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BIOLOGY
Key concepts, Diagrams, and Core Processes

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 BIODIVERSITY
(ACELLULAR LIFE)
INTRODUCTION OF VIRUS
Virus (Latin word venom=poison)
Viroin (Mature entity).
Border line between living and nonliving.
Living(inside the cell)
Non living (outside the cell)

VIRUS
Virulent: destroy cell
Temperate: Integrated in host genome to remain
stable for a long time.
Viroid: Infectious RNA
Viroin: Infectious agent.
2 main components(Nucleic acid+Protein)
Prion: Infectious protein
Cause number of degenerative Brain
diseases.Example: Scarple(Sheep),Mad Cow disease.

HISTORY OF VIRUS

Twort(1915) & D.Harle(1917) work on Bacteriophage.

E.Jenner discovered the 1st vaccine for smallpox.
Charles Chamberland(1884) said:“Rabies causing agent is
filterable”.
Porcelain filters(pore size 100-1000 nm).
Dmitry Ivanovsky in 1892 discovered TMV(Tobacco
mosaic virus) rod shaped.
Wandell Stanley (1935) purification of TMV.
 CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUSES

Genetic material either DNA or RNA.

Intracellular obligate parasite.
Can't live without host.
Can't grow on artificial media.
Resistance against antibodies.
Reproduce inside the cell, use machinery of host
cell.
Size ranging(20 nm-250 nm)
20nm Parvo virus
250 nm Pox virus
can be crystallized.
Can't respire.
Small virus (4 genes)
Large virus (Hundreds several)
GENERAL STRUCTURE OF VIRUS

Capsid:
Coat/different shapes/encloses virus.
Adhesion property.
Proteinous structure.
Capsomeres combination.
Capsomeres protein subunits.
Capsomeres number specific in particular viruses.
162 capsomeres in Herpes virus.
252 capsomeres in Adenovirus.
Core(Genome):
Nucleic acid (DNA or RNA)
DNA (ssDNA or dsDNA)
RNA (ssRNA or dsRNA)
contain single or several molecules of DNA or RNA.

Envelope:
Accessory structure
Host derived structure
If envelope present (Enveloped virus)
If envelope absent (Naked virus)
Component (lipoprotein)
Help to infect host

CLASSIFICATION OF VIRUS

1.Host cell:
Animal cell
Plant cell
Bacterial cell (Bacteriophage)
2.Capsid:
162 capsomeres Herpes virus
252 capsomeres Adenovirus
3.Shapes:
Spherical(golf balls) ex.Polio virus
Rod ex.TMV
Tadpole ex.Bacteriophage
Icosahedral (20 faces)

4.Genome:
DNA (ssDNA or dsDNA)
RNA (ssRNA or dsRNA)
5.Envelope:
Envelope present (Enveloped)
Envelope absent (Non enveloped or Naked)

BACTERIOPHAGE
Most complex virus
Discovered by Twort & D harrele
Phages- lambda phages
- T phages(T2,T4)
Collar: Connection between head & tail.
Sheath: Contractile protein(contraction)
Core: Different protein
Capsid
Spikes
Tail fibres(6 in number)
Tail more complex than the head.
Base plate: secretion of lysozyme,digest bacterial cell wall.

Lifecycles(Bacteriophage):
1.Lytic cycle:
Tail fibres: Responsible for landing.
Spikes: Form connection with attachment site.
Lysozyme: Breakdown of cell wall of Bacteria.
Core: Penetration
Sheath: Contraction
Virulent cycle(phage)
20 minutes,200 copies
2.Lysogenic cycle:
Non-virulent phage
Called Temperate phage(Inactive form)
Bacteriophage(virus) is 1000x times smaller than bacteria.
20 minutes,2 copies
Conversion of lysogenic cycle to lytic cycle,due to external
factor called induction

HIV

Retrovirus/RNA genome
Tumour causing virus in Birds
Convert ssRNA to dsDNA by reverse transcriptase enzyme
and process called reverse transcription.
Called onco virus(cancer causing viruses)
Oncovirus spherical and 10nm diameter.

Components:
Envelope(lipoprotein)
Capsid(protein),shape conical/bullet like
Core(ssRNA),2 identical RNA strands
Spikes(2 parts)
1.gp41(embedded in membrane)
2.gp120(out of membrane)
P¹⁷(matrix protein) below spike
Integrase enzymes(to make viral DNA integral part of
host DNA.
Reverse transcriptase enzyme(to convert ssRNA to
dsDNA)
Protease enzyme(breakdown of protein).
 LIFE CYCLE OF HIV

1.Attachment
(Spikes(g120)connect to the cd4 receptor site.

2.Fusion
Envelope of virus & Plasma membrane of host fuse.

3.Endocytosis
Enter inside

4.Protease
(uncoating of virus capsid)

5.Reverse Transcriptase
Viral DNA formation

6.Integrase
To incorporate viral DNA into host DNA.

7.Central dogma
(transcription & translation)

8.Assembly of Viruses
9.Budd off
 SYMPTOMS OF HIV
Shown between 6 weeks to 3 months.

Early symptoms same as:

Flu,Fever
Rash,Muscle-aches
Swollen lymph nodes

Suffering from skin cancer known as Kaposi’s sarcoma.

Dementia
Diarrhoea
Septicemia(blood poisoning)
Other forms of cancer
Directly infect brain cells
50% cases irreversible dementia & eventual death.
Brain shrinks with loss of memory.
Mental agility
Behavioural changes

Opportunistic infections:
Weak immune system
Pulmonary tuberculosis
Candidiasis of (Oesophagus,Trachea,Bronchi,lungs)
Toxoplasmosis of brain
Severe bacterial infection
Pneumonia
(Vision loss,nerve damage,brain impairment)
 TREATMENT OF HIV

No cure/no vaccine
Antiretroviral medicines(hinders multiplication of virus)
HAART(Highly Active antiretroviral therapy)
Azidothymidine or zidovudine (slows progress of disease)
Ribavirin(suppress AIDS virus)
Sumarin(inhabit viral reproduction in host)

PREVENTION (AVOID TRANSMISSION ROUTES)

Sexual contact(unethical sexual activity)

Blood/Blood product transfusion
Contaminated medical utensils
Mother to foetus(Pregnancy)
Acupuncture(Tattoo,Ear piercing etc)

TRANSMISSION OF HIV

90% cases-transmit by sexual contact

Blood/Blood products transfusion
Intimate sexual contact
Infected blood entering bloodstream
Contaminated medical utensils(unsterilized needles/syringes)
Through cuts & wounds
Mother to foetus (pregnancy/at birth)
By breast milk during suckling
1.RNA virus(non enveloped plus strand):
Example: Poliovirus,Rhinovirus

2.RNA (enveloped plus strand):

Example: Hepatitis A & C
Infect Arthropods & Vertebrates
cause (leukaemia & yellow fever in humans)

3.RNA minus strand:

Example: Rhabdo virus,Pox virus
Cause Flu/Mumps and meals(Parmoxyvirus)

4.Retrovirus:
Example: HIV & Hepatitis B

5.Double stranded RNA virus:

Example: Reovirus

6.DNA viruses:
Example: Reovirus

7.Large & Medium Genome:

Example: Herpes virus

8.Bacteriophage:

VIRAL DISEASES
1.Poliomyelitis:
Caused by polio virus
treatment vaccination
2.Cold:
Caused by Rhinovirus

3.Encephalitis, Dengue, Yellow fever:

Caused by Arbovirus
Arthropod borne disease

4.AIDS:
caused by HIV(Retrovirus)

5.Rabies:
Caused by Rhabdovirus

6.Measls & Mumps:

Caused by Parmoxyvirus

7.Hepatitis:
Inflammation of liver

Types of hepatitis:
Hepatitis A:
RNA enveloped viruses
Transmitted by contact with faeces of an infected person.

Hepatitis B:
Serum hepatitis
Double strand DNA enveloped

Hepatitis C:
Blood transfusion
Mother to child (pregnancy)
By sexual contact
 BIOENERGETICS
Bioenergetics:
Capturing and conversion of this energy from one form to
another in the living system and its utilization in metabolic
activities is called bioenergetics.

Phosphorylation:
This process of ATP formation from ADP and phosphate is
called phosphorylation.

TYPE OF PHOSPHORYLATION
Photophosphorylation:
The type of ATP formation which utilizes the energy of
light(photon).
It occurs in the thylakoid membrane of chloroplast.

Oxidative phosphorylation:
Type of phosphorylation where ATP is formed by using
energy of oxidation, produced during metabolic reactions
in the cell.
It occurs in cristae of mitochondria

Substrate level phosphorylation:

Type of phosphorylation where one substrate provides
phosphate and energy to another substrate.
ATP formation requires 7.3kcal\mol
 PHOTOSYNTHESIS

The living process where light energy converts into

chemical energy (ATP,NADPH2)and then into energy rich
organic food molecules like carbohydrates called
photosynthesis.
Light is a form of energy, has dual nature, described both
as a wave and a particle nature.
It is composed of a packet of energy called quanta and
photons.
Light energy captured by the light harvesting complexes
is efficient and rapidly transferred to the chlorophyll
molecules present in the photosynthetic centre.
Each pigment has its own absorption spectrum.
Absorption spectrum for chlorophyll Indicates that
absorption is maximum in the blue and red part of the
spectrum .
Two absorption peaks are observed in 430nm and 670nm.
Relative effectiveness of different wavelengths (color) of
light in driving photosynthesis is called the action
spectrum of photosynthesis.
 PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENT
Pigment:
As light is flashed on matter, it may be
reflected,transmitted or absorbed.
Substances in plants that absorb visible light are called
pigments.
Chlorophyll-a= C55 H72 O5 N4 Mg
Chlorophyll-b=C55 H70 O6 N4 Mg

A chlorophyll molecule has two main parts:

One flat,square, light absorbing hydrophilic head
One long hydrophobic, hydrocarbon tail.

HEAD:
The head is a complex porphyrin ring, made up of four
smaller pyrrole ring joined by Mg with nitrogen (N) of
porphyrin.

TAIL:
Long hydrocarbon tail which is attached to one of the
pyrrole ring in phytol(C20H39)
Chlorophyll molecules mainly absorb violet-blue and
orange-red from visible light.

CAROTENOIDS:
The carotenoids transfer their energy to chlorophyll-b and
then to chlorophyll-a, from here energy to light reaction.

ABSORPTION SEPTUM OF CHLOROPHYLL a AND b:

Chlorophyll-a absorbs violet and orange light (650 to 700
nm)
Chlorophyll-b (450 to 500 nm) absorbs blue and yellow
light.
ARRANGEMENT OF PHOTOSYNTHETIC PIGMENT IN THE FORM
OF PHOTOSYSTEM 1 AND PHOTOSYSTEM 2:
Antenna Complex:
Consist of the cluster of a few hundred chlorophyll-a,
chlorophyll-b and carotenoid molecules
Reaction Center :
Chlorophyll-a , which is structurally similar to other
chlorophyll molecules but located in the region of the
photosystem called reaction centre.

ROLE OF CO2
The final product of photosynthesis is carbohydrate where
carbon is used.

