Activity 2

OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED

To verify that the relation R in the set A piece of plywood, some pieces of
L of all lines in a plane, defined by wire (8), plywood, nails, white paper,
R = {( l, m) : l || m} is an equivalence glue.
relation.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
Take a piece of plywood of convenient size and paste a white paper on it. Fix
the wires randomly on the plywood with the help of nails such that some of
them are parallel, some are perpendicular to each other and some are inclined
as shown in Fig. 2.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Let the wires represent the lines l1, l2, ..., l8.
2. l1 is perpendicular to each of the lines l2, l3, l4 (see Fig. 2).

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 3. l6 is perpendicular to l7.
4. l2 is parallel to l3, l3 is parallel to l4 and l5 is parallel to l8.
5. (l2, l3), (l3, l4), (l5, l8),  R

OBSERVATION
1. In Fig. 2, every line is parallel to itself. So the relation R = {( l, m) : l || m}
.... reflexive relation (is/is not)
2. In Fig. 2, observe that l2 l3 . Is l3 ... l2? (|| / || )
So, (l , l )  R  (l , l ) ... R ()
2 3 3 2
Similarly, l3 || l4. Is l4 ...l3? (|| / || )
So, (l , l )  R  (l , l ) ... R ()
3 4 4 3

and (l5, l8)  R  (l8, l5) ... R ()

 The relation R ... symmetric relation (is/is not)

3. In Fig. 2, observe that l2 || l3 and l3 || l4. Is l2 ... l4 ? (|| / || )
So, (l2, l3)  R and (l3, l4  R  (l2, l4) ... R (/)

Similarly, l3 || l4 and l4 || l2. Is l3 ... l2 ? (|| / || )

So, (l3, l4)  R, (l4, l2)  R  (l3, l2) ... R (,)
Thus, the relation R ... transitive relation (is/is not)
Hence, the relation R is reflexive, symmetric and transitive. So, R is an
equivalence relation.

APPLICATION NOTE
This activity is useful in understanding the This activity can be repeated
concept of an equivalence relation. by taking some more wires
in different positions.

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Activity 4
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To demonstrate a function which is Cardboard, nails, strings, adhesive
one-one but not onto. and plastic strips.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Paste a plastic strip on the left hand side of the cardboard and fix two nails
in it as shown in the Fig. 4.1. Name the nails as a and b.
2. Paste another strip on the right hand side of the cardboard and fix three
nails on it as shown in the Fig. 4.2. Name the nails on the right strip as
1, 2 and 3.
3. Join nails on the left strip to the nails on the right strip as shown in the Fig. 4.3.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Take the set X = {a, b}
2. Take the set Y = {1, 2, 3}.
3. Join elements of X to the elements of Y as shown in Fig. 4.3.

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OBSERVATION
1. The image of the element a of X in Y is .

The image of the element b of X in Y is .

So, the Fig. 4.3 represents a .

2. Every element in X has a _________ image in Y. So, the function is
_____________ (one-one/not one-one).
3. The pre-image of the element 1 of Y in X (exists/does not
exist). So, the function is (onto/not onto).

Thus, Fig. 4.3 represents a function which is but not onto.

APPLICATION
This activity can be used to demonstrate the concept of one-one but not onto
function.

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Activity 5
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To draw the graph of sin1 x , using the Cardboard, white chart paper, ruler,
graph of sin x and demonstrate the coloured pens, adhesive, pencil,
concept of mirror reflection (about eraser, cutter, nails and thin wires.
the line y = x).

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a cardboard of suitable dimensions, say, 30 cm × 30 cm.
2. On the cardboard, paste a white chart paper of size 25 cm × 25 cm (say).
3. On the paper, draw two lines, perpendicular to each other and name them
XOX and YOY as rectangular axes [see Fig. 5].

