LECTURE NOTES

ON

MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
ENGINEERING AND
DRAWING
HYDRAULIC MACHINES

II B. Tech I semester (JNTUH-R13)

 ENGINEERING DRAWING

I Semester: AE / CE / ME

Course Code Category Hours / Week Credits Maximum Marks

L T P C CIA SEE Total
AME001 Foundation
2 - 3 4 30 70 100
Contact Classes: 30 Tutorial Classes: Nil Practical Classes: 45 Total Classes: 75

OBJECTIVES:
The course should enable the students to:
I. Understand the basic principles of engineering drawing and construction of curves used
in engineering field.
II. Apply the knowledge of interpretation of projection in different quadrants.
III. Understand the projections of solids, when it is inclined to both planes simultaneously.
IV. Convert the pictorial views into orthographic view and vice versa.
V. Create intricate details of components through sections and develop its surfaces.
FUNDAMENTALS OF ENGINEERING DRAWING, SCALES AND
UNIT-I Classes: 09
CURVES
Introduction to engineering drawing: Drawing instruments and accessories, types of line, lettering
practice and rules of dimensioning, geometrical constructions, basic geometrical shapes; Scales: Types
of scales, units of length and their conversion, construction of scales, plain scale, diagonal scale, vernier
scale; Curves used in engineering practice and their constructions; Conic sections, construction of
ellipse parabola and hyperbola, special curves, construction of cycloid, epicycloids, hypocycloid and
involutes.

UNIT-II ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION, PROJECTION OF PLANES Classes: 09

Orthographic projection: Principles of orthographic projections, conventions, first and third angle
projections, projection of points, projection of lines, lines inclined to single plane, lines inclined to both
the planes, true lengths and traces; Projection of planes: Projection of regular planes, planes inclined to
one plane, planes inclined to both planes, projection of planes by auxiliary plane projection method.
UNIT-III PROJECTION OF SOLIDS Classes: 09
Projection of solids: Projections of regular solid, prisms, cylinders, pyramids, cones.
Solids inclined to one plane, solids inclined to both planes, projection of solid by auxiliary plane
projection method.
UNIT-IV DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES, ISOMETRIC PROJECTIONS Classes: 09
Development of surfaces: Development of lateral surface of right regular solids, prisms, cylinders,
pyramids and cones; Isometric projections: Principle of isometric projection, isometric scale, isometric
projections and isometric views, isometric projections of planes, prisms, cylinders, pyramids, and
cones.
UNIT-V TRANSFORMATION OF PROJECTIONS Classes: 09
Transformation of projections: Conversion of isometric views to orthographic views and conversion of
orthographic views to isometric views.
Text Books:
1. N.D. Bhatt, “Engineering Drawing”, Charotar Publications, 49th Edition, 2012.
2. C. M.Agrawal, Basant Agrawal, “Engineering Drawing‟‟, Tata McGraw Hill, 2nd Edition, 2013.

Reference Books:
1. K. Venugopal, “Engineering Drawing and Graphics”,New Age Publications,2nd Edition, 2010.
2. Dhananjay. A. Johle, “Engineering Drawing”,Tata McGraw Hill, 1st Edition, 2008.
3. K. C. John, “Engineering Drawing”, PHI Learning Private Limited”, 2nd Edition, 2009.

Web References:
1. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/112103019/
2. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/112103019/14

E-Text Book:
1. https://books.google.co.in/books/about/Engineering_Drawing.html?id=_hdOU8kRb2AC
UNIT I
Scales

1. Basic Information
2. Types and important units
3. Plain Scales (3 Problems)
4. Diagonal Scales - information
5. Diagonal Scales (3 Problems)
6. Vernier Scales - information
7. Vernier Scales (2 Problems)
 DIMENSIONS OF LARGE OBJECTS MUST BE REDUCED TO
ACCOMMODATE ON STANDARD SIZE DRAWING SHEET.THIS REDUCTION FOR FULL SIZE
CREATES A SCALE OF THAT REDUCTION RATIO, WHICH IS GENERALLY A SCALE R.F.=1 OR
FRACTION.. ( 1:1 )
SUCH A SCALE IS CALLED REDUCING SCALE AND MEANS DRAWING
THAT RATIO IS CALLED REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR. & OBJECT ARE OF
SAME SIZE.
Other RFs are described
SIMILARLY IN CASE OF TINY OBJECTS DIMENSIONS MUST BE INCREASED as
FOR ABOVE PURPOSE. HENCE THIS SCALE IS CALLED ENLARGING SCALE. 1:10, 1:100,
1:1000, 1:1, 00, 000
HERE THE RATIO CALLED REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR IS MORE THAN UNITY.