ROLE OF WATER
In 1930 Von Neil hypothesized that plants split water as a
source of hydrogen and release oxygen as a by-product.
Other scientists during 1940 by radio-labelling of O18
isotopes with H2O and CO2.
One of the material of photosynthesis, hydrogen produced
by splitting of water reduces NADP to NADPH2,(
NADPH+H)
LIGHT REACTION
Light dependent
Site Granum/Thylakoid
Energy conversion
Light energy converted into chemical energy (ATP &
NADPH)
 Assimilatory power ATP
Reducing Power NADPH
H2O add
02 gas emission
2 Photo systems
PS-I (700 nm)
PS-I (680 nm)
Hole gap filled by H20 at PS-II
Ferredoxin iron containing compound
Plastocyanin copper containing compound

Non cyclic photophosphorylation:

Normal
Z-scheme
PS-I & II use
ATP & NADPH produce
02 release

Cyclic photophosphorylation:
Special
PS-I only use
ATP produce only
No release of 02

DARK REACTION

Light independent reaction

Discovered by Calvin Malvin
Nobel prize in 1961
Stages:
Carbon fixation
Reduction
Regeneration of RuBp
Rubisco,the most abundant protein in nature.
Called Calvin Cycle

Carbon Fixation:
No ATP use
No energy use
No NADPH use

Reduction:
Precursor of 3PG
Product of G3P
Maximum energy utilization (6ATP,6 NADPH)

Regeneration of RuBp:
Precursor of G3P
Product RuBP
3ATP used

RESPIRATION
Cellular respiration:
O2 enters into the cell & reacts & produces energy.
2 types of cellular respiration:

Aerobic respiration:
02 require
Complete breakdown of energy source
End product CO2+H20+ATP
Energy production High
 Eukaryotic cell 36 ATP
Prokaryotic cell 38 ATP
Glycolysis occur
Pyruvic acid oxidation occur
Krebs cycle occur
Anaerobic respiration:
02 not require
Incomplete breakdown
End product on the basis of end product classified:
Alcohol- Alcoholic fermentation
Lactic Acid- Lactic acid fermentation
Energy production low
Net ATP production 2 ATP
Glycolysis occur
Pyruvic acid oxidation not occur
Krebs cycle not occur

GLYCOLYSIS

Called EMP pathway

Occur in cytoplasm
Common in both aerobic & anaerobic respiration
Glucose breakdown
Glucose - 2 pyruvic acid+2 NADH formation
EMP scientists name Embden-Meyerhof-Parnas

2 phases:
1.Preparatory phase:
Precursor glucose
Product- G3P,DHAP(3C)
Energy budget 2ATP utilization
2.Pay off/Oxidative phase:
Precursor G3P,DHAP
Product pyruvate
Energy (2NADH+4ATP)

Total ATP - 4
Used ATP - 2
Net ATP - 2

PYRUVIC ACID OXIDATION

Called link reaction

Associate reactions of aerobic respiration
Pyruvic acid to acetyl coA

KREBS CYCLE

Called Citric acid cycle

Tricarboxylic acid cycle
Discovered by Hans Krebs in 1930
Precursor Oxaloacetate
Occur in matrix of mitochondria

Inputs of Krebs cycle

1 Acetyl COA
1 ADP+P
3 NAD+
1 FAD+
Outputs of Krebs cycle
2 CO2
1 ATP
3 NADH
1 FADH2

Mnemonic for Krebs cycle:

O - Oxaloacetate
C - Citrate
Imran - Iso-citrate
Khan - Ketoglutarate
Son - Succinate
Father - Fumarate
Mother - Malate
For 1 glucose Krebs cycle run 2 times
For 1 pyruvate Krebs cycle run 1 time

ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN

In mitochondria, Cristae
1 NADH - 3 ATP
1 FADH - 2ATP
 BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
INTRODUCTION
Major bio elements (6)
Form approximately 98% of biomolecules
Oxygen- 65%
Carbon- 18%
Hydrogen- 10%
Nitrogen- 3%
Sulphur-2 %
Phosphorus- 1%
Protoplasm contains 70 to 90%
Most abundant inorganic biomolecule- H20
Most Abundant organic biomolecule- Protein

WATER & ITS PROPERTIES

Heat of vaporisation:
The amount of heat required to change the liquid state of
water to vapour state.
574 kcal/kg water required to absorb high heat to change its
state from liquid to vapours.
Plays a role in thermoregulation.

High specific heat:

Plays a role in thermostability.

Hydrogen Bond:
Intermolecular force of attraction
Force of attraction due to partially positive H+ and partially
negative O- is called hydrogen bond.
Due to this hydrogen bonding, two molecules have following
2 types of character:
1.Cohesion:
Attraction between water molecules.

2.Adhesion:
Attraction between water and any surface

Hydrophobic exclusion:
Tendency of water to coalesce oil drop into large droplets.

Ionisation of water:
Water may behave as acid or base.
Amphoteric in nature.
Behaves as a buffer due to its nature.
Buffer maintains pH for enzymatic activities in cells and
organs.
Anomalous behaviour of water:
Shows different behaviour below 4⁰C.

CARBOHYDRATES
Found about 1% weight.
Most abundant organic molecule in nature (Cellulose).
Primary product of photosynthesis (Glucose).

Monosaccharides:
General formula (CH20)n
All C except 1 have (OH group)
Can't hydrolyse.
Number of carbon atoms (3 to 7).
Most common (pentose & hexose)

Pentose:
Used in nucleic acid like DNA or RNA (ribose or deoxyribose)
Ribulose (keto) in the Calvin cycle.
Hexose:
0.08% blood sugar level
Glucose (Aldo)
Fructose (keto), the most abundant & sweetest fruit
sugar.
Galactose (combined state) in lactose.

Oligosaccharide:
3 to 10 monosaccharides
Most abundant and common oligosaccharide is
disaccharide.

Disaccharide:
Glucose+Fructose = Sucrose (1,2 linkage)
Glucose+Glucose = Maltose (1,4 linkage)
Glucose+Galactose= Lactose (1,4 linkage)

Polysaccharide:
High molecular weight carbohydrate
Hydrolysis yields many monosaccharides
Formed by condensation of hundreds or thousands of
monosaccharides units.

1.Glycogen:
Branched linkage (1,4/1,6 linkage)
Red colour with iodine
Stored in liver, muscle
Animal food reserve

2.Starch:
Blue colour with iodine
 AMYLOPECTIN
1,4/1,6 linkage
Branched
Insoluble in hot & cold water
Plant storage
Alpha glucose monomers

AMYLOSE
1,4 linkage
Soluble in hot water

3.Cellulose:
1,4 linkage
No colour with iodine
Most abundant in nature
Cell wall of plant cell
Beta glucose monomers

4.Chitin:
1,4 linkage
No colour with iodine
Fungi (cell wall)
Insects (exoskeleton)
Beta-acetyl glucosamine

PROTEINS
Carry out all activities of cell
Greek word Proteos means 1st Rank
Form of amino acids
Name suggested by Berzelius in 1838
Elements C,H,O,N
20 types of amino acids
Structure of amino acid containing one amino group,
carboxylic group and radical group linked to alpha
carbon.
If R=H Glycine
If R= CH3 Alanine
If R= CH2OH Serine

PRIMARY STRUCTURE
Peptide bond
Sequence of amino acids
Example: Insulin

SECONDARY STRUCTURE
Spirally coiled
Fibrous protein
Bond-Hydrogen/Peptide/Sulphide
Form alpha helix and beta pleated sheets
Example: Hairs, Spider’s web

TERTIARY STRUCTURE
Globular structure
Bond- Hydrogen, Ionic, Disulphide
Example: Lysozyme

QUATERNARY STRUCTURE
Large size molecule
2 or more polypeptide chains
Bond-Hydrogen, hydrophobic interaction, ionic & peptide
Example: Haemoglobin
Fibrous Protein:
Secondary structure
Insoluble
Non crystalline
Elastic
Examples: silk, keratin, fibrin, myosin & collagen

Globular Protein:
Tertiary structure
Soluble
Crystalline
Inelastic
Examples: hormones, enzymes, antibodies, Hb,
myoglobin & ovalbumin

LIPIDS
Hydrophobic and heterogeneous
Elements contain C,H,O
Energy double of carbohydrate
Insoluble in water
Soluble in ether, benzene & alcohol
Fatty acids (derivatives of carboxylic acid)
2C- Acetic acid
4C- Butyric acid
16C- Palmitic acid
18C- Oleic Acid
No. of carbon atoms directly proportional to melting
point and solubility.

SATURATED FATTY ACIDS

Fats (solid)
Greater energy than oils
Found in animals
Examples: acetic acid, butyric acid, palmitic acid & stearic
acid

UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS

Oils (liquid)
Less energy
Found in plants
Examples: oleic acid, linoleic acid

ACYLGLYCEROL
Abundant in living things
Rich in chemical energy
Triglycerides (neutral lipid)
Energy storage
Average fat per person, 16kg energy 144000 cal

WAXES
Highly hydrophobic
Water repellent
Long chains of alkanes
Protective coatings

PHOSPHOLIPID
Derivatives of phosphatidic acid
1 Glycerol
2 fatty acids
H3po4 at 3-C of glycerol
Cell membrane depends upon phospholipid
Most important class from a biological point of view.
Function: cell permeability, transport processes.
 TERPENOIDS
Polymers of isoprenoid units
Large and important class of lipids
Important classes of terpenoids are,
Rubber
Carotenoids
Steroids
Terpenes

Terpenes:
Used in perfumes
Example: myrcene (oil of bay), geraniol (rose), limonene
(lemon oil), menthol (peppermint oil)

Carotenoids:
Conjugated by double bonds carrying 6-membered
carbon ring at each end.
Pigment producing (red, orange, yellow, cream colours)
Responsible for oxidation & reduction reactions
Important carotenoids are carotene & xanthophyll

Steroids:
High molecular weight
Can be crystallised
17 carbons(3 rings of 6C & 1 ring of 5C)
17C ring called steroid nucleus
Found in membranes (cholesterol)
Most important steroid is cholesterol (maintains
membranes flexibility).
Precursor of number of steroid hormones
Sex hormones: testosterone (male sex hormone) and
estrogen/progesterone (female sex hormone)
 NUCLEIC ACID
Polymer of nucleotides
High molecular weight
One of the largest biomolecules
F.Miescher in 1869 discovered nucleic acid from pus cells.
Nucleotide contains pentose sugar, nitrogenous bases,
H3PO4.

Pentose sugar:
Ribose (C5H10O5) in RNA
Deoxyribose (C5H10O4) in DNA
Combines with nitrogenous base to form nucleoside

Nitrogenous bases:
2 types

1.Purine
double ring
Adenine & guanine
2.Pyrimidine
Single ring
Cytosine, thymine & uracil

H3PO4:
Common in all nucleotides
Attaches at carbon no 5 of sugar

MONONUCLEOTIDE
Example: ATP
ATP (adenine+ribose+3 phosphate)
ATP—-------ADP+Pi (free energy release 7.3 kcal mole
energy)
 DINUCLEOTIDE
Examples: NAD, FAD
NAD: vitamin constituent
FAD: coenzyme
Bind to enzyme
Vitamin B2

POLYNUCLEOTIDE
DNA and RNA
DNA:
Deoxyribose sugar (C5H10O4)
Nitrogenous base A,G,C,T
Double stranded
Genetic material

RNA:
Ribose sugar (C5H10O5)
Nitrogenous bases A,G,C,U
Single stranded
3 types mRNA, tRNA & rRNA

TYPES OF RNA
1.mRNA:
Variable length
3-4%
2.tRNA:
75-90 nucleotide
10-20%
3.rRNA:
Largest RNA
80%
 CONJUGATED MOLECULES
1.Glycolipid:
Carbohydrate+lipid
Called cerebrosides
Important constituent of brain
Glycocalyx formation
White matter formation

2.Glycoprotein:
Carbohydrate + protein
Glycocalyx formation
Hormones (egg albumin & gonadotropic hormone)
Transport proteins
Receptor, RBC antigen

3.Lipoprotein:
Lipid + protein
Membrane formation
Transportation of lipids
Lamellar lipoprotein system occurs in myelin sheath of
nerves.
Photoreceptive structures (chloroplast)

4.Nucleoprotein:
Nucleic acid + protein
Ribosomes (RNA + protein)
Chromosome (DNA + histone protein)
 CELL STRUCTURE AND
FUNCTION
CELL WALL
Non-living
Secreted by protoplasm
Outermost layer of plant, algae, bacterial & fungi cell
Absent in animal cell & mycoplasma
Differentiated into 3 layers

1.Primary wall:
Thin and elastic when young
True cell wall
Thick and rigid at maturity
Thickness 1.3um
Parenchyma cells
Contain hemicellulose (50%)
Cellulose (25%)
Pectin
Cellulose fibres arranged in criss cross manner.

2.Secondary wall:
Inner to primary wall
Non living
Rigid
Thickness 5-10 um
Contain cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, inorganic ions,
waxes & silica
Sclerenchyma cells
3.Middle Lamella:
Common layer between 2 cells
1st to be formed in dividing cells
Cementing material/sticky gel material
Contain Ca++, Mg++ salts, pectates
2 cells separate when middle lamella dissolve

Functions:
Mechanical support
Definite shape
Prevent from osmotic lysis
Apoplastic Pathway
Imbibition
Permeable

CELL MEMBRANE
Outermost membrane of animal & mycoplasma cell
Separates cytoplasm from external environment
Semi permeable
Proteins (60-80%)
Lipids (20-40%)
Carbohydrates rarely
Nucleic acid can never be part of plasma membrane

Lipid:
Phospholipid, most abundant in membrane
Amphipathic molecule
Head: associated with carbohydrates & protein, phosphate
group
Arranged in parallel lines
 Tails: Face each other in structure
Cholesterol/Sterol, 2nd abundant
50% lipids constitute of lipid
Absent in plant and bacterial cell
Present between phospholipids
Maintain fluidity

Proteins:
Globular/tertiary/functional
Cell membrane: Asymmetrical due to proteins
2 types of proteins:

1.Intrinsic:
Called integral protein
Completely or partially embedded in membrane
Functions: channel, carrier, gates, enzymes

2.Extrinsic:
Called peripheral
Not embedded in membrane
Exhibit a loose association with membrane surface
Glycoproteins (side chains)

Carbohydrates:
Oligosaccharide form
Not in pure form
Conjugated molecules
Glycolipids (outer surface of membrane)
Sphingolipids (neurolemma)

Fluid Mosaic Model:

Proposed by Singer Nicholson in 1972
Ocean/sea of lipids and the proteins are icebergs in it
 Most acceptable model
Differential membrane means lipid soluble molecules can
easily cross.