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 4. Graduate the axes approximately as shown in Fig. 5.1 by taking unit on
X-axis = 1.25 times the unit of Y-axis.
5. Mark approximately the points
     
,sin , ,sin , ... , , sin  in the coordinate plane and at each
   


 




6 6 4 4 2 2 
point fix a nail.
6. Repeat the above process on the other side of the x-axis, marking the points
 – –   – – 
 – –  , sin , ... , , sin approximately and fix nails
 6 ,sin 6 ,  4 4   2 2 
     
on these points as N1, N2, N3, N4. Also fix a nail at O.
7. Join the nails with the help of a tight wire on both sides of x-axis to get the
– 
graph of sin x from to .
2 2
8. Draw the graph of the line y = x (by plotting the points (1,1), (2, 2), (3, 3), ...
etc. and fixing a wire on these points).
9. From the nails N1, N2, N3, N4, draw perpendicular on the line y = x and produce
these lines such that length of perpendicular on both sides of the line y = x
are equal. At these points fix nails, I1,I2,I3,I4.
10. Repeat the above activity on the other side of X- axis and fix nails at I ,I ,I ,I .
1 2 3 4

11. Join the nails on both sides of the line y = x by a tight wire that will show the
graph of y sin1 x .

DEMONSTRATION
Put a mirror on the line y = x. The image of the graph of sin x in the mirror will
represent the graph of sin1 x showing that sin–1 x is mirror reflection of sin x
and vice versa.

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OBSERVATION
The image of point N1 in the mirror (the line y = x) is .
The image of point N2 in the mirror (the line y = x) is .
The image of point N3 in the mirror (the line y = x) is .
The image of point N4 in the mirror (the line y = x) is .
The image of point N1 in the mirror (the line y = x) is .
The image point of N2 in the mirror (the line y = x) is .
The image point of N3 in the mirror (the line y = x) is .
The image point of N4 in the mirror (the line y = x) is .
The image of the graph of six x in y = x is the graph of , and the
image of the graph of sin–1x in y = x is the graph of .

APPLICATION

Similar activity can be performed for drawing the graphs of cos–1x, tan1 x , etc.

Mathematics 111

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 Activity 9
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To find analytically the limit of a Paper, pencil, calculator.
function f (x) at x = c and also to check
the continuity of the function at that
point.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
 x2 – 16 
f (x)   x –4 , x  4 
 
x  4 
1. Consider the function given by
10,
 


2. Take some points on the left and some points on the right side of c (= 4)
which are very near to c.
3. Find the corresponding values of f (x) for each of the points considered in
step 2 above.
4. Record the values of points on the left and right side of c as x and the
corresponding values of f (x) in a form of a table.

DEMONSTRATION
1. The values of x and f (x) are recorded as follows:

Table 1 : For points on the left of c (= 4).

x 3.9 3.99 3.999 3.9999 3.99999 3.999999 3.9999999

f (x) 7.9 7.99 7.999 7.9999 7.99999 7.999999 7.9999999

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 2. Table 2: For points on the right of c (= 4).

x 4.1 4.01 4.001 4.0001 4.00001 4.000001 4.0000001

f (x) 8.1 8.01 8.001 8.0001 8.00001 8.000001 8.0000001

OBSERVATION
1. The value of f (x) is approaching to , as x  4 from the left.
2. The value of f (x) is approaching to , as x  4 from the right.

3. So, lim f  x = and lim f  x = .

x4 x4 

4. Therefore, lim f  x = , f (4) = .

x4

5. Is lim f  x = f (4) ? (Yes/No)

x4

6. Since f c   lim f (x) , so, the function is at x = 4 (continuous/

xc
not continuous).

APPLICATION
This activity is useful in understanding the concept of limit and continuity of a
function at a p

Mathematics 123

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 1. Take five more wires each of length say 2 cm and fix them at the points A, C,
B, P and D as shown in figure.

