 places of decimal.
[Answer: (a) (c) 1, the curves intersect at 1 point only (d) 0.84]

14. The functions f and g are given by:

, ; , .

(a) Find the value of , and give your answer correct to 2 places of decimal.
(b) Express the inverse function in the form
(c) By the use of the same axes, sketch the graphs of the functions and .
Write on your sketch the value of each function at .

(d) Find the values of x for which: .

[Answer: (a) 21.17 (b) (d) –2⅔, 2]

16
15. If f and g are functions given by:
, ;
, .
(a) find the range of .
(b) calculate the value of .
(c) determine the values of x for which .
(d) determine the values of x for which .
[Answer: (a) (b) 26 (c) 0, 1 (d) 3, –2⅓]

16. If f and g are functions given by:

,- ; and , and ,
write down, in a similar form,
(a) the composite function .
(b) the inverse function f – 1.

[Answer: (a) (b) ]

17. By finding the inverse of , solve the equation .

[Answer: 16/17]

+
18. Given , ; , ; , ;
Find .
[Answer: ]

17
 CHAPTER TWO
Remainder Theorem
It is crucial that we fully understand the Remainder Theorem first, before getting into the
Factor Theorem. Both theorems are closely related concepts in mathematics.

2.1 – The Remainder Theorem

The Remainder Theorem states that:
“If a polynomial f(x) is divided by (x – a), the remainder, R, is f(a)”,
where f(a) is the value of f(x) when x = a.

This implies that, if f(x) is a polynomial function of x which when divided by (x – a) gives a
quotient Q(x) and a remainder R, then

This “identity” is true for any value of x.

Now put x = a

This theorem reduces the amount of work to be done as without it, we would have to go
through the trouble of using long division and/or synthetic division to solve for remainders.
This is time consuming.

2.2 – Solved Examples:

1. Given that , and , find the values of
(i) .
(ii)

Solution:
(i)

(ii)

2. Determine the remainders if:

(a) is divided by .
(b) is divided by:
(i) ,
(ii)

18
Solution:
(a)
When divided by

(b)
(i)

(ii)

3. The expression: leaves remainders –8 and 10 when divided by

and respectively. Determine the value of a and of b.

Solution:
3. ; when divided by , it implies that

Therefore,

,
Clearing fractions, we have

… (i)

Also, when divided by , it implies that

Therefore,

19
 … (ii)

Solving (i) and (ii) simultaneously, we subtract (ii) from (i)

… (i)
(–) … (ii)

Putting in (ii), we have

4. The expression leaves a remainder of –44 when divided by and a

remainder of 6 when divided by . Find the value of a and of b.
Solution:
When is divided by

… (i)
Also, when is divided by

… (ii)
Solving (i) and (ii) simultaneously, we add
… (i)
(+) … (ii)

Putting in (ii), we have

5. Given that the expression leaves the same remainder when divided
by or , prove that .

Given also that the remainder is 3 when the expression is divided by , calculate
the value of c.

20
Solution:

When divided by

When divided by

When divided by

But from above, , so substituting, we have

2.3 – Practice Problems

1. If , find the value of . [Answer: 30]

2. If , find the value of . [Answer: –15]

3. If , find the value of . [Answer: 1]

4. If , find the value of . [Answer: ]

5. Determine the remainder when is divided by . [Answer: –4]

6. Find the remainder when is divided by . [Answer: –2]

7. The expression: leaves a remainder of –4 when divided by and

remainder 0 when divided by . Find the value of a and of b.
[Answer: a = 3, b = –2]

8. Determine the remainder if is divided by . [Answer: –2]

3
9. Determine the remainder when f ( x )=4 x −6 x+5 is divided by 2 x−1
[Answer: 2½]
21
10. The remainder when is divided by is ¾. Determine the
numerical value of b. Using this value of b, find the remainder when
is divided by . [Answer: b = ½, –¾]

11. Given that and that y has the same remainder when it is
divided by or , determine all the possible values of c.
[Answer: 0, ±3]

12. The expression has the same remainder when divided by and
by . Determine the non-zero values of a and the corresponding values of the

remainder. [Answer: a = 1, –⅔, –3, ]