Functions:
Transportation (movement of molecules across
membrane)

Passive transport
No energy usage
From higher level to lower level (along gradient)
Called downhill movement
Examples: diffusion, facilitated diffusion & osmosis

Active Transport:
Energy usage
Lower to higher level (against gradient)
Uphill movement
Examples: endocytosis, exocytosis & pumping movement

CYTOPLASM
Fluid between cell membrane & nucleus
Living gel of cell

Two parts:

1.Endoplasm (sol):
Inner
90% water (cytosol)
Less viscous
Organelles reside
Cytoplasmic movement associated is Cyclosis.
2.Ectoplasm (gel):
Outer
Cytogel
More viscous

ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
Interconnected system of cisternae
Cisternae spherical/tubular shape
Elaborative tube like system of lipoproteins
Extends from nuclear envelope to plasma membrane

2 types of ER:

1.Smooth ER:
Agranular
No ribosomes on surface
Not connected with nuclear envelope
Less stable
Tubular/vesicular form
Functions: lipid metabolism, carbohydrates metabolism,
detoxification of harmful drugs, CA++ storage & release,
nerve impulse transmission, fat synthesis in adipose tissue

2.Rough ER:
Granular
Contains ribosomes on surface
Connected with nuclear envelope
More stable
Mainly in cisternal form
Functions: protein synthesis
Polymerization of amino acids
 RIBOSOME
Protein factories
Nonmembranous
Present in both eukaryotic & prokaryotic cell
Absent in RBC
In prokaryotic cell, dispersed in cytoplasm
Smallest organelle
Most vital cellular component
In eukaryotic cell 80s ribosomes
In prokaryotic cell 70s ribosomes
About 50 or more different protein formation

Free form ribosomes:

Cytoplasm
Protein synthesis
Used in cell

Attached ribosomes:
Rough endoplasmic reticulum
Protein synthesis
Exported protein

GOLGI COMPLEX
Post man of cell
Canalicular system with sacs
Has parallel arranged, flattened membrane bound vesicles
Lack ribosomes
Same morphology in animal & plant cell
Animals (3-4 cisternae)
Invertebrates (30 cisternae)
 Plants (more than 100 cisternae)
Also called dictyosomes in plants
Vesicles of SER fuses to form cisternae
Continuously depriving organelle
Glycosylation (addition of carbohydrates)
Conjugated molecules formation
There are 2 faces in golgi complex:

1.Forming face:
Also called convex face
Cis face
Outer face

2.Maturing face:
Also called concave face
Trans face
Inner face

Functions:
Cell secretion
Transportation of material
Cell wall formation
Abundantly found in secretory cells (glands)

LYSOSOMES
Called suicide sacs
Associated with breakdown
Different shape (polymorphic)
Present only in animal
Spherical
Few um diameter
Single membrane bound
 Originate from golgi apparatus
In phagocytic cells, increased number of lysosomes
Contain digestive enzymes
In plant cell, vacuole acts as lysosome
Absent in RBC
In bacteria, periplasmic space works as lysosome
Destroyers of foreign particles and worn out cellular
components
Primary lysosome (inactive)
Endosome+P⁰-lysosome = secondary lysosome
Autophagosome (eat own worn out organelle)
The body occasionally eliminates old cells or unwanted
cells at embryonic stage according to their genetic
information, in a process called Apoptosis.

Lysosomal storage diseases:

1.Tay-Sachs disease
Sphingolipids disease
Due to absence of beta hexosaminidase
Mental retardation
Blindness
Death at age of 3 years

2.Gaucher’s disease
Enlargement of liver & spleen
Erosion of long bones
Mental retardation

3.Krebbe’s disease
Loss of myelin
Mental retardation
Death by age of 2 years
 MITOCHONDRIA

Power house of cell

Most activated organelle
Rod/vesicle/spherical shape
0.2 to 1 um diameter
10um length
Double membrane bound organelle
Inner membrane (rough)
Outer membrane (smooth)
Contain 70s ribosomes
Contain circular DNA methylated like prokaryotes
Cristae (inner membrane)
Finger-like projections
Irregular incomplete partitions
Depend upon physiological conditions of cell
Krebs cycle (ATP formation)
ATP stored in mitochondria
Centre of aerobic respiration
In muscle, nerve and sperm cells number of mitochondria
increase
Absent in RBC/bacteria
Semi-autonomous organelle
Constant in motion
Division by binary fission

VACUOLE
In plant cell, larger
In animal cell, smaller
Prominent in mature cells
Less prominent in immature cells
 Membrane called tonoplast
Tonoplast is selectively permeable
In plants, act as lysosome (hydrolytic enzymes like
protease, ribonuclease, glycosidase)
In endocytosis, part of cell membrane (lost)
In exocytosis, part of cell membrane (add)

PLASTID
Double membrane organelle
2nd largest organelle
Larger than mitochondria
Variable in shape and structure
Present in large number in plants & protocists
Discoidal shape
4-6um diameter
Self-replicating organelle
Semi-autonomous
Origin proplastids

1.Chloroplast:
Green in colour
Present in leaves
Role in photosynthesis
Evolved from photosynthetic bacteria
Most common type of plastid
Double membrane (both smooth)
70s ribosomes
Circular DNA methylated
Single called thylakoid
Stack of thylakoids is called granum
Stroma (fluid outside thylakoid)
 Called ground substance
Role in Calvin cycle
Thylakoid/granum responsible for light reaction
Thylakoid membrane contains photosynthetic pigments
called photosystems (Quantasomes)
PS-I (700 nm)
PS-II (680 nm)
Association between 2 granum is called lamellae

2.Chromoplast:
Coloured bodies except green
Present in flower/fruit
Xanthophyll/Carotene
Role in pollination (attract insects)

3.Leucoplasts:
Storage bodies
Colourless
Present underground parts of plant
Divided into 3 categories:

1.Amyloplast (carbohydrate storage)

2.Elaioplast (lipid storage)
3.Aleuroplast (protein storage)

NUCLEUS
Greek word karton means central commander
Center of all main functions
Brain of cell
Discovered by Robert Brown in 1831 from orchid cell
Important and prominent part of cell
Spherical/oval shape
 Absent in prokaryotic cell
Absent in RBC
In animal cell, central position
In plant cell, peripheral position due to large vacuole
Self-replicating organelle

Number of nucleus:
RBC (no nucleus)
Epithelium (mononucleated)
Paramecium (binucleated)
Osteoclast (3-5 nuclei called multinucleated)

Shapes of nucleus:
Spherical (epithelial cells)
Ellipsoidal (muscle cells)
Lobular (basophils/neutrophils/esinophills)
Cell cycle- Interphase (nucleus appears)
M-phase (nuclear envelope disappears)
Nuclear envelope (double membrane)
Both membranes smooth

Nuclear pores:
Porin protein
In erythrocyte (3-5 pores per nucleus)
In egg cell (30,000 pores per nucleus)

Nucleoplasm:
Also called karyolymph
Protein rich substance
Chromatin material (thread-like structure) condenses to
form chromosome
No of chromosomes are fixed in specie:
Human cell - 46
Potato - 48
Corn - 20
Drosophila (fruit fly) - 8
Onion - 16
Garden pea - 14
Frog - 26
Pigeon - 80

Chromosome:
Visible during cell division
2 parts (arm+centromere)
Part of chromatids from centromere to end is called arm.

Chromosomes types, on the basis of their centromere

position:

1.Metacentric: equal arms

2.Submetacentric: unequal arms

3.Acrocentric/sub telocentric: one arm very small & other

very large. Centromere (sub-terminal)

4.Telocentric: centromere at end of chromosome

NERVOUS CO-ORDINATION
NERVOUS SYSTEM

Develop from Ectoderm layer

Excitable cells:
50%
Larger size cells
Neurons
Once mature don't divide

Non-Excitable cells:
50%
Smaller size cells
Neuroglial
Phagocytic function
Separation between neurons
Nourish,Protect & Support
Neuroglial cells types:
Astrocytes
Oligodendrocytic
Ependymal
Microglial
Components of Nervous System:
3 basic components
1.Receptors(Sensory neurons)
2.Neurons(CNS) processing/Analysis
3.Effectors(Motor neurons)

NEURONS

Excitable cells
Largest cell
Basic structural & functional unit of nervous
System
Dendrites: afferent extension
Cell membrane(Neurolemma):Covering
Cytoplasm(Neuroplasm):have
Mitochondria,Golgi apparatus,Nissel’s granules.
Also called soma.
Axon:constant diameter(few mm - 1 meter)
Node of Ranvier:conducting part
Schwann cells:Myelin sheath formation in PNS
1.Sensory Neuron:

Called Afferent neuron

Found in sensory organs such as the eyes,nose,skin,tongue
& ear.
Facilitate the movement of sensory impulses from
receptors to the central nervous System(CNS).

2.Motor Neuron:

Called Efferent neuron

Facilitate the transmission of motor impulses from the
central nervous system to effectors.

3.Interneuron:
Called Associative neuron
Act as a mediator between sensory neurons,motor neurons
& the central nervous system.

REFLEX ACTION

Examples: Human reflexes includethe familiar knee jerk &

pain withdrawal reflexes.
Pathway along which impulses are transmitted from a
receptor to an effector called reflex arc.
 NERVE IMPULSE

An electrical signal that depends on the flow of ions across

the membrane of a neuron.
Instrument used to measure nerve impulse is called an
oscilloscope.
Electrochemical change developed by neurons
Unidirectional/Irreversible.

Resting Membrane Potential(RMP):

Unequal distribution of ions
The potential difference the positive and negative charges
across the cell membrane are called the membrane
potential
Measured in millivolts
Has value of -70 millivolts
Negative sign is related to the inside excessive negative
ions.
If membrane potential becomes more negative than the
resting potential the membrane becomes hyperpolarized.
If the membrane becomes less negative than the resting
potential the membrane depolarizes.
Action Membrane Potential(AMP):
Temporary localised reversal of polarity.
Triggered when any stimulus is received by the neuron.
If a stimulus is capable of producing action potential in
neurons it is called threshold stimulus.
If stimulus is not capable of fails to arise any response,it is
called subthreshold stimulus.

Depolarization:

Makes membrane potential less negative.

Hyperpolarization:
Makes the membrane potential more negative.
Synapse:
Junction that controls communication between a neuron &
another cell.
The movement of impulse across the synapse is called a
synaptic transmission.
Presynaptic Neuron(Conduction of impulse) - Axon(Efferent
extension)
Gap or space between two neurons is called Synaptic cleft.
Postsynaptic Neurons(Receiving neuron)
Dendrites(Afferent endings)
Electrical synapse:involves direct cytoplasmic connections
formed by gap junctions between the presynaptic neuron &
postsynaptic neuron.
Chemical Synapse:a junction between two neurons where
information is transmitted from one neuron to the next
through the release of chemical messengers called
neurotransmitters.
Classification of Neurotransmitters
1.Excitatory Neurotransmitters:
Examples: Acetylcholine
Biogenic amines(Epinephrine & Norepinephrine)
2.Inhibitory Neurotransmitters:
Examples: GABA
Endorphins
Glycine

HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM

Consists of 2 divisions
1.Central Nervous System
2.Peripheral Nervous System

1.CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Consists of Brain and Spinal cord.