DEMONSTRATION
1. In the figure, wires at the points A, B, C and D represent tangents to the
curve and are parallel to the axis. The slopes of tangents at these points are
zero, i.e., the value of the first derivative at these points is zero. The tangent
at P intersects the curve.
2. At the points A and B, sign of the first derivative changes from negative to
positive. So, they are the points of local minima.
3. At the point C and D, sign of the first derivative changes from positive to
negative. So, they are the points of local maxima.
4. At the point P, sign of first derivative does not change. So, it is a point of
inflection.

OBSERVATION
1. Sign of the slope of the tangent (first derivative) at a point on the curve to
the immediate left of A is .
2. Sign of the slope of the tangent (first derivative) at a point on the curve to
the immediate right of A is .
3. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate left
of B is .
4. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate right
of B is .
5. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate left
of C is .
6. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate right
of C is .
7. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate left
of D is .

Mathematics 135
 8. Sign of the first derivative at a point on the curve to immediate right
of D is .
9. Sign of the first derivative at a point immediate left of P is and
immediate right of P is .
10. A and B are points of local .
11. C and D are points of local .
12. P is a point of .

APPLICATION
1. This activity may help in explaining the concepts of points of local maxima,
local minima and inflection.
2. The concepts of maxima/minima are useful in problems of daily life such
as making of packages of maximum capacity at minimum cost.

136 Laboratory Manual

Activity 16
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To construct an open box of maximum Chart papers, scissors, cellotape,
volume from a given rectangular sheet calculator.
by cutting equal squares from each
corner.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a rectangular chart paper of size 20 cm × 10 cm and name it as ABCD.
2. Cut four equal squares each of side x cm from each corner A, B, C and D.
3. Repeat the process by taking the same size of chart papers and different
values of x.
4. Make an open box by folding its flaps using cellotape/adhesive.

DEMONSTRATION
1. When x = 1, Volume of the box = 144 cm3
2. When x = 1.5, Volume of the box = 178.5 cm3
 3. When x = 1.8, Volume of the box = 188.9 cm3.
4. When x = 2, Volume of the box = 192 cm3.
5. When x = 2.1, Volume of the box = 192.4 cm3.
6. When x = 2.2, Volume of the box = 192.2 cm3.
7. When x = 2.5, Volume of the box = 187.5 cm3.
8. When x = 3, Volume of the box = 168 cm3.
Clearly, volume of the box is maximum when x = 2.1.

OBSERVATION
1. V1 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 1.6) = .................
2. V2 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 1.9) = .................
3. V = Volume of the open box ( when x = 2.1) = .................
4. V3 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 2.2) = .................
5. V4 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 2.4) = .................
6. V5 = Volume of the open box ( when x = 3.2) = .................
7. Volume V1 is than volume V.
8. Volume V2 is than volume V.
9. Volume V3 is than volume V.
10. Volume V4 is than volume V.
11. Volume V5 is than volume V.

So, Volume of the open box is maximum when x = .

APPLICATION
This activity is useful in explaining the concepts of maxima/minima of functions.
It is also useful in making packages of maximum volume with minimum cost.

Mathematics 141
 NOTE
Let V denote the volume of the box.
Now V = (20 – 2x) (10 – 2x) x

or V = 200x – 60x2 + 4x3

dV
 200 –120x 12x2 . For maxima or minima, we have,
dx

dV
 0 , i.e., 3x2 – 30x + 50 = 0
dx

30  900 – 600
i.e., x   7.9 or 2.1
6

Reject x = 7.9.

d 2V
–120 24x
dx2

d 2V
When x = 2.1, is negative.
dx2

Hence, V should be maximum at x = 2.1.

142 Laboratory Manual

Activity 20
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To verify geometrically that Geometry box, cardboard, white

 
paper, cutter, sketch pen, cellotape.
c a  b  c a  cb

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Fix a white paper on the cardboard.
2. Draw a line segment OA (= 6 cm, say) and let it represent c .
3. Draw another line segment OB (= 4 cm, say) at an angle (say 60°) with OA.
Let OB  a
 4. Draw BC (= 3 cm, say) making an angle (say 30°) with OA . Let BC  b
5. Draw perpendiculars BM, CL and BN.
6. Complete parallelograms OAPC, OAQB and BQPC.