13. When the expression is divided by the

remainder is 625. Determine the possible values of a. [Answer: ±5/2]

14. The expression: leaves a remainder of 10 when divided by .

Determine the value of a and hence determine the remainder when the expression is
divided by . [Answer: –5, 4⅜]

15. The expression leaves a remainder of p when it is divided by and

leaves a remainder of when it is divided by . Determine the value of a.
[Answer: 3]

16. The remainder when is divided by is twice the remainder when it

is divided by . Determine the value of a. [Answer: –8]

17. Determine the remainder when is divided by . [Answer: –16]

18. Given that leaves a remainder of 7 when divided by ,

evaluate a. [Answer: 10]

19. The expression: has the same remainder when divided either by
or by . Given that the remainder when the expression is divided by is
10, determine the value of a and of b. [Answer: a = –3, b = –6]

20. For what values of a and b will the polynomial have a remainder of
4 when divided by and a remainder of 1 when divided by ?
[Answer: a = –11/30, b = 211/30]

22
21. When the expression is divided by the remainder is 8; when
divided by the remainder is –6 and when divided by the remainder is
. Find a, b, and c. [Answer: a = 3, b = 7, c = –2]

23
 CHAPTER THREE
Factor Theorem
3.1: Zeros or Roots of a Polynomial
It is important for us to know about the zero or a root of the polynomial before studying about
the factor theorem. Consider the polynomial:
, where p, q, and r are constants.
Then the values of x which produce an image of zero or which make the value of the
polynomial equal to zero are called the zeros or roots of the function.

So, we say that is a root or zero of a polynomial only if . We can also

say that is a root or zero of a polynomial only if it is a solution to the equation
. To find the zeros, we simply solve the equation by using the factorization of
quadratic equation method:

A polynomial having degree “n” will have exactly “n” roots.

Note the following points:

is a factor of 𝑓. Similarly, if
1. The zeros or roots of a polynomial are the values such that .
If 𝑓 is a polynomial and
is a factor of the polynomial 𝑓, then
2. , then
.
3. Always verify that 𝑥=𝑎 is a zero of a given polynomial by checking that
. This is a useful check to make sure that a number is a zero of the
polynomials.
4. The quadratic formula and factoring by grouping techniques can help us to determine
the roots of polynomials.

3.1.1 – Solved Examples:

1. Write down the zeros of the function:

Solution:

For zeros, ,
Factorizing, we

Therefore, the zeros of are 1, and ⅔

2. Find the set of zeros of the function , where all

three zeros take integer values.
24
Solution:

Factorizing the first two terms and the last two terms, we have

Therefore, the zeros are

3.1.2 – Practice Problems

1. Determine the zeros of each of the following:

.
(a) .
(b)
(c)
(d)
[Answer: (a) –7, 5 (b) –8/3, 5/3 (c) –5, 0, 5 (d) –9, 2, 9]

same set of zeros. Find 𝑎 and the set of zeros

2. The function and the function have the

[Answer: , and the set of zeroes of both functions is ]

3.2: The Factor Theorem

The Remainder Theorem can be used to factorize polynomials “completely” and when it is
used for this purpose, it is called the Factor Theorem.

Suppose the polynomial:

, where p, q, and r, are constants, is divided by and
, then there is no remainder on division and is a factor of .

The Factor Theorem, therefore, states that:

“If, for a given polynomial function , , then is a factor of ”.

Conversely, a linear function: is a factor of if and only if .

The Factor Theorem is used to factorize polynomial of degrees greater than 2.

Factor theorem and remainder theorem are similar; however, they refer to two different
concepts. The remainder theorem relates the remainder of the division of a polynomial by a

25
binomial with the value of a function at a point, while the factor theorem relates the factors of
a given polynomial to its zeros.

The factor theorem is really a special case of the remainder theorem.

The following steps can be used to factorize polynomial of Third or higher Degrees:
Step 1: Using the synthetic division method, divide the given polynomial by the given
binomial . If the remainder is not zero, then is not a factor of .
Step 2: Using the division algorithm, write the given polynomial as the product of and
the quadratic quotient
Step 3: If necessary, factor the quadratic quotient further.
Step 4: Express the given polynomial as product of its factors.