USE FOLLOWING FORMULAS FOR THE CALCULATIONS IN THIS TOPIC.

DIMENSION OF DRAWING
A
REPRESENTATIVE FACTOR (R.F.) =
DIMENSION OF OBJECT
= LENGTH OF DRAWING ACTUAL LENGTH
=AREA OF DRAWING
V ACTUAL AREA
= 3VOLUME AS PER DRWG.
V ACTUAL VOLUME

B LENGTH OF SCALE = R.F. X MAX. LENGTH TO BE MEASURED.

 BE FRIENDLY WITH THESE UNITS.

1 KILOMETRE = 10 HECTOMETRES
1 = 10 DECAMETRES
HECTOMETRE = 10 METRES
1 DECAMETRE = 10 DECIMETRES
1 METRE = 10 CENTIMETRES
1 DECIMETRE = 10 MILIMETRES
1 CENTIMETRE

TYPES OF SCALES:

1. PLAIN SCALES (FOR DIMENSIONS UP TO SINGLE DECIMAL)

2. DIAGONAL SCALES VERNIER
(FOR SCALES
DIMENSIONS UP TO TWO DECIMALS) (FOR D
3.
4. COMPARATIVE SCALES (FOR COMPARING TWO DIFFERENT UNITS)
5. SCALE OF CORDS (FOR MEASURING/CONSTRUCTING ANGLES)
PLAIN SCALE:-This type of scale represents two units or a unit and it’s sub-division.
PROBLEM NO.1:- Draw a scale 1 cm = 1m to read decimeters, to measure maximum
distance of 6 m. Show on it a distance of 4 m and 6 dm.

CONSTRUCTION DIMENSION OF
:-
a) Calculate DRAWING DIMENSION PLAIN SCALE
R.F.= OF OBJECT
R.F.= 1cm/ 1m = 1/100
Length of scale = R.F. X max. distance
= 1/100 X 600 cm
= 6 cms
b) Draw a line 6 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent larger division
unit.
c) Sub divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
d)Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and
subdivisions on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for
getting a look of scale.
e)After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance 4 m 6 dm on it as shown.

4 M 6 DM

10 DECIMETERS 0
2 3 METERS
4
5
R.F.
1/100
PLANE
SCALE
SHOWING
METERS
AND
DECIMETER
S.
PROBLEM NO.2:- In a map a 36 km distance is shown by a line 45 cms long. Calculate the R.F. and
construct
a plain scale to read kilometers and hectometers, for max. 12 km. Show a distance of 8.3 km on
it.

CONSTRUCTION:-
a) Calculate R.F.
R.F.= 45 cm/ 36 km = 45/ 36 . 1000 . 100 = 1/ PLAIN SCALE
80,000
Length of scale = R.F. max. distance
= 1/ 80000 12 km
= 15 cm
b) Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 12 equal parts. Each part will represent larger division
unit.
c) Sub divide the first part which will represent second unit or fraction of first unit.
d)Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and
subdivisions on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for
getting a look of scale.
e)After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance 8.3 km on it as shown.

8KM 3HM
 10 5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
HECTOMETERS KILOMETERS
R.F. = 1/80,000
PLANE SCALE SHOWING KILOMETERS AND HECTOMETERS
PROBLEM NO.3:- The distance between two stations is 210 km. A passenger train covers this
distance
in 7 hours. Construct a plain scale to measure time up to a single minute. RF is 1/200,000 Indicate
the distance
traveled by train in 29 minutes.