DEMONSTRATION
1. OC  OB +BC  a  b , and let COA   .

 
2. c a  b  c a  b sin  = area of parallelogram OAPC.

3. c a = area of parallelogram OAQB.

4. cb = area of parallelogram BQPC.

5. Area of parallelogram OAPC = (OA) (CL)

= (OA) (LN + NC) = (OA) (BM + NC)

= (OA) (BM) + (OA) (NC)

= Area of parallelogram OAQB + Area of parallelogram BQPC

= ca  c  b

So, c(a  b )  cb  cb

Direction of each of these vectors c(a  b ), c a and cb is perpendicular

to the same plane.

So, c(a  b )  c a  cb.

154 Laboratory Manual

OBSERVATION

c  OA = OA =

a  b  OC OC =

CL =

c(a  b) = Area of parallelogram OAPC

= (OA) (CL) = sq. units (i)

c a = Area of parallelogram OAQB

= (OA) (BM) = × = (ii)

cb = Area of parallelogram BQPC

= (OA) (CN) = × = (iii)

From (i), (ii) and (iii),

Area of parallelogram OAPC = Area of parallelgram OAQB + Area of

Parallelgram _______ _.

Thus c  (a  b | c a  cb


c a, cb and c  a  b  are all in the direction of to the plane
of paper.

Therefore  
c a  b  c  a  ________.

Mathematics 155
APPLICATION
Through the activity, distributive property of vector multiplication over addition
can be explained.

NOTE
This activity can also be per-
formed by taking rectangles
instead of parallelograms.

156 Laboratory Manual

Activity 21
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To verify that angle in a semi-circle is Cardboard, white paper, adhesive,
a right angle, using vector method. pens, geometry box, eraser, wires,
paper arrow heads.
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Take a thick cardboard of size 30 cm × 30 cm.
2. On the cardboard, paste a white paper of the same size using an adhesive.
3. On this paper draw a circle, with centre O and radius 10 cm.

4. Fix nails at the points O, A, B, P and Q. Join OP, OA, OB, AP, AQ, BQ, OQ
and BP using wires.
5. Put arrows on OA, OB, OP, AP, BP, OQ, AQ and BQ to show them as vectors,
using paper arrow heads, as shown in the figure.

DEMONSTRATION
1. Using a protractor, measure the angle between the vectors AP and BP , i.e.,
 APB = 90°.

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 2. Similarly, the angle between the vectors AQand BQ , i.e.,  AQB = 90°.
3. Repeat the above process by taking some more points R, S, T, ... on the
semi-circles, forming vectors AR, BR; AS, BS; AT, BT; ..., etc., i.e., angle
formed between two vectors in a semi-circle is a right angle.

OBSERVATION
By actual measurement.

OP  OA  OB  OQ  r  a  p   ,

AP = , BP = , AB =

AQ = , BQ =

2 2 2 2
AP  BP = ________, AQ  BQ = ________

So, APB = and AP.BP AQB = and

AQ.BP = ________
Similarly, for points R, S, T,
ARB = , ASB = , ATB = ,
i.e., angle in a semi-circle is a right angle.
APPLICATION
This activity can be used to explain the
concepts of

(i) opposite vectors

(ii) vectors of equal magnitude

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(iii) perpendicular vectors
(iv) Dot product of two vectors.
NOTE

Let OA = OB = a = OP = p

OA  – a, OB  a, OP  p

AP  – OA  OP  a p., BP  –p .a

AP. BP  p  a. p – a  p – a  0
2 2
.

since p 2
a 
So, the angle APB between the vectors AP and
BP is a right angle.

Similarly, AQ. BQ  0 , so, AQB = 90° and so on.