Applications in real life are while exchanging money, dividing any quantity into equal pieces,
understanding time, and comparing prices.

3.2.1 – Solved Examples:

1. Factorize the expression .
Solution:

(i) The constant term is –8, and its factors are: 1, 2, 4, 8. So, the value we choose must
belong to the set {±1, ±2, ±4, ±8}
(ii) After having taken out the first factor from , it must be tried again or
alternatively, having found one factor, we can divide the polynomial by that factor
and factorize the resulting quadratic.

Try x = 1

Therefore, is not a factor.

Try x = –1

Therefore, is a factor

By synthetic division method, we have

1 –1 –10 –8
–1 –1 +2 +8
1 –2 –8 0

This means that:

We can now factorize as contained in the second bracket

26
Therefore,

2. What value of k will make vanish if is a factor? For what

other values of x does the expression vanish?

Solution:

If is a factor, then

We ca now factorize . Since is of the 3rd degree, we would expect it to have 3

linear factors. As mentioned above, the factors of the constant term (+6) are: 1, 2, 3, 6.
Therefore we must consider the set {±1, ±2, ±3, ±6}. is a factor.
Let us try x = 2:

Therefore, is not a factor

Try x = –2

Therefore, is a factor.
We can either continue trying to find the other factors or divide by .
Try x = –3

Therefore, is not a factor.

Try x = 3

Therefore, is a factor.

will make vanish.

3. When the expression is divided by the remainder is 1. When

divided by , the expression leaves remainder is –1. Given that is a
factor of the polynomial, find a, b, and c.

Solution:

27
 When divided by ,

… (i)
When divided by ,

… (ii)
If is a factor, then

… (iii)
Let us now solve these equations
Eq (i) – Eq (ii)
… (i)
… (ii)
–3a + b = 2
… (iv)
Eq (i) – Eq (iii)
… (i)
… (iii)
–2b = 1
½
Put b = –½ in (iv)

Put and in (iii)

Clear fractions by multiplying through by 6

4. Determine the values of the constants a and b given that the remainder of
is 12 when is divided by and –18 when it is
divided by . Hence, factorize completely and state its zeros.
Solution:

28
If divided by , implies that

… (i)
If divided by , implies that

… (ii)
Solving Eq (i) and Eq (ii) simultaneously, we have
… (i)
… (ii)

Put in (i)

To factorize this expression, we consider the factors of the constant term, –6.

Try x = 1

is not a factor
Try x = –1

is not a factor
Try x = 2

is not a factor
Try x = –2

is a factor
Now by synthetic division
2 9 7 –6
–2 –4 –10 +6
2 5 –3 0

This means that:

We can now factorize as contained in the second bracket

29
Therefore,
The zeros are

5. If and are both factors of , determine the

value of p and of q.
Solution:
If and are both factors, then and

… (i)
Also,

… (ii)
Solving Eq (i) and Eq (ii) simultaneously, we have
… (i)
… (ii)

Now put in (ii)

6. Given that for all values of x, find the value

of A, of B and of C.
Solution:

Put

Put

30
 … (i)
Put

… (ii)

Solving Eq (i) and Eq (ii) simultaneously

… (i)
… (ii)

Now, put in (ii)

Therefore,

7. The polynomial has and as two of its

factors.
(a) Use this fact to determine the values of m and n.
(b) For these values of m and n, determine the other linear factor of .
[Answer: (i) m = 1, n = –4 (ii) ]

Solution:

(a) (i) For x = 2:

… (i)
(ii) For x = –2:

… (ii)

Solving Eq (i) and Eq (ii) simultaneously, we have

(i)
(ii)

31
Put in (i)

Therefore, m = 1 and n = –4
(b)

Dividing, we have

0
Therefore,

3.2.2 – Practice Problems

1. Determine the value of k if is a factor of . What other
values of x will make the expression vanish?
[Answer: –1, –1, 4]

2. If is a factor of the polynomial: , where k is a

constant, find:
(i) the value of k,
(ii) the remainder when P(x) is divided by .
[Answer: (i) k = –1 (ii) 70]

3. Given that is a factor of , calculate the value of k.

[Answer: 6]

4. If is a factor of the polynomial , find the value of the

constant k, and factorize the polynomial completely.
[Answer: (i) k = –6, ]

5. Find the values of a and b if and are both factors of .

[Answer: a = 5, b = 8]

6. The expression has ) as a factor. When the expression is divided

by , the remainder is 6. Find the values of a and b.
[Answer: a = 3, b = 5]

7. When the expression is divided by the remainder is –8. It

also has and as factors. Find a, b and c and the remaining factor.