Human Brain:
Protected by Cranium/Skull
Meninges present(3 layers)
1.Durametter(outermost)
2.Arachnoid matter
3.Pia matter(innermost)
CSF present between Arachnoid & Pia matter
CSF prevent from bumps & jotts
Water 85%
Develop from Ectoderm
Approximately 1.4kg in weight
Fore Brain:
Largest & most obvious part
Divided into 2 regions:

1.Telencephalon:
Differentiated into two cerebral hemispheres or cerebrums
that communicates with each other by means of large band
of axon,the corpus callosum
Each hemisphere consists of an outer grey matter & inner
white matter.
Contains 10-50 billion neurons .
Information processing centre of the brain.
Control all conscious activities
Control centre for:
Sight
Smell
Taste
Speech
Hearing
Intelligence
Reasoning
Memory
Thinking
Learning
Dreams
Voluntary movement
2.Diencephlon:

Divided into 2 parts:

1.Thalamus:
Clearing house
Act as connector
Perception for pleasure & pain
2.Limbic System:
Divided into 3 parts:
1.Hypothalamus:
Ventral to thalamus
Control:
Homeostasis
Body temperature
Blood pressure
Hunger/Thirst
Aggression
Menstrual cycle
Sleep-wake cycle
Biorhythms
Pituitary gland
2.Amygdala:
2 Almond shaped paired structure
Functions:
Basic emotions
Sense of pleasure
Punishment
Sexual arousal
Love
Hate
Fear
Rage
3.Hippocampus:
2 horn like curves
Control long term memory
MidBrain:
Small part
Not quite developed
Control:
Relay centre
Control reflexes
HindBrain:
Developed 1st according to evolution
Divided into 3 parts:
1.Pons:
Located above Medulla
Control:
Rate & pattern movement
Muscle coordination
Facial expression
Breathing/Sleeping
2.Medulla Oblongata:
Reflex centre for:
Breathing
Heartbeat
Blood pressure
Coughing
Hiccup
Sneezing
Vomiting
Digestion
3.Cerebellum:
2nd large part of brain
Convoluted part
Precision in muscular coordination
Balance
Position of body
Ventricles:
4 in number
1st & 2nd between limbic system & cerebrum.
3rd between limbic system & thalamus.
4th present in Medulla.
Spinal Cord:
Protected by vertebral column
Meninges layers present
CSF present
Extends from medulla to Lumbar vertebrae
Inside spinal cord 2 zones
Inner zone is grey matter(H-shaped)
Outer zone is white matter

2.PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

Consists of paired cranial & spinal nerves and associated

ganglia.
1.Cranial Nerves:
12 pairs(24 nerves)
Sensory nerves (1,2,8)
Motor nerves(3,4,6,11,12)
Mixed nerves(5,7,9,10)
2.Spinal Nerves:
31 pairs(62 nerves)
Mixed Nerves(sensory+Motor)
Peripheral Nervous System is subdivided into 2 parts:
1.Somatic Nervous System:
Considered voluntary because it is subjected to conscious
control.
2.Autonomic Nervous System:
Control involuntary movements Consists of 2 subdivisions:

1. Parasympathetic Nervous System:

Normal conditions/systems
Examples:
Eyes - constrict
Salivary glands - increase saliva production
Heart - Normal/72 beat per minute
Lungs - Constrict bronchi
Stomach - Peristalsis increase
Liver - Bile juice increase
Bladder - Contract

2. Sympathetic Nervous System:

Emergency conditions
Examples:
Eyes - dilate
Salivary glands - decrease saliva production
Heart - increase heartbeat
Lungs - dilate bronchi
Stomach - Peristalsis decrease
Liver - Bile juice decrease
Bladder - Inhabit contraction
 RECEPTORS

Called transducers
Sensor of body
Detect stimulus
Act as receptor:
Modified neurons
Epithelial cells
Group of other cell types(Like Rods &Cone)
Organs
Classification on the basis of location:
Exteroreceptors:
Outside body stimulus detection
Examples:
Light(Eye)
Sound(Ear)
Smell(Nose)
Exteroreceptors:
Inside body stimulus detection
Examples:
Heart attack
Appendix
Classification on the basis of type of energy they detect:
Thermoreceptors:
detect change in temperature
Chemoreceptors:
detect chemicals/ions
Examples:CO2 by Medulla
02 by Carotid body
Smell(Olfaction)
Taste(Gustation)
Mechanoreceptors:
Detect mechanical change
Examples: Hearing/Equilibrium - Ear
Touch - Meissner's corpuscle
Pressure - Pacinian corpuscle(Baroreceptors)
Vibrations - Proprio-receptor
Photoreceptors:
Detect light
Nocireceptors:
Called pain receptors
Detect tissue damage

NERVOUS DISORDERS
1.Parkinson’s Disease:
Degeneration/damage to nerve tissue in basal ganglia.
Onset disease of 50’s or 60’s
2.Alzheimer’s disease:
Genetic predisposition/Aluminum level increase in body
3.Epilepsy:
Recurrent seizures,generalised/partial
Temporary alterations
Transient neurological changes in grey matter of brain
 CHEMICAL CO-ORDINATION
TERMS
Certain chemicals are involved in communications.
Which are neurotransmitters,Pheromones
& hormones.
Neurotransmitters:
Chemical messenger between neurons.
Pheromones:
Chemicals secreted by an organism in minute amounts to
stimulate particular reactions from another organism of the
same species.
Hormone(Gr.Hormon:Excite):
chemical messenger that is secreted by specialised tissues
called glands,that is transported in the bloodstream.
3 primary chemical categories of
Hormones are:
1.Peptide and Protein hormones
(short chain amino acid hormones and long chain amino acid
hormones.
Peptide hormones example ADH.
Protein hormones example Growth hormone & Insulin.
2.Amino acid derivate hormones example Epinephrine and
norepinephrine, melatonin.
3.Steroid hormones example Testosterone,Estrogen,
Progesterone, Aldosterone and cortisol.
Hormones may be categorised as:
hydrophilic (polar) or protein nature hormones
lipophilic (non-polar) steroid and thyroid hormones
 HYPOTHALAMUS
Part of the brain that contains clusters of specialised cells
called neurosecretory cells.
A set of neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus exerts
control over the anterior pituitary lobe by secreting 2 kinds of
hormones into the blood releasing hormones that make the
anterior pituitary lobe to secrete its hormones.
Inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus make the
anterior
the pituitary lobe stops secreting hormones.
Another set of neurosecretory cells produce 2 hormones:
ADH & Oxytocin which are stored and secreted from posterior
pituitary glands.
Releasing and inhibiting hormones of hypothalamus:
Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH)
Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH)
Gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH)
Growth hormone releasing hormone (GHRH)
Growth hormone inhibiting hormone (GHIH)
Prolactin inhibiting hormone (PIH)
Melanocyte inhibiting hormone (MIH)
 PITUITARY GLAND
Also known as hypophysis,is a pea sized gland.
Consists of 2 distinct lobes or parts
1.Adenohypophysis: appears glandular & also called anterior
pituitary lobe.
independent endocrine gland.
Produces at least 7 essential hormones.
Several hormones of anterior pituitary are collectively termed
as tropic hormones or tropin.
1.ACTH: Stimulates the adrenal cortex to produce
corticosteroids.
2.Melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH): Stimulates the
synthesis and dispersion of melanin pigment in the skin.
3.Growth hormone (GH) OR Somatotropic hormone (STH):
The growth of muscles, bone and other tissues.
4.Prolactin: Stimulate the mammary glands to produce milk.
5.Thyroid Stimulating hormone(TSH): Stimulates thyroid
gland to produce thyroxine.
6.Luteinizing hormone (LH): Stimulates gonads
(testes/ovaries) for production of steroid hormone estrogen
and proges‐ terone from ovaries and testosterone from testes.
7.Follicle stimulating hormone(FSH): Stimulate
development of ovarian follicles in females.
In males it is required for the development of sperm.
FSH and LH are called gonadotropins
(GnTH) because they stimulate the activities of the male and
female gonads.
 2.Neurohypophysis: appears fibrous & also called posterior
pituitary lobe.
The hormones released from here are actually stored
secretions of hypothalamus,ADH & Oxytocin.
ADH literally means hormone
that prevents urination helps
prevent dehydration.
Oxytocin has 2 physiological effects;it stimulates uterine
contractions during labour.
Stimulates breast tissue contractions to promote lactation
after childbirth.

THYROID GLAND
Located at the base of the neck in front of the tracheae.
Composed of 2 lobes & isthmus that binds them together.
Produce 3 major hormones:
T3
T4 or thyroxine
Calcitonin

Thyroxine contains 4 atoms of iodine, secreted in greater

amounts but is less potent than T3.
Thyroxine release is stimulated by TSH from anterior
pituitary,which in turn is stimulated by releasing hormone
from hypothalamus TRH.
Excessive secretion of thyroid hormone known as
Hypothyroidism.
Children born with hypothyroidism are stunted in their
growth and suffer severe intellectual disability,a condition
called Cretinism.
Shortage of thyroid hormones is an enlargement of thyroid
called Goitre.
 PARATHYROID GLAND
4 small glands attached to the back of thyroid gland.
Hormone produced by parathyroid is a peptide hormone
called parathormone or parathyroid hormone.

PANCREAS
Located adjacent to the stomach.
Performs both endocrine and exocrine functions.
Endocrine cells make up only 2% of the weight of the
pancreas,rest of the organ is exocrine tissue.
In 1869,a German medical student named Paul Langerhans
described some unusual clusters of cells scattered
throughout the pancreas,these clusters came to be called
Islets of Langerhans.
Clusters of endocrine cells that secrete 2 hormones directly
into the circulatory system.
Each islet has a population of alpha cells,which secrete the
peptide hormone glucagon.
Population of beta cells which secrete the peptide hormone
insulin.
Insulin & Glucagon are antagonistic hormones that regulate
the concentration of glucose in the blood.
Defects in insulin production,release or reception by target
cells result in diabetes mellitus.
Diabetes mellitus: a condition in which blood glucose levels
are high and fluctuate wildly with sugar intake.
Diabetes type -1: autoimmune disorder i-e the immune
system attacks and destroys its own beta cells.
Diabetes type 2: Associated with genetic
history,obesity,stress,lack of exercise and old age.
 ADERNAL GLAND
Located just above each kidney.
Each adrenal gland is composed to:
an inner portion,the adrenal medulla
an outer portion the adrenal cortex
Adrenal medulla: produce 2 hormones:
1.Epinephrine (adrenaline)
2.Nor epinephrine (noradrenaline)
in response to stress.
Adrenal cortex : all hormones from it are steroids and
referred collectively as corticosteroids.
Many corticosteroids have been isolated from the adrenal
cortex,the 3 main types are:
1.glucocorticoids such as cortisol.
2.the mineralocorticoids such as aldosterone
3.Androgen
Over secretion of cortisol causes Cushing's syndrome
(Hypercortisolism).
Low secretions of adrenal cortex hormone cause Addison's
disease.
Aldosterone: helps to regulate mineral balance.
Androgen: sex hormone,similar to testosterone present in
both male & female bodies.
 GONADS
Produce and secrete 3 major categories of steroid hormones:
1.testosterone
2.estrogen
3.progesterone
All 3 types are found in both males and females but in
different proportions.
Testes: male gonads produce both sperm & male sex
hormones.
FSH stimulates Sertoli cells of testes to facilitate sperm
development.
LH stimulates Leydig cells of testes to release testosterone.
Ovaries: female gonads lying in the abdominal cavity produce
both egg & female sex hormones.
Ovaries secrete 2 lipophilic hormones:
1.estrogen
2.progesterone

FEEDBACK MECHANISM
Chemical coordination or most bodily functions are
regulated by a series of complex feedback mechanisms.
Positive feedback mechanism:
rare in the endocrine system.
Example,Oxytocin hormone regulated by a positive feedback
mechanism.
Negative feedback mechanism:
one way that endocrine system tries to keep homeostasis
(stability) in the body.
Example: control of blood sugar(glucose) by insulin.
 DIVERSITY AMONG
ANIMALS
INTRODUCTION
Breath/soul
Multicellular
Eukaryotic
Diploid
Heterotrophs(ingestive)
Life style(free living, sessile & parasite)
Size(microscopic to macroscopic)
3 germ layers
Endoderm/Mesoderm/Ectoderm
Diploblastic (2 layers) Endo&Ecto
Triploblastic(3 layers) Endo/Meso/Ecto
Ectoderm develops Nervous System & Integumentary system
Endoderm develops digestive & Glands
Symmetry(Overall shape of animal body)
Asymmetrical (example: Poriferan)
Radial symmetry (example: Cnidaria,Echinodermata)
Bilateral (rest of all phylums)
Fate of blastopore(opening mouth or anus)
Protostamata (1st mouth/Rest all phylums)
Deuterostomata (1st anus&2nd mouth/Echinodermata
&Chordata)
Coelom(Body cavity)
Acoelomate(examples: Porifera, Cnidaria & Platyhelminthes)
Pseudocoelomate(Nematodes)
Coelomates(Annelida to Chordata
 INVERTEBRATES PHYLUMS