CONSTRUCTION:-
PLAIN
a) 210 km in 7 hours. Means speed of the train is 30 km per hour ( 60 minutes) SCALE
Length of scale = R.F. max. distance per hour
= 1/ 2,00,000 30km
= 15 cm
b) 15 cm length will represent 30 km and 1 hour i.e. 60 minutes.
Draw a line 15 cm long and divide it in 6 equal parts. Each part will represent 5 km and 10
minutes.
c) Sub divide the first part in 10 equal parts,which will represent second unit or
fraction of first unit. Each smaller part will represent distance traveled in one
minute.
d)Place ( 0 ) at the end of first unit. Number the units on right side of Zero and
subdivisions on left-hand side of Zero. Take height of scale 5 to 10 mm for
getting a proper look of scale.
e) Show km on upper side and time in minutes on lower side of the scale as shown.
After construction of scale mention it’s RF and name of scale as shown.
f) Show the distance traveled in 29 minutes, which is 14.5 km, on it as shown.
DISTANCE TRAVELED IN 29 MINUTES.
14.5 KM
KM 2.5 0 5 10 15 20 25 KM

5
MIN 10
0 10 20 30 40 50 MINUTES
R.F. = 1/100
PLANE SCALE SHOWING METERS AND DECIMETERS.
 We have seen that the plain scales give only two dimensions,
such as a unit and it’s subunit or it’s fraction.

DIAGONAL
The diagonal scales give us three successive dimensions SCALE
that is a unit, a subunit and a subdivision of a subunit.
The principle of construction of a diagonal scale is as follows.
Let the XY in figure be a subunit. X
Y
From Y draw a perpendicular YZ to a suitable height. 10
Join XZ. Divide YZ in to 10 equal parts. 9
Draw parallel lines to XY from all these divisions 8
and number them as shown.
7
From geometry we know that similar triangles have
their like sides proportional. 6
5
Consider two similar triangles XYZ and 7’ 7Z, 4
we have 7Z / YZ = 7’7 / XY (each part being one unit)
3
Means 7’ 7 = 7 / 10. x X Y = 0.7 XY
:. 2
Similarly 1
1’ – 1 = 0.1 XY
2’ – 2 = 0.2 XY Z
Thus, it is very clear that, the sides of small triangles,
which are parallel to divided lines, become
progressively shorter in length by 0.1 XY.

The solved examples ON NEXT PAGES will make the principle

 PROBLEM NO. 4 : The distance between Delhi and Agra is 200 km.
In a railway map it is represented by a line 5 cm long. Find it’s R.F.
Draw a diagonal scale to show single km. And maximum 600 km. DIAGONAL
Indicate on it following distances. 1) 222 km 2) 336 km 3) 459 km 4) 569 km SCALE
SOLUTION STEPS: RF = 5 cm / 200 km = 1 / 40, 00, 000
Length of scale = 1 / 40, 00, 000 X 600 X 105 = 15 cm

Draw a line 15 cm long. It will represent 600 km.Divide it in six equal parts.( each will represent 100 km.)
Divide first division in ten equal parts.Each will represent 10 km.Draw a line upward from left end and
mark 10 parts on it of any distance. Name those parts 0 to 10 as shown.Join 9th sub-division of horizontal scale
with 10th division of the vertical divisions. Then draw parallel lines to this line from remaining sub divisions and
complete diagonal scale.
569 km
459 km
336 km

222 km
10
9
8
7
6
KM

5
4
3
2
1
0
KM
100 50 0 100 200 300 400 500 KM
R.F. = 1 / 40,00,000

DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING KILOMETERS.

 PROBLEM NO.5: A rectangular plot of land measuring 1.28 hectors is represented on a map by a similar rectangle
of 8 sq. cm. Calculate RF of the scale. Draw a diagonal scale to read single meter. Show a distance of 438 m on it.

SOLUTION :
DIAGONAL
1 hector = 10, 000 sq. meters SCALE
1.28 hectors = 1.28 X 10, 000 sq. meters
Draw a line 15 cm long.
= 1.28 X 104 X 104 sq. cm
8 sq. cm area on map represents It will represent 600 m.Divide it in six equal
= 1.28 X 104 X 104 sq. cm on land parts. ( each will represent 100 m.)
1 cm sq. on map represents Divide first division in ten equal parts.Each will
= 1.28 X 10 4 X 104 / 8 sq cm on land represent 10 m.
1 cm on map represent Draw a line upward from left end and
mark 10 parts on it of any distance.
= 1.28 X 10 4 X 104 / 8 cm
Name those parts 0 to 10 as shown.Join 9th sub-division
= 4, 000 cm of horizontal scale with 10th division of the vertical divisions.
1 cm on drawing represent 4, 000 cm, Means RF = 1 / 4000 Then draw parallel lines to this line from remaining sub divisions
Assuming length of scale 15 cm, it will represent 600 m. and complete diagonal scale.
438 meters

10
9
8
7
6
5
M

4
3
2
1
0
M 100 50 0 100 200 300 400 500 M
R.F. = 1 / 4000

DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING METERS.