32
 [Answer: a = 3, b = 2, c = –19, ]

8. If and are factors of the polynomial , where

p and q are constants, find the values of p and q. Hence, factorize f(x) completely.
[Answer: (i) p = –6, q = 5, )]

9. When the polynomial , where p, q and r are constants,

is divided by and , the remainders are –5 and 4 respectively. If
is a factor of f(x), find the values of p, q and r. Hence, factorize f(x) completely.
[Answer: p = 3, q = 0, r = –1; ]

10. Find the values of p and q for which the expression is

divisible by without a remainder, and hence, factorize the expression
completely.
[Answer: (i) p = –4, q = 5; )]

11. Find the values of a and b if is exactly divisible by and by

.
[Answer: a = 31, b = 12]

12. When is divided by the remainder is –2. It is also known

that is a factor of the polynomial. What is the remainder when it is divided by
?
[Answer: 0]

13. The expression: leaves a remainder of R when divided by and a

remainder of when it is divided by . Show that:
.
Given also that the expression is exactly divisible by , evaluate a and b.
[Answer: a = 2, b = 1]

14. Determine the value of p and of q for which is a factor of

. [Answer: p = –1, q = –9]

15. Using the Factor Theorem, find one of the factors of the cubic:
2 x 3−9 x 2 + 7 x +6
Hence, factorize the cubic into its linear factors.
[Answer: ]

3 2
16. The polynomial p( x )= x +mx + 7 x+ n , has a factor of, ( x+ 2) and leaves a
remainder of 3 when divided by ( x−1) .

33
 (a) Determine the value of each of the constants, m and n.
(b) Find the exact value of the three roots of the equation p(x) = 0.
[Answer: (a) m = 9, n = –14 (b) –2, –7/2 ± (½√77)]

17. The polynomial: is divisible by and leaves a remainder 12

when divided by . Find the values of a and b.
[Answer: a = –1, b = –2]

18. Given that: ,

(i) calculate the remainder when is divided by ,
(ii) solve the equation .
[Answer: (i) 12 (ii) 1, 2, –3]

19. Given that: , calculate:

(i) the value of p for which is divisible by ,
(ii) the value of p for which has a remainder of 31 when divide by (x – p).
[Answer: (i) –2, 3 (ii) 2]

20. If and are factors of , determine the value of a and

of b. [Answer: a = –2, b = –7]

21. If and are both factors of- , find the

value of p and of q.
[Answer: p = –21, q = 8]

22. The expressions and have the same remainder when

divided by .
(i) Find the possible values of p.
(ii) Determine whether, for either or both values, is a factor of the
expression.
[Answer: (i) –6, 3 (ii) p = 3]

23. The expressions and have a common factor

. Find the value of p and of q.
[Answer: p = ⅓, q = 14/3]

24. Given that , find:

(i) the remainder when E is divided by ;
(ii) the value of a for which and are both factors of E.
[Answer: (i) –33 (ii) ±2]

25. Given that ,

34
 (i) find the remainder when is divided by ,
(ii) find the remainder when is divided by ;
(iii) factorize completely.
[Answer: (i) 0 (ii) –28 (iii) ]

26. Given that the expression is exactly divisible by , find

the value of a and of b.
[Answer: a = 2, b = –15]

27. Determine the value of a and of b for which is a factor of

. [Answer: a = 3, b = –30]

28. If is a factor of , evaluate p and determine the

remainder when f(x) is divided by
[Answer: 18, 30]

29. Find the value of a for which is divisible by

but not by .
[Answer: 4]