Symmetr Body Digestio Respiratio

Features Cavity Habitat
y layers n n

Pinacode
Detristis
Porifera ❌ Spongoc
Aquatic
rm
80% ❌
oel Plankton (Diffusion)
Choanod
s
erm

Cnidaria
Radial Coelente
Aquatic
Diploblas
Sac type
❌
only ron tic Diffusion

Freshwa
Platyhel
minthes
Bilateral
Acoelom
ate
ter
Triploblas
tic
Sac type ❌
parasitic

Pseudoc Free
Aschelm
inthes
Bilateral oelomat living
Triploblas
tic
Tube like ❌
e parasitic

Aquatic
Triploblas Gills
Mollusca Bilateral Coelom Terrestri Tube like
tic Lungs
al

Aquatic
Annelida Bilateral Coelom
Terrestri
al
Triploblas
tic
Tube like ❌

Air
Trachea
Arthrop Aquatic Triploblas
Bilateral Coelom Tube like gills
oda Terrestri tic
Book lungs
al

Bilateral
Echinod
ermata
(Larval)
Radial
Coelom
Aquatic
(Marine)
Triploblas
tic
Tube like ❌
(Adult)
 INVERTEBRATES PHYLUMS

Nervous Circulati Reproducti

Features Excretion Larva Skeleton
System on on

Porifera ❌ Sensory
cells
Free
living
❌ Spicules
Sexual
Asexual

Diffused
Cnidaria ❌ nervous
Free
living
❌ Exoskelet
on
Sexual
Asexual
system

Regenerati
Platyhel
minthes
Protonep
hridia
CNS ❌ ❌ ❌ on
Asexual

Aschelm
inthes
Excretory
canal
CNS
papillae
❌ ❌ ❌ Separate
sexes

CNS Trochop
Open & Separate
Mollusca Nephridia 3 pair hore Shell
closed sexes
ganglia larva

Trochop Hydrosta Sexual

CNS
Annelida Nephridia hore Closed tic reproducti
Brain
larva skeleton on

CNS well Open Hydrosta

Arthrop Malpighia Larva Separate
develope circulatio tic
oda n tubules Nymph sex
d n skeleton

CNS Mesoder
Poorly
Echinod
ermata
❌ Poorly
develope
Bipinnar
ia
develope
mal
endoskel
Separate
sex
d
d eton
 INVERTEBRATES PHYLUMS

Features Examples Importance

Leucosolenia,euplectella,syc Washing
Porifera
on,sponges Bathing

Hydra
Importance Aurelia Coral formation
Actinia

Taenia solium,Fasicola
Platyhelminthes hepatica, Endoparasite
Dugenia

Aschelminthes Ascaris lumbricoides, Endoparasite

Snail
Mollusca Edible,Shell ornamental
Slug

Earthworm
Annelida Leech
Natural plough

Honeybee
Arthropoda Cockroach
Pollination useful

Regeneration link b/w

Echinodermata Star fish
invertebrates & vertebrates
 VERTEBRATES PHYLUMS

Features Pisces Amphibia Reptiles Aves Mammalia

Paleozoic Mesozoic
Jurassic
Intro&Habi Palaeozoic era 1st eraLand Cenozoic
eraArchaeo
tat eraAquatic vertebrate environme era
pteryx
land nt

Larva-
Respiratio Lungs(Spo Lungs(Para Lungs(Alve
Gills gillsAdult-
n ngy) bronchi) oli)
lungs

2 chamber 3 chamber 4 chamber 4 chamber 4 chamber

Circulatory
heartSingle heartDoubl heart Dou heart Right heart Left
system
circuit e circuit ble circuit aortic arch aortic arch

Locomotio Efficient Pentadactyl

Swimming Claws Wings
n claw limbs

Temperatu Poikilother Poikilother Poikilother Homeother Homeother

re m m m m m

Exoskeleto
n
Scales ❌ Scaly skin Feathers SkinNails

Digestive Variation in Gizzard (No Holozoic

Tube like Tube like
system stomach teeth) system

Internal & Internal & Internal & External)pin

Ear Internal ear
Middle ear middle ear middle ear na) 3 bones

Smooth,Mo
Dry scaly Streamlined Body with
Body Streamlined ist
skin body hairs
glandular

Egg
Cyclostoma,
Tailed With Snake Croc FlyingRunni laying Pouc
Types chondro,ost
out tail odile ng hedPlacent
eo
al

HagfishTrou FrogToadS LizardAllig Sparrow Cro RabbitRatH

Example
tShark alamander ator wParrot uman
 TYPES OF MAMMALIA

Pisces Amphibia Reptiles

Egg laying Pouched Placental

Maximum mammalian
Connecting links Marsupium
character

Reptiles& Mammals Mostly primitive mammals Modern mammals

Ex:Spiny any eatDuck

Opossum Kangaroo ManWhaleElephant
bilplatipus
 ENZYMES
INTRODUCTION
Term enzyme coined by W.Kuhne in 1878
1st enzyme Diastase from yeast by Payen and Peroz in
1833.
Biologically active molecules
Sufficient kinetic energy to overcome barrier is called
Energy of Activation.
Proteinous nature
Active site
Distinct shape
Distribution of charges
Complementary to substrate
There are 2 sites of active site:
1.Binding site(Attachment of substrate)
2.Catalytic site(Conversion of substrate to product)
Ribozyme(RNA)
Catalyse reactions involved in processing genetic
information to be used in cells.
Discovered by Thomas Cech & Sidney Altmanin 1980’s.

CO - FACTOR
Non proteinous
Divided into 2 groups(Organic & inorganic cofactor)
In organic, Prosthetic group & Coenzyme present
In inorganic, Only Activator
1.Prosthetic group:
Covalently/Permanently/strongly attached
Example: Harm group,cytochromes

2.Coenzyme:
Constitute 1% portion of the entire enzyme.
Non-covalently/Temporary/weakly attached.
Example: Vitamins,NAD,FAD etc

3.Activator:
Loosely attached(separate easily)
Example: Ca++, Fe++, Zn++, Cl- etc

PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES
Globular/Functional Proteins
Macromolecules/High Molecular weight
Produced in protoplasm
Biocatalyst
No effect on final product
React with both acidic & Basic solutions
Lowers activation energy
Enzyme reacts inside cell called Endoenzyme
Enzyme reacts outside cell called Exoenzyme
Group, Reaction & substrate specific
Sensitive against Temperature, pH & concentration of
substrate & enzyme
Requires aqueous medium
Remain chemically unchanged before, during & after
reactions
 MECHANISM OF ENZYME ACTION
1.Lock & Key Model:
Active site: Rigid/unchangeable & non flexible
Emil Fischer in 1898
Non-regulatory(Specific)
Example:Sucrase,Maltase,Urease,Lipase etc
Key(Enzyme)
Lock(Substrate)
Improved by Paul Folder & D.D woods.
Particular enzyme acts on a particular substrate.

2.Induced Fit Model:

Active site:Non rigid/Changeable & flexible
Koshland in 1959
Regulatory enzymes
Example:Hb(Haemoglobin)
Also called Hand glove model

Eular in 1932 proposed a conjugated enzyme,showing

complete activity called Holoenzyme.
Apoenzyme(Proteozyme)
Holoenzyme(Conjugated enzyme)

FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF ENZYME ACTION

1.Temperature:
Enzyme shows maximum activity at optimum
temperature
Every rise of 10⁰C Temperature,Rate of reaction double
Above/Below optimum temperature,rate of reaction
decreases.
Enzyme completely destroyed at 100⁰C
Lower temperature(Enzyme Inactive)
Optimum temperatures:
Human body - 37⁰C
Birds - 40⁰C
Thermophilic bacteria - 120⁰C
2.pH:
Act on narrow range
Slight change(Ionisation)
Extreme change(Denaturation)
Optimum pH
Pepsin (1.4)STB 2.0
Sucrase - 4.5
Enterokinase - 5.5
Salivary Amylase - 6.8
Catalase - 7.0
Chymotrypsin - 7-8
Pancreatic lipase 9.0
Arginase - 9.7

3.Concentration of substrate/enzyme:
S & E directly proportional certain maximum velocity
After optimum, further increase in substrate
concentration has no effect on rate of reaction.
Saturation(when all active sites of enzymes are occupied)
No further increase in enzymatic activity

INHIBITORS
S & E directly proportional certain maximum velocity
After optimum, further increase in substrate
concentration has no effect on rate of reaction.
Saturation(when all active sites of enzymes are occupied)
No further increase in enzymatic activity
Types of inhibitors:
1.Irreversible:
Attach & tightly bound
Covalent linkage
Substrate concentration increase, no effect
2.Reversible:
Loosely attached
Weak linkage
Substrate concentration increases,effect of inhibitor
neutralisation,so that active site available for substrate.

COMPETITIVE INHIBITOR
Both substrate and inhibitor compete
to reach active site
Examples: Enzyme, Succinic
dehydrogenase
Substrate, Succinic acid
Inhibitor, Malonic acid

NON - COMPETITIVE INHIBITOR

Act allosteric site(other than active site)
Can't act on active site
Change shape of enzyme
Example: ATP(Inhibitor)
Phosphofructokinase(Enzyme) in glycolysis
Effect of H20:
Aquatic medium necessary for normal functioning of enzyme
Radiation:
UV, Beta rays, X-rays effect shape of enzyme
Feedback Inhibition:
Enzyme activity regulation
If products increased, Inhibitor attach on active site and
inhibit further formation of product till used accumulated
products
Most enzymatic pathways regulated by Feedback Inhibition
 EVOLUTION
EVOLUTION
Evolution Latin word means unfolding.
Father Suarez(1548-1613):
was one of the advocates of Creationism.
Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778):
a Swedish Botanist
Wrote a number of books describing nature.
best known for his great scientific work on taxonomy.
George Buffon(1749-1788):
Was the first to implement the geological time scale.
Developed the idea that living
beings evolved constantly.

EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
Evidence from Biogeography:
distribution of different species on the earth.
Evidence from Paleontology:
extinct forms of life which are studied through fossils.
Example: Archaeopteryx
Archaeopteryx,a fossil bird being
discovered in 1861 in Bavaria, Germany.
Archaeopteryx lived around 150 million years ago.
Mixed features of birds as well
as reptiles.
Just like birds it has a beak,wings,a tail and body covered
with feathers.
Like reptiles,it showed teeth,fingers and claws in
forelimbs,vertebrae in tail and keel less sternum.
Evidence from Comparative anatomy (Homology),
organs similar in structure but differ in function are
termed as Homologous organs

Examples of homologous organs are:

Arm of man
flippers of dolphin
forelimb of a horse
Wings of bat
They differ in function as per requirements of the habitat
and other features. This termed as Divergent evolution
Organs with similar in function but differ in their
anatomical features known as Analogous organs

Examples of Analogous organs

like; wings of an insect, bat and birds both are involved in
flying however they have no anatomical resemblances.
Analogous organs show different ancestry. this termed as
convergent evolution.

Evidence from molecular biology,

example genetic code

EVOLUTION OF EUKARYOTES FROM PROKARYOTES

Prokaryotes may have arisen more than 1.5 billion years
ago.
Two different hypotheses regarding the evolution of
eukaryotic cells.
1.Membrane invagination theory
2.Endosymbiotic theory
Endosymbiotic theory was suggested by Lynn Margolis.
The endosymbiotic theory seems more powerful in
dealing with the evolution of Eukaryotes since both
mitochondria and chloroplast have following similar
features like prokaryotes:
 Circular DNA molecules
Ribosomes
Metabolism
Binary fission way of reproduction

LAMARCKISM
Jean Baptiste de Lamarck(1744-1829:
a French biologist
one of the proponents of the idea of evolution.
His theory is known as Lamarckism or Inheritance of
acquired characters.
He discussed his theory of evolution in his book
Philosophie Zoologique in French in 1809.
1.Use & disuse of the organs
2.Inheritance of Acquired Characters
Lamarck's theory of acquired characters was criticised
especially by August Weismann and Cuvier on its genetic
basis.
On the other hand Charles Lyell and August strongly.
supported & promoted the ideology of Lamarck.