PROBLEM NO.6:. Draw a diagonal scale of R.F. 1: 2.5, showing centimeters
and millimeters and long enough to measure up to 20 centimeters.

SOLUTION STEPS: DIAGONAL

R.F. = 1 / 2.5 SCALE
Length of scale = 1 / 2.5 X 20 cm.
= 8 cm.
1. Draw a line 8 cm long and divide it in to 4
equal parts. (Each part will represent a length
of 5 cm.)
2. Divide the first part into 5 equal divisions.
(Each will show 1 cm.)
3. At the left hand end of the line, draw a
vertical line and on it step-off 10 equal
divisions of any length.
4. Complete the scale as explained in previous problems.
Show the distance 13.4 cm on it. 13 .4 CM

10
9
8
7
6
MM

5
4
3
2
1
CM
0 5 4 3 2 1 0 5 10 15 CENTIMETRES

R.F. = 1 / 2.5
DIAGONAL SCALE SHOWING CENTIMETERS.
Vernier Scales:
These scales, like diagonal scales , are used to read to a very small unit with
great accuracy. It consists of two parts – a primary scale and a vernier. The
primary scale is a plain scale fully divided into minor divisions.
As it would be difficult to sub-divide the minor divisions in ordinary way, it is done with the
help of the vernier. The graduations on vernier are derived from those on the primary scale.

Figure to the right shows a part of a plain scale

in which length A-O represents 10 cm. If we B 9.9 7.7 5.5 3.3 1.1 0
divide A-O into ten equal parts, each will be of 1
cm. Now it would not be easy to divide each of
these parts into ten equal divisions to get
measurements in millimeters. A 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Now if we take a length BO equal to 10 + 1 = 11

such equal parts, thus representing 11 cm, and
divide it into ten equal divisions, each of these
divisions will represent 11 / 10 – 1.1 cm.

The difference between one part of AO and one

division of BO will be equal 1.1 – 1.0 = 0.1 cm or
1 mm.
This difference is called Least Count of the scale.
Minimum this distance can be measured by this
scale. The upper scale BO is the vernier.The
combination of plain scale and the vernier is
vernier scale.
Example 10:
Draw a vernier scale of RF = 1 / 25 to read Vernier Scale
centimeters upto 4 meters and on it, show lengths
2.39 m and 0.91 m

SOLUTION: CONSTRUCTION: ( vernier)

Length of scale = RF X max. Take 11 parts of Dm length and divide it in 10 equal parts.
Distance Each will show 0.11 m or 1.1 dm or 11 cm and construct a
= 1 / 25 X 4 X 100 rectangle Covering these parts of vernier.
= 16 cm
CONSTRUCTION: ( Main scale) TO MEASURE GIVEN LENGTHS:
Draw a line 16 cm long. (1) For 2.39 m : Subtract 0.99 from 2.39 i.e. 2.39 - .99 = 1.4
Divide it in 4 equal parts. m
( each will represent meter ) The distance between 0.99 ( left of Zero) and 1.4 (right of Zero)
Sub-divide each part in 10 equal is 2.39 m (2) For 0.91 m : Subtract 0.11 from 0.91 i.e. 0.91 – 0.11
parts. ( each will represent =0.80 m
decimeter ) Name those properly. The distance between 0.11 and 0.80 (both left side of Zero) is
0.91 m