30. Given that is divisible by ,

(i) show that ;
(ii) find the possible values of b. [Answer: (ii) –2, 3, 6]

31. Given that is exactly divisible by but not by

, find the value of p.
[Answer: p = –2]

32. Given that the expression is exactly divisible by ,

evaluate p and q and factorize the expression fully.
[Answer: p = –3, q = 12; ]

33. Calculate, in terms of p, the remainder when is divided by .

Hence, write down the value of p for which the expression is exactly divisible by
.
[Answer: 10 – 2p, 5]

34. The expression is exactly divisible by and by .

Determine the value of a and of b and find the third factor of the expression.
[Answer: a = 3, b = –3, ]

35
35. If is a factor of the expression , calculate the
possible values of p.
[Answer: –3, 1]

36. Given that for all values of x, determine

the values of A, B and C.
[Answer: A = 3, B = –2, C = –5]

37. Given that , determine the value of

P, of Q, and of c.
[Answer: c = –4, P = 6, Q = –18]

38. If, for all values of x, , evaluate A, B and C.

[Answer: A = –1, B = –5, C = 10]

3.3: The use of the Factor Theorem to solve Equations

In mathematics, factor theorem is mainly used when factoring and finding the n roots of
polynomials completely. The theorem links factors and zeros of the polynomial, allowing us
to solve equations.

3.3.1 – Solved Examples:

1. Solve the following equations:
(a)
(b)
2. Solve the equations , and give the answers correct to two
places of decimal.

Solution:
1 (a)
Factors of
Try x = 1

is not a factor.
Try x = –1

is not a factor.
Try x = 2

is a factor.
So, by division

36
 0
Therefore,
We can now factorize as contained in the second bracket

1 (b)
Factors of
Try x = 1

is not a factor.
Try x = –1

is not a factor.
Try x = 2

is a factor.

So, by division

0
Therefore,
We can now factorize as contained in the second bracket

37
2.
Factors of
Try x = 1

is not a factor.
Try x = –1

is not a factor.
Try x = 2

is a factor.
So, by division

0
Therefore,
Solving by quadratic equation formula, we have

3.2.3 – Practice Problems

1. Solve each of the following equations:

38
 (a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
(g)
(h)
[Answer: (a) ±2, 3 (b) –1, 1, 5 (c) 2 twice, –4 (d) –1, –2, ½ (e) –1, 3, 3/2 (f) –6, 5, ½
(g) – 1, 2, ⅓ (h) ±1, –2, –3]

2. Determine the solution of each of the following equations, and give answers correct to
two places of decimal where appropriate.
(a)
(b)
[Answer: (a) –3, –0.73, 2.73 (b) –3.56, 0.56, 2]

39
 CHAPTER FOUR
Binomial Theorem
4.0: Binomial Theorem
A binomial is the sum or difference of two terms, for example, . That
is, a binomial contains two terms.

4.1 Factorial Notation

The meaning of can be explained by considering some examples, noting that:

where:
(i) means “n factorial”
means “5 factorial” and can be evaluated as follows:

Also,
(ii)
(iii) means “n combination r” and can be evaluated as:

Note:
.
4.2.1 – Solved Examples:
Evaluate the following:
1.
2.
Solution:

1.

2.

40
4.2.2 – Practice Problems
Evaluate the following:
(a)
(b)
(c)
[Answer: (a) 10 (b) 126 (c) 1]

4.3: Expansion of Binomial Expressions

It is sometimes necessary to expand a power of a binomial.

1 term
2 terms
3 terms
4 terms
5 terms
6 terms

We can observe that this process is tedious for powers of 3 and above. So, if n is a positive
integer, we can obtain the above by the Binomial Theorem:

This equation is called the Binomial Theorem or Binomial Formula.

4.4: Pascal Triangle

By close inspection of the above expansion of , we can observe that:
(i) The degree of x and a is n
(ii) The number of terms is , where n is a positive integer.
(iii) The coefficients of the terms which are equidistant from the ends are the same. These
coefficients may be arranged as follows:

The first and last numbers in each row are 1, while any other number in the array can be
obtained by adding the two numbers to the right and left of it in the preceding row. This
triangular array of numbers is known as Pascal Triangle, named after a French Mathematician
Blaise Pascal (1623 – 1662).