DARWINISM
Charles Darwin (1809-1882):
an English biologist,a geologist and a naturalist.
Well known for his contribution to evolution.
He was much interested in studying nature and got
admitted to the Christ College Cambridge in 1828.
In 1831,he decided to go on a five year trip on a ship H.M.S
Beagle heading towards South America.
His voyage on HMS Beagle started in December 1831 from
Plymouth, England.
During his studies, Darwin collected a variety of bird
specimens, particularly finches of the Galapagos Island.
 Even though Darwin's journey ended in 1836,he felt
himself in an uncomfortable position to put forward his
theory of evolution until 1842.
Darwin's theory of evolution is based upon following 2
key points:
1. Descent with modification
2. Natural selection and adaptation

ROLE OF SCIENTISTS IN EVOLUTION

Charles Lyell:
Great geologist of his time.
His theory of uniformitarianism inspired Darwin.
Lyell was a friend of Captain RobertFitzRoy who piloted
the HMS beagle when Darwin sailed to the Galapagos
islands and South America.
FitzRoy introduced Darwin to Lyell's ideas and Darwin
studied the geological theories as they sailed

James Hutton:
Famous geologist by whom Darwin was inspired.
Actual idea of fossilisation was put forward by Hutton
before Lyell.

Thomas R.Malthus:
an Economist and one of the persons who fascinated
Darwin with his theory on Human population.
Alfred Russell Wallace:
contemporaries of Charles Darwin.
He collaborated with Darwin on the theory of evolution.
The 2 pooled their data to present the idea jointly to the
Linnaean Society of London in 1858.
Wallace was the person who motivated Darwin to publish
the book "On the Origin of Species" in 1859.
 NEO DARWINISM
Darwin's theory of Natural selection was out forwarded
in1859.
The same time when Gregor John Mendel was
formulating his Laws of inheritance during 1856-63 which
remained neglected about 3 decades until rediscovered at
the turn of 20th century.
Population Genetics: Branch of biology that deals with
the process of origin of variations and their inheritance

HARDY - WEINBERG THEOREM

It is the principle being proposed collectively in 1908 by an
English mathematician,Godfrey Hardy & a German
Physician,Wilhelm Weinberg.
To demonstrate mathematically the gene frequencies of
different alleles in a given population.
Hardy-Weinberg Equation,
p²+2pq+q²=1

Factors affecting Hardy-Weinberg Theorem:

1.Mutation
2.Selection
3.Non-random mating
4.Gene flow

GENETIC DRIFT
Biological process of formation of new species of living
organisms.
Different ways for speciation
process, Viz.
Sympatric speciation
Allopatric speciation
Peripatric speciation
Parapatric speciation
 NUTRITION
TERMS

A living cell needs a supply of food to perform its various

biological functions.
The nutrients are essentially required by the protoplasm
to perform its different biological functions.
Holozoic (Gr.Holo = Whole ,zoikos = of animals)

Holozoic nutrition consists of:

Ingestion: taking in food into the cell and body.

Digestion: It is a process of breaking down complex or

non-diffusible food into simple or diffusible molecules.

Absorption: The soluble molecules of food are absorbed

by the digestive membranes.

Assimilation: The process of utilization of absorbed

molecules during the metabolic process of a cell is called
assimilation.

Egestion: The process of removal of undigested food from

the cell/body is called egestion.

Intracellular digestion: The process of digestion that

takes place inside the cell is called intracellular digestion.
 Extracellular digestion: the process of digestion takes
place outside of the cell in their gut. The enzymes are
released from the secretory cell into the gut where food is
being digested and converted into simple food.

Chemical digestion: The digestion occurs due to enzymes.

Mechanical digestion: The digestion occurs due to the

physical breakdown (such as mastication, churning etc).

Tube-like digestive system:

Animals have two openings in their digestive tract.

Sac-like digestive system:

Animals have single openings.

HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Gastro-intestinal tract (G.I.T) with two openings, mouth
and anus.
It begins with the mouth and terminates on anus.
The human digestive system consists of digestive tract
and accessory glands.

The human digestive system consists of:

Mouth
Oral cavity (buccal cavity)
Pharynx
Esophagus
Stomach
Small intestine
Large intestine
Anus
The gland associated with this are:
Salivary gland
Liver
Pancreas

The Mouth:
It is the anterior opening of the alimentary canal.
Bounded by two fleshy lips, termed as upper and lower
lips, respectively.
It is meant for ingestion of food.

Oral cavity:
The mouth opens into a wide space called the oral cavity.
It consists of:
tongue
hard plate
soft plate
jaws (which are lined with teeth)
teeth are meant for mechanical digestion in the oral
cavity.

Teeth:
Initially, we have deciduous or milk teeth (20).
They are later replaced by permanent teeth.
Among the 32 permanent teeth there are:
8 incisors
4 canines
8 premolar
12 molar

Tongue:
It is a muscular organ.
Its upper surface has numerous projections or papillae
containing nerve endings for sense of taste.
 The under surface of the tongue has a fold of mucous
membrane called frenulum.

Salivary Gland:
There are three pairs of salivary gland.
They secrete the saliva which contains salivary amylase.

Pharynx:
It is a common opening which is a pathway for both food
and air.

Esophagus:
This tubular structure leads the bolus from pharynx to the
stomach.
It is part of the digestive system where no digestion
occurs.

Stomach:
It is a ( J ) shaped organ.
Opens from cardiac sphincter.
Close to the pyloric sphincter.
It is the main part of the digestive system where the
processes of mechanical and chemical digestion occur.

It has 4 parts:
1. The cardia
2. Fundus
3. Corpus (body)
4. Pylorus
The end product of the stomach is chyme.
Here mainly protein is digested due to the presence of
pepsin.
Small intestine:
A long, coiled tube, the small intestine.

It has three regions:

Duodenum
Jejunum
Ileum

Duodenum:
It is the region where bile and pancreatic juice enter and
break down the chyme into simple molecules.
Here is hormone secretin which acts upon pancreas to
secrete water and bicarbonate which decreases the pH.

Pancreatic juice contains enzymes which convert:

Protein into polypeptides
Emulsified lipid into fatty acid and glycerol.

Jejunum:
It is a part after the duodenum which secretes:
maltase (to digest maltose)
sucrase (to digest sucrose)
lactase (to digest lactose)
peptidase (to digest peptides)

ileum:
It is part of the small intestine.
where absorption of vitamin B12, bile salts and any product
of digestion occurs.

Large intestine:
It is the last segment of the human digestive tract.
Its main function is reabsorption of water and nutrients.
Large intestine is divided into following parts:
Caecum
Colon
Rectum
Anal canal

Caecum:
It is a junction of the small intestine and large intestine.
It performs the function of reabsorption of water and salt.

Colon:
The next region after caecum is colon. Its main function is
reabsorption of water, salt and vitamins.
It consists of:
ascending colon
transverse colon
descending colon
sigmoid colon

Rectum:
The sigmoid colon opens into rectum.
It is about 13 cm long and terminates at anal canal.

ROLE OF ACCESSORY GLANDS

The accessory glands are those exocrine glands which
upon appropriate stimulation secrete their secretions
(juice) into the alimentary canal through specific ducts.

The accessory glands consist of:

Salivary glands
Liver
Pancreas
Salivary gland:
It has three pairs of salivary glands which secrete the salivary
amylase.

Liver:
It is the largest gland in our body.
It is present in the upper part of the abdominal cavity.
The main function of the liver is to supply oxygenated
blood while the other one is hepatic portal vein which
brings nutrient rich blood from various regions.
It also secretes the bile and performs metabolism and
homeostasis.
It also synthesises plasma protein, and waste is carried
out by phagocytic kupffer cells.

Pancreas:
It lies behind the stomach in a horizontal line along the
curve of duodenum.
As an exocrine gland, the pancreas secretes pancreatic
juice containing enzymes that digest carbohydrates,
proteins, and fats.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM DISORDERS

1.Ulcer:
Sore (a painful wound) which can be developed anywhere
in the body.

2.Food poisoning:
Caused by taking contaminated, spoilt or toxic food.

3.Dyspepsia:
Known as indigestion. Refers to the discomfort or pain that
occurs in the upper abdomen followed by eating or
drinking.
4.Obesity:
Accumulation of excessive body fats.

5.Anorexia nervosa:
Psychological disorder in which the person has fear of
gaining weight so refuses to eat appropriately.

6.Bulimia nervosa:
Psychological disorder of gaining excessive body weight.
 GASEOUS EXCHANGE
NEED OF GASEOUS EXCHANGE

Necessary for different processes & for every little bit of

activity we need energy.

Cellular Respiration:
Biochemical reaction
Breakdown of glucose & release of energy in the form of
ATP.

Organismic Respiration:
Mechanical reaction
Breathing/ventilation
No energy production

GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN AIR & WATER

Air:
Moves freely
Easily diffuse
Better medium

Water:
Denser than air
Slow diffuse
 GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN PLANTS
Have simple organ system
Xylem/phloem (vascular plants)
Aerial parts (leaves)
Leaf air space 40%

Mediums of plant:
Stomata (leaves)
Lenticels (stems)

PHOTORESPIRATION & CONSEQUENCES

Light dependent reaction
Reverse of Calvin cycle
Metabolic process
Occur in C3 plants (wheat, rice, sugarcane etc)
Useless, wasteful process
Production of CO2
Utilisation of O2
No ATP Produced
At hot & dry time

PROPERTIES OF RESPIRATORY SURFACE

These surfaces can act as respiratory surface:
Skin
Tracheae
Gills
Lungs
Permeable allow transportation - diffusion
Large surface area in relation to volume
 Wet and moist
Thin (1mm or less)
Blood capillaries greater
Good ventilation mechanism

HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

Upper Respiratory Tract:

Nose
Pharynx
Larynx

Lower Respiratory Tract:

Tracheae
Bronchi
Lungs

Nose:
Visible part
Bone (ethmoid)
Hyaline cartilage
Fibro-fatty tissue (supportive role)
Hairs (nasal)
Mucus membrane
Ciliated epithelium

Pharynx:
Cone shaped
Connecting nasal cavities to larynx
Oral cavity to oesophagus
 Nasopharynx
Oropharynx
Laryngopharynx
Mucus membrane
Common passage of digestive & respiratory system
7 openings
Channelize air

Larynx:
Sound box
Passageway for air
Cartilage & muscles
Glottis (opening) & epiglottis (covering)
Vocal cords
Voice production

Tracheae:
15-22 c-shaped rings (cartilage)
Ciliated epithelium
Mucus cells/goblet cells
Air passageway
Filtration
Moistening of air

Bronchi:
C-shaped cartilage
Ciliated epithelium
Mucus cells
Air passageway
Filtration
Moistening
Bronchioles:
Diameter 1mm less
Ciliated cuboidal epithelium
No cartilage
Mucus cells
Air passageway
Filtration
Moistening

Alveoli:
0.1 um thickness
Squamous epithelium
Structural unit of lungs
Cells of alveoli called pneumocyte
Pneumocyte-1 (90%)
Responsible for gaseous exchange
Pneumocyte-2 (10%)
Surfactant production

Lungs:
Spongy nature
Located thoracic cavity
Pleural membrane
Pleural fluid
2 lungs
Right lung (3 lobes)
Left lung (2 lobes)
 MECHANISM OF BREATHING
Inspiration & expiration
700 million alveoli

Inspiration:
Active process
Intercostal muscle contraction
Ribcage upward
Sternum pushed away from vertebral column
Diaphragm contract
Volume of thorax increased
Pleural cavity enlarged
Pressure of lungs decrease
Air movement rush inside lungs
Lungs dilate or expand

Expiration:
Passive process
Intercostal muscle relaxation
Ribcage downward
Sternum comes back to original position
Diaphragm relaxation
Volume of Thorax decreased
Pleural cavity reduced
Pressure of lungs increased
Air movement expelled outside lungs
Lungs contract

Control of breathing:
Voluntary control by cerebral cortex
Involuntary control by medulla oblongata
 Normal breathing rate 15-30x/min
During exercise 30x/minute

Transport of Respiratory Gases:

Air contains:
78-79% N2
21% 02
0.03 to 0.04% CO2

Lung capacities & volume:

Lungs capacities 5 litres
Tidal volume 500ml
Residual volume 1 litre

ROLE OF RESPIRATORY PIGMENTS

Haemoglobin:
RBC/ blood stream
4 polypeptide chain
Quaternary structure
574 amino acids

Myoglobin:
Muscle cells (myocytes)
Single polypeptide chain
Tertiary structure
153 amino acids
 RESPIRATORY DISORDERS

1.Lung Cancer:
Uncontrolled division of cells in pulmonary cells.

2.Emphysema:
Degenerative disease
Damage to alveoli

3.Asthma:
Severe paroxysm of difficult breathing, usually followed by
a period of complete relief.

4.Tuberculosis:
Contagious disease
Chronic bacterial infection of lungs
Invade alveoli phagosome replicate
Alveoli bursts & replaced by inelastic connective tissues.