2.39 m
0.91 m

1.1 .99.77 .55.33.110

1.0 .9 .8 .7 .6 .5 .4 .3 .2 .1 0 1.4 2 3 METERS

METERS 1
Example 11: A map of size 500cm X 50cm wide represents an area of
6250 sq.Kms. Vernier Scale
Construct a vernier scaleto measure kilometers, hectometers and
decameters
and long enough to measure upto 7 km. Indicate on it a) 5.33 km b) 59
decameters.
SOLUTION: CONSTRUCTION: ( Main scale) TO MEASURE GIVEN LENGTHS:
AREA OF DRAWING Draw a line 14 cm long. a) For 5.33 km :
RF = ACTUAL AREA Divide it in 7 equal parts. Subtract 0.33 from 5.33
( each will represent km ) i.e. 5.33 - 0.33 = 5.00
V The distance between 33
500 X 50 cm sq. Sub-divide each part in 10 equal
= 6250 km sq. dm ( left of Zero) and
parts. ( each will represent
V
hectometer )
5.00 (right of Zero) is 5.33 k m
=2/ Name those properly. (b) For 59 dm :
105 Subtract 0.99 from 0.59
CONSTRUCTION: ( vernier) i.e. 0.59 – 0.99 = - 0.4 km
Length of Take 11 parts of hectometer part ( - ve sign means left of Zero)
scale = RF X max. Distance The distance between 99 dm
length and divide it in 10 equal and
= 2 / 105 X 7 parts. - .4 km is 59 dm
kms Each will show 1.1 hm m or 11 dm (both left side of
= 14 cm and Covering in a rectangle Zero)
complete scale.

59 dm 5.33 km
Decameters
99 77 55 33 11

10 0 1
90 70 50 30 10
 3
4 5 6
HECTOMETERS
KILOMETERS
 ENGINEERING CURVES
Part- I {Conic Sections}

ELLIPSE PARABOLA HYPERBOLA

1.Concentric Circle 1.Rectangle Method 1. Rectangular Hyperbola
(coordinates given)
Method 2.Rectangle 2 Method of
Tangents ( Triangle 2 Rectangular Hyperbola
Method 3.Oblong Method Method) (P-V diagram - Equation given)
4. Arcs of Circle Method 3. Basic Locus 3. Basic Locus Method
Method (Directrix – (Directrix – focus)
5. Rhombus Metho focus)

6.Basic Locus
Methods of Drawing
Method Tangents &
(Directrix – focus) Normals To These
Curves.
 CONIC SECTIONS
ELLIPSE, PARABOLA AND HYPERBOLA ARE CALLED CONIC SECTIONS
BECAUSE
THESE CURVES APPEAR ON THE SURFACE OF A
CONE WHEN IT IS CUT BY SOME TYPICAL
CUTTING PLANES.
OBSERVE
ILLUSTRATIONS
GIVEN BELOW..

Ellipse

Section Plane
Section
Through Hyperbola
Plane Parallel
Generators
to Axis.

Section Plane
Parallel to end
generator.
 COMMON DEFINATION OF ELLIPSE, PARABOLA &
HYPERBOLA:
These are the loci of points moving in a plane such that the ratio of it’s distances
from a fixed point And a fixed line always remains constant.
The Ratio is called ECCENTRICITY. (E)
A) For Ellipse E<1
B) For Parabola E=1
C) For Hyperbola E>1

Refer Problem nos. 6. 9 & 12

SECOND DEFINATION OF AN ELLIPSE:-
It is a locus of a point moving in a plane
such that the SUM of it’s distances from TWO fixed points
always remains constant.
{And this sum equals to the length of major axis.}
These TWO fixed points are FOCUS 1 & FOCUS
2
 Refer Problem no.4
Ellipse by Arcs of Circles
Method.
Draw an ellipse by general method, given distance of focus from
directrix 65mm and eccentricity ¾.