41
Note: The symbol can only be used when n is a positive integer. What happens when n
is a negative integer?

We must introduce another symbol to be able to evaluate if n is not a positive integer. This
can be done by studying carefully, the coefficients of x in the expansion of . We can
write this as:

, meaning “n taken r at a time”, and defined as

Note: is called the Binomial Coefficient.

4.5.1 – Solved Examples:

1. Calculate each of the following:

(i)

(ii)

Solution:

(i)

(ii)

2. Expand:
(i)
(ii)

Solution:
(i)

42
(ii)

3. Evaluate the coefficient of x3 in the binomial expansion of .

Solution:

The coefficient of x3

43
4. Determine the first three terms in the expansion, in ascending powers of x, of:
(i)
(ii)
Hence, evaluate the coefficient of x2 in the expansion .
Solution:
(i)

(ii)

Therefore, the coefficient of x3 = 984

6
5. Determine the expansion of (2−x ) in ascending powers of x. Taking the first three
6
terms of your result, put , and find the values of (1. 998 ) as accurately as
you can. Examine the fourth term of the expansion to determine to how many places
of decimal your answer is correct.
Solution:

44
First three terms

The 4th term

Comparing 63.61696 with 63.61695872, we see that the answer is correct to five places of
decimal.

6. Evaluate without using tables.

Solution:

4.5.2 – Practice Problems

1. Evaluate each of the following:

45
 (i) (ii)
[Answer: (i) 336 (ii) ]

2. Expand:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
[Answer: (i) (ii)
(iii) ]

3. Obtain, in ascending powers of p. the first four terms in the expansion of . By

substituting obtain the expansion of as far as the term in x2.
Determine a value for x which would enable you to calculate (1.0099)6.
[Answer: , , 0.01]

4. Write down and evaluate the middle term of the binomial expansion of
[Answer: 0.02]

5. Expand by the binomial theorem and reduce the terms to their simplest

form. Given that the first three terms in the expansion of are
, determine the value of a, and of b.

[Answer: , a = ¾, b = – 10]
6. Determine, in descending powers of x, the first three terms in the expansion of

. Hence, find the coefficient of x4 in the expansion of .

[Answer: , 156]

7. Given the expansion of in ascending powers of x as:

, calculate the value of a, and of b.
[Answer: a = 2, b = 25]

8. Find the coefficient of x2 in the expansion of .

[Answer: 78]

46
9. Write down, and simplify, the first three terms of the expansion, in ascending powers
of x, of:

(i) (ii)

Hence, or otherwise, obtain the coefficient of x2 in the expansion of

[Answer: (i) (ii) , 200]

10. Find in ascending powers of x, the first four terms in the expansion of:
(i) (ii)
Hence, find the coefficient of x2 in the expansion
[Answer: (i) (ii) , 90]

11. Find the first three terms of the expansion, in ascending powers of x, of:
(i) (ii) (1 – 3x)6
Hence, obtain the coefficient of x2 in the expansion of .
[Answer: , , –21]

12. Find the first three terms in the expansion of in ascending powers of x,
simplifying the coefficient. Given that the first three terms in the expansion of
are , state the value of a, and hence, find the value of b,
and of c. [Answer: , a = 2, b = 7, c = –13]

13. Determine, in ascending powers of x, the first three terms of the expansion of
. Hence, find the coefficient of x2 in the expansion of .
[Answer: , 283]

(1+ 14 x)
4

14. Expand in ascending powers of x. Taking x = 0.1, and using the first three
4
terms of the expansion, find the value of (1. 025 ) , correct to three places of decimal.