5.Pneumonia:
Serious disorder of lower respiratory tract
 TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT IN PLANTS
Exchange of material.
Nutrients carry and waste material remove.

Passive Transport
Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high
concentration to low concentration.
Ex: 1.Dissolving KMno4 in solution
2.Spray of perfume in a room

Facilitated Diffusion: Movement of molecules from higher

concentration to lower concentration with the help of a
carrier.
Ex: Charged particles, larger molecule, glucose

Osmosis: the movement of water in/out of the plasma

membrane.
If inside (endosmosis)
If outside (exosmosis)

Active Transport
Endocytosis: Movement of material inside the cell.
If material liquid (Pinocytosis)
If material Solid (Phagocytosis)

Exocytosis: Movement of material outside of the cell.

Ex: Pumping movement (Na+/K+ pump)
Utilisation of ATP
 TRANSPORT TYPES IN PLANTS

1.Material: Water, gases & solutes.

2.Loading & Unloading of food:

Short distance
Photosynthetic cells to serve tube cells.

3.Water+Dissolved minerals + Food:

Long distance transportation

UPTAKE & TRANSFER OF MINERALS & WATER

Roots – root hairs (enhanced surface area of roots)

CO2 from atmosphere
H20 from soil reservoirs
Prosopis (leguminous family) depth of roots 50 metres.

IMBIBITION
Adsorption of water & swelling up of hydrophilic substances.

Hydrophilic substances:
Starch
Gums
Protoplasm
Cellulose
Proteins
 WATER POTENTIAL
Quantitative expression of the free energy associated with
the water.
Ability of water to perform work.
Pure water = water potential 0
Solution= Water potential negative

OSMOTIC PRESSURE

Measurement of tendency of water to move by osmosis.

OSMOTIC POTENTIAL
Tendency of solute molecules to attract water molecules.
Always negative

PRESSURE POTENTIAL

Pressure exerted by the protoplast against the cell wall.

Always positive.

PLASMOLYSIS
Exosmosis
Shrinkage of protoplast
 DEPLASMOLYSIS
Endosmosis
Turgidity of protoplast

UPTAKE OF WATER BY ROOTS

Soil reservoirs of water
Osmosis

WATER PATHWAYS

Apoplastic Pathway:
Movement of water molecules via help of cell wall.

Symplast Pathway:
Movement of water molecules via help of interconnected
protoplasts or via help of plasmodesmata.

Vacuolar Pathway:
Movement of water molecules via the help of vacuoles of
neighbouring cells.

ASCENT OF SAP
Upward movement of solution
Upward movement of water from absorptive surface
(roots) to transpiring surfaces (leaves) against downward
pull of gravity.
Xylem Fibres:
Dead but narrow cells
Highly elongated cells
Highly thick walled cells
Tapering ends
Mainly for mechanical support

Xylem Parenchyma:
Only living cells
Thin walled cells
Broader cells
Temporary storage for water and minerals

MECHANISM OF ASCENT OF SAP

Theories:
1.Root Pressure theory
2.Imbibition
3.Tact theory/Cohesion-Adhesion Theory

Root Pressure Theory:

Stephen Hales - 1727
This force raises water up to 6.4 metre of height.
Pressure developed at a certain period of year.
Day time- least effective
Night time - effective
Positive hydrostatic pressure (100-200kPa)
Guttation: excess water is removed through hydathodes in
liquid form.
Ex (show guttation) : grass leaves, strawberry, rose etc
Cohesion-Adhesion Theory:
Proposed by Dixon
Flow - Bulk flow/mass flow
Cohesion: Force of attraction between water molecules.
Due to hydrogen bonding.
Adhesion: Force of attraction between water and xylem
walls.
Tension: Because of hydrogen bonding. Pull water up to
200 metres.

Transpirational pull: move upward

8 metres/hours

Transpirational water:
99% of it evaporated.
Only 1 % utilised by processes like photosynthesis.

Imbibition:
Sachs 1874
Due to cell wall pressure (apoplastic pathway)

Bleeding:
Plant - (cut, pruned, tapped)
Bleeding (fluid out)
Seen in spring season
Plants like palms, grapes, wine, sugar maple
 TRANSPIRATION & ITS TYPES

Loss of water in vapour form through aerial parts (leaves).

99% evaporation causes cooling (thermoregulation).
1% used in different processes of photosynthesis.

1.Cuticular Transpiration:
5-7% of transpiration
Specially occurs at night time

2.Lenticular Transpiration:
1-2% of transpiration
Strong light & high temperature conditions increase water
loss from lenticels.

3.Stomatal Transpiration:
90% of transpiration
Through stomata (combination of guard cells)

TRANSPORT IN ANIMALS
Heart:
pumping organ
Double pump, conical shape
Size of fist (300g-350g)
Reddish in colour
Most powerful organ of circulatory system
Hollow organ, fibro muscular organ (myogenic heart)
Gr: (cardia=cardiac)
Thoracic cavity (slightly left side)
Base of heart (both atria)
Apex of heart (left ventricle)
Pericardium (double layer structure)
Pericardial fluid (prevent heart from over extension)
4 chambers
Thin walled (atria)
Thick walled (ventricle)
3 Layers
Epicardium (outermost)
Myocardial (middle)
Endocardium (innermost)
Cardiac muscles (branched cells)
Atria separated by interatrial septum
Ventricle separated by interventricular septum
Atria and ventricle separated by aterio ventricle septum

VALVES

Tricuspid
Bicuspid
Semilunar

HEART SOUND (LUB & DUB)

Observed by stethoscope

Inlet valves: Tricuspid valves & bicuspid valves closure

causes lub sound.

Outlet valves: Semilunar valves and aortic valves closure

causes dub sound.
 HEART DOUBLE PUMP
Pulmonary circulation:
Heart to lungs to heart

Systemic Circulation:
Left atria to left ventricle to aorta to body to vena cava to
heart

Pulmonary veins: carry oxygenated blood

Pulmonary arteries: carry deoxygenated blood.

CARDIAC CYCLE

One life (heart beat)

Myogenic heart
Heart beat (72 /mins)
1 cycle (0.8second)
Heart muscles take rest (0.1-0.3sec)
Diastole phase (relaxation phase)
Systole phase (contraction phase)

CARDIAC OUTPUT:
Volume of blood pumped per minute by the left ventricle
into the systemic circuit.

Stroke volume: volume of blood leaving the left ventricle.

Cardiac output =stroke volume × heart rate
 MECHANISM OF HEART EXCITATION & CONTROL
S. A node to A. V node to bundle of His to purkinje fibre to
lateral side of right atria
S. A node: natural pacemaker
AV node: second pacemaker
S. A node activity (arterial contraction begins)
Delay at AV node (0.15)
Arterial contraction (completed)
Ventricular contraction/systole (after completion of
impulse)
Purkinje fibres: discovered by J. E purkinje in 1839

ARTIFICIAL PACEMAKER

Not automatic
Due to SA node (natural pacemaker)
Dysfunctional, arrhythmia, blockage
Plant the artificial pacemaker

CYANOSIS (BLUE BABIES)

blueness on lips and nail
ASD (atrial septal defect)
VSD (ventricular septal defect)
 BLOOD VESSEL
Angio-genesis (formation of new vessel)
Tubes carry blood
Arteries carry deoxygenated blood except pulmonary
arteries, umbilical arteries.
Veins carry oxygenated blood except pulmonary veins and
umbilical veins.
Aortic diameter (23mm)
Arteriole diameter (0.2mm)
Capillaries (7-10 um)

Aorta to arteries to arteriole

Thick walled and away from heart

Venules to veins to vena cava

Thin walled and toward heart

Capillary:
Basement membranes
Endothelial cell
Function to exchange the material

CARDIOVASCULAR DISORDERS
Associated with circulatory system.

Atherosclerosis:
Artery wall hard because of deposition of fatty material
(cholesterol/LDL).
Thrombus:
Blood clot in vessel (localised fixed).

Hypertension:
Main arterial pressure is in greater upper range.

Haemorrhage:
Escape of blood from vessel.

Myocardial infarctions:
Cell death of heart muscle layer.

Stroke:
Brain cell death is called stroke.

LYMPHATIC SYSTEM
Lymph:
Plasma-like/colourless
CSF acts as lymph in CNS

Spleen:
Just beneath diaphragm
Upper left abdominal cavity
Largest lymphoid tissue
Detects foreign substance & moves them out
Destroys worn out RBCs

Thymus Gland:
WBC (Agranular)
Lymphocytes (B,T)
Monocytes convert to macrophages
No RBC
Small proteins
Interstitial Fluid:
Fluid between spaces of blood capillaries & lymph vessels.
30 litres of fluid pass from blood capillaries to lymph
vessels.
3 litres part of lymph vessel
27 litres flow back to blood capillaries
1/6th of body spaces called interstitium.
Lymph maintain circulation in the body.

Lymph Vessels:
Afferent vessel: Move towards lymph node. Always more
than 1.
Efferent vessel: Move away from lymph node. Always 1
Capillary (lacteals)
Thoracic duct: largest vessel of lymph vessels

Lymph Node:
Round/oval/bean shaped
More than 100 lymph nodes
None in nervous system
Functions: Filtration, drainage system, lymphocytes (B,T),
absorption of fats

Lacteals:
Present in villi
Lack basement membrane
Larger size molecule filters
 IMMUNITY

Response of body to detect pathogen

Pathogen (bacteria/virus/foreign substance)
Auto immunity

Lines of defence

1st Line of Defence:

Physical barrier
Skin, mucus membrane

2nd line of defence:

Macrophages/NK cells

3rd line of defence:

Immune system
More specific
B-Lymphocytes (humoral)
T-Lymphocytes (cell mediated)
 PROKARYOTES
INTRODUCTION

Archaebacteria:
Ancient bacteria
Extremophile (extreme conditions)
Thermophile
Acidophile
Halophile

Eubacteria:
True bacteria
Normophile (normal conditions)
Pseudomonas
E.coli

SHAPES

1.Cocci (spherical)
gr: kolkos = berry, rounded
Non flagellated
According to mode of divisions/cell arrangements:

Monococcus:
single bacteria
Diplococcus:
2 or paired bacteria
Tetrad:
4 cocui, 2D
 Sarcina:
Cube of 8, 3D
Streptococcus:
Chains
Staphylococcus:
Bunch of grapes, random appearance

2.Bacilli (l:bakulus=rod shape)

May be flagellated

Mono Bacillus:
Single bacillus
Diplo bacillus:
2 or pair
Streptobacillus:
Chain-like bacillus

3.Spiral (spirilla):(gr:spiera=a coil)

Corkscrew shape

4.Vibrio:
Comma shape

5.Pleomorphic:
Changeable shape

SIZE OF BACTERIA
Range (0.1-600um)
Breath (0.2 to 2um)
Length (2 to 10 um)
 BACTERIA CELL STRUCTURE

Essential:
Cell membranes
Cytoplasm
Ribosomes
Nuclear material

Mostly found: cell wall made of peptidoglycan, murein

Rarely: slime, capsule, flagella, pilli,
Cell membrane: biologically active, mesosomes, lack
cholesterol.
Cytoplasm: gel-like, intracellular support
Ribosomes: 70s, amembranous, protein synthesis
Nuclear material: DNA, nucleoid, chromatin material
Flagella: long, helical, non-hollow structure, pillin protein

SPORES
Exospore: outside of cell
Endospore: inside the cell
Cyst: outer protective resistive layer. Heat sensitive, resistant
to dessication.

CLASSIFICATION (ON BASIS OF CELL WALL)

Gram positive bacteria: it has thick cell wall with high
peptidoglycans.
Gram negative bacteria: it has thin cell wall with low
peptidoglycans.
 CLASSIFICATION (ON BASIS OF FLAGELLA)
Atrichous: bacteria with no flagella
Monotrichous: bacteria with single flagella
Lophotrichous: flagella on single side of bacteria
Amphitrichous: flagella on both sides of bacteria
Peritrichous: flagella around the bacteria

IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA (ECOLOGICAL)

Recyclers
Bioremediation
Fertility

IMPORTANCE OF BACTERIA (ECONOMICAL)

Research
Genetic engineering
Mining
Organic molecules
Biodegradable
Water treatment

CONTROL OF BACTERIA

PHYSICAL CONTROL:
Heat
Moist heat
Dry heat
 Radiation
Membrane filter
Dehydration

CHEMICAL CONTROL:
Antiseptic
Disinfectants
Antibiotics
 REPRODUCTION
TERMS

The older ones are called parents.

The newly formed are called progeny.
Process by which living things produce more of their own
kind is called reproduction.