1
E’
C F
V 1

B
 ELLIPSE
BY CONCENTRIC CIRCLE METHOD
Problem 1 :-
Draw ellipse by concentric circle method.
Take major axis 100 mm and minor axis 70 mm 3
long. 2 4
Steps:
1. Draw both axes as perpendicular bisectors C
of each other & name their ends as shown.
2. Taking their intersecting point as a center, 1 5
2 3 4
draw two concentric circles considering both
as respective diameters. 1 5
3. Divide both circles in 12 equal parts &
name as shown.
A B
4. From all points of outer circle draw vertical
lines downwards and upwards respectively.
5.From all points of inner circle draw 10 6
horizontal lines to intersect those vertical
lines. 10 9
8 7 6
6. Mark all intersecting points properly as
those are the points on ellipse. D
7. Join all these points along with the ends of
both axes in smooth possible curve. It is 9 7
required ellipse.
8
Steps:
ELLIPSE
BY RECTANGLE METHOD
1 Draw a rectangle taking major
and minor axes as sides.
2. In this rectangle draw both Problem 2
axes as perpendicular bisectors of
Draw ellipse by Rectangle method.
each other..
3. For construction, select upper Take major axis 100 mm and minor axis 70 mm long.
left part of rectangle. Divide
vertical small side and horizontal
long side into same number of D
4 4
equal parts.( here divided in four
parts) 3 3
4. Name those as shown..
5. Now join all vertical points 2 2
1,2,3,4, to the upper end of minor
axis. And all horizontal points 1 1
i.e.1,2,3,4 to the lower end of
minor axis. A B
6. Then extend C-1 line upto D-1
and mark that point. Similarly
extend C-2, C-3, C-4 lines up to
D-2, D-3, & D-4 lines.
7. Mark all these points properly
and join all along with ends A
and D in smooth possible curve.
Do similar construction in right C
side part.along with lower half of
the rectangle.Join all points in
smooth curve.
It is required ellipse.
 ELLIPSE
Problem 3:- BY OBLONG METHOD
Draw ellipse by Oblong method.
Draw a parallelogram of 100 mm and 70 mm long sides with included angle of 750.Inscribe Ellipse in it.

STEPS ARE SIMILAR TO THE PREVIOUS CASE (RECTANGLE METHOD)

ONLY IN PLACE OF RECTANGLE, HERE IS A PARALLELOGRAM.

4 4
3
3

2 2

1
1

A B
PROBLEM 4. ELLIPSE
MAJOR AXIS AB & MINOR AXIS CD ARE
100 AMD 70MM LONG RESPECTIVELY
BY ARCS OF CIRCLE METHOD
.DRAW ELLIPSE BY ARCS OF CIRLES
METHOD. As per the definition Ellipse is locus of point P moving in
a plane such that the SUM of it’s distances from two
STEPS: fixed points (F1 & F2) remains constant and equals to the
1. Draw both axes as usual.Name the length of major axis AB.(Note A .1+ B .1=A . 2 + B. 2 = AB)
ends & intersecting point
2. Taking AO distance I.e.half major
axis, from C, mark F1 & F2 On AB . p4 C
( focus 1 and 2.) p3
3. On line F1- O taking any distance, p2
mark points 1,2,3, & 4
p1
4. Taking F1 center, with distance A-1
draw an arc above AB and taking F2
center, with B-1 distance cut this arc.
Name the point p1
A B
5. Repeat this step with same centers but O
taking now A-2 & B-2 distances F1 1 2 3 4 F2
for drawing arcs. Name the point p2
6.Similarly get all other P points.
With same steps positions of P can
be located below AB.
7.Join all points by smooth curve to get
an ellipse/
D
PROBLEM 7: A BALL THROWN IN AIR ATTAINS 100 M HIEGHT
PARABOLA
AND COVERS HORIZONTAL DISTANCE 150 M ON GROUND. RECTANGLE METHOD
Draw the path of the ball (projectile)-

STEPS: 6 6
1. Draw rectangle of above size and
divide it in two equal vertical parts
2. Consider left part for construction. 5 5
Divide height and length in equal
number of parts and name those
1,2,3,4,5& 6 4
3. Join vertical 1,2,3,4,5 & 6 to the
4
top center of rectangle
4.Similarly draw upward vertical
3 3
lines from horizontal1,2,3,4,5
And wherever these lines intersect
previously drawn inclined lines in
sequence Mark those points and 2 2
further join in smooth possible curve.
5.Repeat the construction on right side
rectangle also.Join all in sequence. 1 1
This locus is Parabola.
.

1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4 3 2 1
Draw a parabola by tangent method given base 7.5m and axis 4.5m
Take scale 1cm = 0.5m

O
6

5
1’

4.5m
4
2
’

3 F 3’

2 4’
4.5
1 m
5
’

6’
 E
A
B 7.5m
 PROBLEM 9: Point F is 50 mm from a vertical straight line AB. PARABOLA
Draw locus of point P, moving in a plane such that DIRECTRIX-FOCUS METHOD
it always remains equidistant from point F and line AB.