[Answer: , 1.104]

¿
Expand ( 1−2x ) ¿¿ 10 ¿ ¿¿ in ascending powers of x up to and including the term in x ,
3
15.
simplifying each coefficient in the expansion.
¿
Using your expansion, determine an approximation to ( 0 .98 ) ¿¿ 10 ¿ ¿¿ , clearly stating the
substitution which you have used for x.
[Answer: , 0.81704, x = 0.01]

47
16. Write down and simplify the expansion of . Using your result, find the
expansion of in ascending powers of x as far as the term in x3. Determine
the value of x that can be used to estimate (0.9899)5 from this expansion.
[Answer: , , 0.01]

17. Determine the expansion of in ascending powers of x. Taking the first three

terms of the expansion, put x = 0.001, and find the value of correct to five
places of decimal. [Answer: , 32.08008]

18. Find the first three terms, in ascending powers of x, in the expansion of .
Using your expansion, find the value of (1.997)8 correct to the nearest whole number.
[Answer: , 253]

19. Evaluate without using tables.

[Answer: 1.030301]

48
 CHAPTER FIVE
Partial Fraction
5.1: Definitions
5.1.1 The process of splitting up (or decomposing) of a fraction into the sum (or difference)
of two or more fractions with only one factor in the denominator, is called expressing in
terms of partial fraction. An algebraic fraction can be broken down into simpler parts
known as “partial fraction”. Resolving fractions into partial fractions has many uses (such as
in integration).

5.1.2: Types of Partial Fractions

Partial fractions fall into three main types, and can be solved by the following three main
methods:
(i) Substitution of strategic values
(ii) Solving with coefficients
(iii) Cover-up

5.2: Type I – Denominator with only distinct linear factors

Here, the denominator consists only of distinct linear factors (i.e., the factors in the
denominator do not have any square or cube terms, etc.) and each factor occurs exactly once.
All three methods can be used here. (However, note that the cover-up method can only be
used on fractions without powers in the denominator)

5.2.1 – Solved Examples:

Resolve each of the following into partial fractions:

1.

2.

3.

4.

Solution:

1.

We can write this fraction as an identity: where A and B

are constants to be found. Now, we multiply thro by the LCM of the denominator:

49
To find A and B, we can substitute “strategic” values of x into both sides of the expression
e.g., to get rid of , substitute x = 2 and to get rid of , put x = –3.

Put x = 2

Put x = –3

2.
Let us use cover-up method. This is easiest of all the three methods, but cannot be used with
non-linear fractions, it only works where there are linear factors in the denominator.

So, cover-up the with your hand, equate it equal to zero, determine the value of x and
substitute this value of x into what is left.

Put x = –3 into what is left.

Therefore, one of the fraction is

Cover-up
Put in what is left

This means that one of the fractions is

3.

Put x = 3
50
Put x = –2

Put x = 0

But C = 1 and B = –2

Therefore,

4.

Put x = 2

Put x = 0

But A = 1,

5.2.2 – Practice Problems

1. Express the following in partial fractions:

51
 (a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)

(i) (j)

(k) (l)

(m) (n)

[Answer: (a) (b)

(c) (d)

(e) (f)

(g) (h)

(i) (j)

(k) (l)

(m) ] (n)

5.3: Type II – Denominator with distinct irreducible quadratic factors

When a fraction has in the denominator, an irreducible quadratic factor (i.e., quadratic
factor which does not factorize), then to each distinct irreducible quadratic factor, there will
correspond a partial fraction of the form:

52
That is, the format is like:

5.3.1 – Solved Examples:

Resolve the following into partial fractions:

1. 2.
x 2 +1
3. 4. ( x 2 +2 ) ( x−1 ) .

Solution:

1.

Put x = 0

Put x = 1

… (i)

Put x = 2

… (ii)
Solving (i) and (ii) simultaneously, we have
… (ii)
… (i)
B=4

Put B = 4 in (i)

53
Method 2

Collecting coefficients, we have

… (i)
… (ii)
… (iii)

Put (iii) in (i)

Put (iii) in (ii)

2.

Collecting coefficients, we have

… (i)
… (ii)
… (iii)

Put (i) in (iii) … (iv)

(ii) + (iv)

Put B = –2 in (iv)

Put C = 1 in (iii)

54
3.

Put x = 0

Put x = 1

or
Put x = –1

Therefore,

4.

Put x = 1,

Put x = 0

55
Put x = 2

Therefore,

5.3.2 – Practice Problems

Resolve the following into partial fractions:

1. 2.