Asexual reproduction requires only one parent.

Sexual reproduction requires two parents.
Human beings are unisexual or dioecious or
heterophrodite.

Male reproductive system generates and delivers sperm

to the female reproductive system.
Female Reproductive system produces and prepares
eggs for fertilisation and provide support for fetal
development during pregnancy.

MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Consists of internal and external genitalia.

Internal genitalia includes:

The paired gonads (organs that produce sex cells)
The testes (singular;testis) where sperms are produced,
and accessory structures that store the sperm (produce
secretions that activate and nourish them).
External genitalia includes:
The penis and scrotum
The scrotum maintains the testes at around 34C⁰, slightly
lower than the body temperature 37C⁰.

3 sets of accessory glands

The seminal vesicles: A pair of seminal vesicles contributes

about 60% of the total volume of semen.
Prostate gland: The prostate gland is the largest of semen
producing glands.
Bulbourethral glands: The bulbourethral glands are a pair
of small glands along the urethra below the prostate.

Each ejaculation of a human male averages between 2 and

5ml.
Normally it contains 200 to 300 million sperm.
The main hormones involved in the male reproductive
system are testosterone, FSH, LH, inhibin and GnRH.

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Comprises 4 main parts:
The ovaries
Oviducts
Uterus
Vagina

Each female ovary potentially contains 200,000 follicles.

The cells of follicles produce a sex hormone called
estrogen.
 Oviducts (fallopian tube or uterine tube), carry eggs from
the ovary to the uterus, each around 10cm long.

The uterine wall is composed of 3 layers:

Endometrium
Myometrium
Perimetrium

Ovaries: Produce egg and sex hormones.

Oviducts: Carry egg to location of fertilisation.
Uterus: Houses developing embryo & fetus.
Vagina: Receives sperm & serves as birth canal.

THE OVARIAN AND UTERINE CYCLE

One egg is released from an ovary once about every 28 days
under regulation of FSH and LH (ovarian cycle).
Follicular phase (days 1 -13)
Ovulation (day 14)
Luteal phase (days 15-28)

The uterine cycle:

Menstruation (days 1-5).
Proliferative phase (days 6-13)
Secretory phase (days 15-28)

Menstrual cycle lasts around 28 days.

Menstrual cycle is regulated by 4 hormones FSH, LH,
estrogen & progesterone.
 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES

Gonorrhoea, Syphilis & AIDS

Gonorrhoea: Caused by the bacterium "Neisseria

gonorrhoeae".

Syphilis: Caused by bacterium Treponema pallidum.

AIDS: Caused by HIV which attacks helper T cells, a type of

lymphocytes.
 SUPPORT & MOVEMENT
HUMAN SKELETON
Human have around 300 bones at birth.
206 bones when an adult.
18% of total body weight.

BONE
3 distinct regions Epiphysis,Diaphysis and Metaphysis.
3 types of cells,Osteoblast,Oste‐oclast & Osteocytes.

CARTILAGE
Only one type of cell chondrocytes.
3 types of cartilage,Hyaline,Elastic & Fibrocartilage.

AXIAL SKELETON
Consists of skull, vertebral column,sternum
and ribs.
Skull parts; Cranium,Facial and Ear ossicles.
Cranium 8 bones
Facial 14 bones
Ear ossicles 6 bones
1 Hyoid bone
In Cranium,2 paired bones are Parietal and Temporal
bones.
 In Cranium,4 unpaired bones Sphenoid,
Occipital,Frontal and Ethmoid.
In Facial bones,6 paired bones
Palatine,Maxilla,Lacrimal,Nasal,Inferior concha and
Zygomatic.
In Facial bones,2 unpaired bones Vomer & Mandible.
In Ear ossicles,3 paired bones Malleus,Incus & Stapes.

Vertebral column parts;Cervical, Thoracic, Lumber &

Pelvic.
Cervical - 07 vertebrae
Thoracic - 12 vertebrae
Lumber - 05 vertebrae
Pelvic -09 vertebrae fusion into Sacrum 05 vertebrae
& Coccyx 04 vertebrae.
Total Vertebrae no: 26

Ribs types;True,False & Floating.

True ribs number 14 (07 pairs)
False ribs number 06 (03 pairs)
Floating ribs number 04 (02 pairs)

Total bone no in Axial Skeleton

Total 80 bones in Axial Skeleton.
Skull-29
Vertebral column-26
Sternum-01
Ribs-24
 APPENDICULAR SKELETON
consists of 126 bones.
Divisions:
Pectoral girdle & Forelimb
Pelvic girdle & Lower limb
Upper limb(Arm) bones(Both Limbs):
Total no of bones associated with Pectoral
girdle=64 bones
(both sides).
2 Clavicle
2 scapula
2 Humerus
2 Radius
2 Ulna
16 Carpals
10 metacarpals
28 phalanges
Lower limb(leg) bones(Both legs)
Total no of bones associated with Pelvic
girdle=62 bones
2 Coxal bones
2 Femur
2 Tibia
2 Fibula,
2 Patella,
14 Tarsals,
10 Metatarsals
28 Phalanges
 JOINTS
Site 2 or more bones meet.
Approximately 360 joints in our body.
3 Types of Joints:
Fibrous Joint
Cartilaginous Joint
Synovial Joint
Different types of synovial joints:
Hinge Joint
Pivot Joint
Ball & Socket Joint
Condyloid Joint
Gliding Joint
Disorders of Skeleton:
Disc slip
Spondylosis
Sciatica
Arthritis

MUSCLES, ITS TYPES AND STRUCTURE

Half of the human body mass
3 Types of muscles:
Skeletal Muscle
Cardiac Muscle
Smooth Muscle
Muscle fibre diameter 10-100 um.
Myofibrils diameter 1-2um.
Myosin filament is thick,16nm in diameter.
Actin filament is thin,7-8 nm in diameter.
The Sliding Filament Model of muscle contraction
proposed by Hugh Huxley & Jean Hanson in 1954.
 ENERGY OF MUSCLE CONTRACTION
ATP & Phosphocreatine
ATP: Immediate source of energy for muscle
contraction.
Phosphocreatine: reserve of high-energy phosphate
compound.
Of the total energy expended in muscle
contraction,only 35% is utilised for the performance of
work.
The remaining is liberated in the form of heat,which is
employed to maintain body temperature.

MUSCLES PROBLEMS
Cramps,a painful stiffness in a muscle due to a
sudden, involuntary contraction.
Muscle cramps often occur after:
exercise or at night,lasting a few seconds to several
minutes.
Muscle Fatigue,a muscle exercised persistently for
a longer period may lose its ability to contract.
Tetany,a medical sign consisting of the involuntary
contraction of muscles.
 VARIATION AND
GENETICS
Inheritance: Transmission of traits from parents to
offerings.
Genetics: Study of genes & their role in inheritance.
Gene:Basic unit of inheritance
Sequence of nucleotides
Part of DNA
Control specific protein
Locus: Position of a gene on a chromosome
Allele: Alternative form of gene
Dominant Allele (A,B)
Recessive Allele (a,b)
Homozygous:Both alleles are same
Ex:AA,aa,BB,bb,CC,cc
Heterozygous: Both alleles are different
Ex:Aa,Bb,Cc,Dd,Ee,FF
Gene pool:Genes of a population
Genome: All genetic material of an individual.
Genotype:
Genetic combination of a gene
Examples:
Homozygous (AA, aa)
Heterozygous (Bb, Cc)
Phenotype:
Expression of a gene.
Examples:
AA(Black)
Bb(Blue)
 MENDEL’S LAW OF INHERITANCE
Presented by Gregor John Mendel
Called Inheritance law
Experimental organism- Pea plant(pisum sativum)
Because easy to cultivate
Fertilisation-Self pollination
Cross pollination
Artificial breeding
Hybrids are fertile
Generation time short
Pea(Each trait is distinguished)
No intermediated form
7 traits present on 4 chromosomes
Stem colour, pod shape, position on chromosome no
4
Seed colour, flower colour on chromosome no 1
Pod colour on chromosome no 5
Seed shape on chromosome no 7

LAW OF SEGREGATION
Separation of alleles
Monohybrid cross
Single trait
True breeding
Also called law of purity of gametes
Genotypic ratio
1:2:1
Phenotypic ratio
3:1
 LAW OF INDEPENDENT ASSORTMENT
Dihybrid cross
2 traits
Phenotypic ratio
9:3:3:1
Genotypic ratio
1:2:2:4:1:2:1:2:1

DOMINANCE
Physiological effect of one allele to another allele
Non mendelian inheritance pattern

COMPLETE DOMINANCE
When one allele suppress the effect of other allele by
100%
Genotypic & Phenotypic ratio are not same.

INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
Both alleles are unable to suppress the effect of other
allele by 100%
Example: Flower 4’0 clock
Genotypic & phenotypic ratio both same

CoDOMINANCE
When both alleles are able to express their effect by
100%
Both show their effect
Example: MN-Blood Group
 MULTIPLE ALLELE AND ABO GROUP SYSTEM
Multiple alleles, More than 2 alleles
Population level
Range from 3 - 300
ABO Blood Group System
Karl Landsteiner in 1901 discover ABO blood group
system
Genetic basis discussed by Bernstein in 1925
I - Isohemagglutinin
On chromosome no 9
Alleles show their effect early embryonic life
Rh-Blood group system:
Sign to blood
If Rh-antigen present (+ve)
If Rh-antigen absent (-ve)
Discovery associated with Rhesus Monkey in 1930’s by
Karl Landsteiner

EPISTASIS AND ITS TYPES

One gene alters the effect of other gene that is
inherited independently.
Recessive epistasis:
Example: Fur colour of rats
Dominant epistasis:
Example: Fur colour of Guinea Pig
 PLEITROPY
When one gene controls two or more than traits
Examples:
1.White eye gene in drosophila-shape of sperm storing
structure
2.Human(gene) - Weight, Height
Phenylketonuria - Light, Hairs, light skin,
pigmentation
LINKAGE AND CROSSING OVER
Gene linkage:Staying together of genes on a
chromosome
Physical relationship of genes
Human cell - 23/46
23 homologous chromosome- 23 linkage groups
22 -Autosomal chromosome(autosomal linkage)
23rd - Sex chromosome(sex linkage)
XX Female
XY Male
Detection of Genetic linkage(Test cross)
Heterozygous individual
Autosomal linkage:
Chromosome #11
Sickle cell Anaemia
Leukaemia
Albinism
Sex-linkage
X-chromosome
Colour blindness
Haemophilia
Gout
Crossing over:
Exchange of genetic material between non sister
chromatids.
Closer the genes, lesser will be crossing over
Meiosis - Gametogenesis
Gametogenesis
Spermatogenesis
Oogenesis

SEX REALATED TRAITS

Sex linked traits:traits confined to one gender
Due to anatomical differences
Birth- Female(Broader pelvis)
Milk production- Female- mammary glands
Bearded- Male
Sex-Influenced Traits
Found both male & female
More common in a single gender

SEX LINKAGE IN DROSOPHILA

T-H Morgan in 1910
Experimental organisms- Drosophila melanogaster
Advantages of Drosophila:
Easy to capture/culturing
Sexual dimorphism
Short generation time(2 week)
Excellent for genetic studies
Distinct contrasting traits-85 traits
Part of Human Genome Project
Observations:
Red eyed females,Red eyed males, White eyed male
Ratio is not fit to mendelian ratio 3:1
Number of recessive trait individuals were quite small
All white eyes are male
There was no white eyed female
Conclusion:
Eye colour inheritance is associated with sex of
offspring
Gene for eye colour is present on X-chromosome
Alleles are only on X-chromosome (No allele on Y-
chromosome

SEX LINKAGE IN MALE

Traits - X chromosome(X linked traits)
Traits - Y chromosome(Y linked traits)
Traits which are present on both X & Y chromosomes
are referred to as pseudo-autosomal traits.
X-linked Recessive Traits:
1.Haemophilia:
Bleeder's disease
Ability of blood clotting is reduced or absent
2.Color Blindness:
Normal vision- Trichromate
Eye Retina(Rhodopsin & opsin)
Diabetes Mellitus:
Endocrine disorder (Insulin deficiency)
Increased blood sugar level
Heterogeneous group of disorder
Major types of Diabetes:
1.TYPE-I:
Insulin dependent diabetes Mellitus
Juvenile- before 40 years
Auto-immune disorder
Regularly insulin shots
Subcutaneous inject
2.TYPE-II:
Non insulin dependent diabetes Mellitus
90% patients
Endogenous insulin production
Insulin resistance increase
Insulin sensitivity decrease
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