Mathematics 159

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Activity 26
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To measure the shortest distance A piece of plywood of size
between two skew lines and verify it 30 cm × 20 cm, a squared paper,
analytically. three wooden blocks of size
2cm × 2 cm × 2 cm each and one
wooden block of size 2 cm × 2 cm
× 4 cm, wires of different lengths,
set squares, adhesive, pen/pencil,
etc.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Paste a squared paper on a piece of plywood.
2. On the squared paper, draw two lines OA and OB to represent x-axis,
and y-axis, respectively.
3. Name the three blocks of size 2 cm × 2 cm × 2 cm as I, II and III. Name the
other wooden block of size 2 cm × 2 cm × 4 cm as IV.
4. Place blocks I, II, III such that their base centres are at the points
(2, 2), (1, 6) and (7, 6), respectively, and block IV with its base centre at
(6, 2). Other wooden block of size 2 cm × 2 cm × 4 cm as IV.
5. Place a wire joining the points P and Q, the centres of the bases of the
blocks I and III and another wire joining the centres R and S of the tops of
blocks II and IV as shown in Fig. 26.
6. These two wires represent two skew lines.
7. Take a wire and join it perpendicularly with the skew lines and measure the
actual distance.

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 Fig. 26

DEMONSTRATION
1. A set-square is placed in such a way that its one perpendicular side is along
the wire PQ.
2. Move the set-square along PQ till its other perpendicular side touches the
other wire.
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 3. Measure the distance between the two lines in this position using set-square.
This is the shortest distance between two skew lines.
4. Analytically, find the equation of line joining P (2, 2, 0) and Q (7, 6, 0) and
other line joining R (1, 6, 2) and S (6, 2, 4) and find S.D. using
a2 
– a1  b1  b2 
. The distance obtained in two cases will be the same.
b1 b2
OBSERVATION
1. Coordinates of point P are .
2. Coordinates of point Q are .
3. Coordinates of point R are .
4. Coordinates of point S are .
5. Equation of line PQ is .
6. Equation of line RS is .

Shortest distance between PQ and RS analytically = .

Shortest distance by actual measurement = .

The results so obtained are .

APPLICATION
This activity can be used to explain the concept of skew lines and of shortest
distance between two lines in space.

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Activity 27
OBJECTIVE MATERIAL REQUIRED
To explain the computation of A piece of plywood, white paper
conditional probability of a given pen/pencil, scale, a pair of dice.
event A, when event B has already
occurred, through an example of
throwing a pair of dice.

METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION
1. Paste a white paper on a piece of plywood of a convenient size.
2. Make a square and divide it into 36 unit squares of size 1cm each
(see Fig. 27).
3. Write pair of numbers as shown in the figure.

Fig. 27

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DEMONSTRATION
1. Fig. 27 gives all possible outcomes of the given experiment. Hence, it
represents the sample space of the experiment.
2. Suppose we have to find the conditional probability of an event A if an event
B has already occurred, where A is the event “a number 4 appears on both
the dice” and B is the event "4 has appeared on at least one of the dice”i.e,
we have to find P(A | B).
3. From Fig. 27 number of outcomes favourable to A = 1
Number of outcomes favourable to B = 11
Number of outcomes favourable to A  B = 1.
NOTE
11
4. (i) P (B) = , 1. You may repeat this activity by
36 taking more events such as the
probability of getting a sum 10 when
1 a doublet has already occurred.
(ii) P (A  ) =
36 2. Conditional probability
P (A | B) can also be found by first
P(A  B) 1 taking the sample space of event B
(iii) P (A | B) = = . out of the sample space of the
P(B) 11 experiment, and then finding the
probability A from it.
OBSERVATION
1. Outcome(s) favourable to A : , n (A) = .
2. Outcomes favourable to B : , n (B) = .
3. Outcomes favourable to A  B : , n (A  B) = .
4. P (A  B) = .
5. P (A | B) = = .

APPLICATION
This activity is helpful in understanding the concept of conditional probability,
which is further used in Bayes’ theorem.

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