3. 4.

5. 6.

[Answer: 1. 2. 3.

56
 4 5 6 ]

5.4: Type III – Denominator with repeated factors

When a fraction contains factors of the form:
, where k and a are constants.
Then, to each such factor, there corresponds a sum of k partial fractions of the form:

This is the appropriate form when we have a repeated factor.

Note: The number of constants needed to express a fraction by partial fraction is equal to the
degree of the denominator.

5.4.1 – Solved Examples:

Resolve the following into partial fractions:

x
1. ( x−2 )(x +1 )2

2.

3.

Solution:

1.
c
Put x = –1

Put x = 2

Put x = 0

57
2.

Put x = –1

Put x = 0

3.

Put x = 3

Put x = –½

Put x = 0

58
5.4.2 – Practice Problems
Resolve the following into partial fractions:

1. Answer:

2. Answer:

3. Answer

4. Answer

5. Answer

6. Answer

7. Answer

8. Answer:

9. Answer:

10. Answer:

11. Answer:

12. Determine the values of A, B, C, D, if:

59
 [Answer: A = 3, B = –2, C = 1, D = 5]

5.5 – Partial fractions of Improper fractions

An algebraic fraction is improper if the degree of the denominator is equal to or less than the
degree of the numerator. For example, in each of the following expressions, the degree of the

numerator is more than the degree of the denominator: or .

Partial fraction decomposition only works if the degree of the numerator is less than the
degree of the denominator. When the degree of the numerator is greater than or equal to that
of the denominator, we must first convert the improper fraction into proper rational
expression with the help of the long division process. That is, we divide the numerator by its
denominator till it becomes a proper fraction.

5.5.1 – Solved Examples:

1. Find the partial fraction of

Solution:
Observe that the above expression is an improper fraction since the degree of the numerator
is equal to that of the denominator. Therefore, we must first carry our long division to convert
it into a proper fraction.

After the long division the fraction becomes:

Now observe that is now a proper fraction, so we can split it into partial
fraction.

Put x = –2 to eliminate A,

Put x = 1 to eliminate B,

60
So, the expression becomes:

2. Express in the form , where A, B and C are constants.

Solution:

We observe that , numerator and denominator have the

same degree of power. Therefore, we must first use long division to make it proper fraction.

After the long division the fraction becomes:

We can see that is now a proper fraction, so we can split it into partial fraction.

Put x = –3 to eliminate A,

Put x = 0 to eliminate B,

61
So, the expression becomes

5.5.2 – Practice Problems

x3
1. Express: ( x+1 )( x−3 ) in partial fractions. Answer:

2. Express in partial fractions Answer:

3. Resolve each of the following into partial fractions

(a) Answer:

(b) Answer:

(c) Answer:

(d) Answer:

4. Express in the form where the numerical

values of A, B and C are to be found.

[Answer: ]

5. Express in the form , where A, B and C are constant.

[Answer: ]

62
6. Express f(x) in partial fractions, where .

[Answer: ]

7. A, B and C are constants such that , for all values of x

except x = – 1. Write down the value of B, and find the values of A and C.
[Answer: A = 3, B = 1, C = 2]

8. The expression can be written in the form . Find the values

of the constants A, B and C.
[Answer: A = –1, B = 3/2, C = 3/2]

63
REFERENCES
Backhouse, J.K.; Houldsworth, S.P.T.; Cooper, B.E.D. (1985) Pure Mathematics 1 & 2,
Longman Group Ltd, Essex, England

Bostock, L.; Chander, S. (1978) Pure Mathematics, Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd,
Ellenborough House, Cheltenham GL50 1YW

Dawkins, Paul: How to Study Mathematics & Common Math Errors.

Algebra

Glendinning, P. (Prof): Math for Engineers

Merino, Orlando (January 2006), A Short History of Complex Numbers, University of

Rhode Island, NY

Stroud, K. A.: Engineering Mathematics (Fifth Edition, 2001), PALGRAVE Publishers Ltd
New York, N.Y. 10010

Sullivan, Michael: Algebra & Trigonometry (Sixth Edition, 2002), Prentice Hall, New Jersey
07458

64