PARABOLA
SOLUTION STEPS:
1. Locate center of line, perpendicular to A
AB from point F. This will be initial
point P and also the vertex.
2. Mark 5 mm distance to its right side,
name those points 1,2,3,4 and from P1
those
draw lines parallel to AB.
3. Mark 5 mm distance to its left of P (VERTEX) V
and name it 1.
O 1 2 3 4
F
4. Take O-1 distance as radius and F
as center draw an arc ( focus)
cutting first parallel line to AB. Name
upper point P1 and lower point P2.
(FP1=O1) P2

5. Similarly repeat this process by taking

again 5mm to right and left and locate
P3P4.
6. Join all these points in smooth curve. B

It will be the locus of P equidistance

from line AB and fixed point F.
Problem No.10: Point P is 40 mm and 30 mm from horizontal HYPERBOLA
and vertical axes respectively.Draw Hyperbola through it.
THROUGH A POINT
Solution Steps: OF KNOWN CO-ORDINATES
1) Extend horizontal
line from P to right side. 2
2) Extend vertical line
from P upward.
3) On horizontal line
from P, mark some
points taking any
distance and name them
after P-1, 2,3,4 etc.
4) Join 1-2-3-4 points
to pole O. Let them cut
part [P-B] also at 1,2,3,4 1
points.
5) From horizontal
1,2,3,4 draw vertical P
lines downwards
2 1 1 2 3
and
6) From vertical 1,2,3,4 1
points [from P-B] draw
horizontal lines.
7) Line from 1 40 mm 2
horizontal and line from
1 vertical will meet at 3
P1.Similarly mark P2, P3, curve.
P4 points.
8) Repeat the procedure
by marking four points
on upward vertical line
from P and joining all
those to pole O. Name
this points P6, P7, P8 etc.
and join them by smooth
O

30 mm
Problem no.11: A sample of gas is expanded in a
cylinder from 10 unit pressure to 1 unit HYPERBOLA
pressure.Expansion follows law PV=Constant.If P-V DIAGRAM
initial volume being 1 unit, draw the curve of
expansion. Also Name the curve.

Form a table giving few more values of P & V 10

9
P V = C 8
10 1 = 10 7
5 2 = 10 6
4 2.5 = 10
2.5 4 = 10
5
2 5 = 10 4
1 10 = 10 3
2
PRESSURE
Now draw a Graph of
1
( Kg/cm2)
Pressure against
Volume.
It is a PV Diagram and it is
Hyperbola. Take pressure on
vertical axis and Volume on
horizontal axis.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

VOLUME:( M3 )
PROBLEM 12:- POINT F IS 50 MM FROM A LINE AB.A POINT P IS MOVING IN A HYPERBOLA
PLANE SUCH THAT THE RATIO OF IT’S DISTANCES FROM F AND LINE AB
REMAINS CONSTANT AND EQUALS TO 2/3 DRAW LOCUS OF POINT P. { DIRECTRIX
ECCENTRICITY = 2/3 } FOCUS METHOD

STEPS: A
1 .Draw a vertical line AB and point
F 50 mm from it.
2 .Divide 50 mm distance in 5 parts. 30mm
3 .Name 2nd part from F as V. It is 20mm
and 30mm from F and AB line resp.
It is first point giving ratio of it’s
distances from F and AB 2/3 i.e
20/30
4 Form more points giving same ratio
such as 30/45, 40/60, 50/75 etc.
(vertex) F ( focus)
V
5. Taking 45,60 and 75mm distances from
line AB, draw three vertical lines to
the right side of it.
6. Now with 30, 40 and 50mm distances in
compass cut these lines above and
below, with F as center.
7. Join these points through V in
smooth curve.
This is required locus of P.It is an ELLIPSE.

B
Problem ELLIPSE
13: TANGENT & NORMAL
TO DRAW TANGENT & NORMAL
TO THE CURVE FROM A GIVEN POINT ( Q )
1. JOIN POINT Q TO F1 & F2
2. BISECT ANGLE F1Q F2 THE ANGLE BISECTOR IS NORMAL
3. A PERPENDICULAR LINE DRAWN TO IT IS TANGENT TO THE CURVE.

p4 C
p3
p2
p1

A B
O
F1 1 2 3 4 F2

D
 ELLIPSE
Problem 14:
TANGENT & NORMAL
TO DRAW TANGENT &
NORMAL TO THE CURVE
ELLIPSE
FROM A GIVEN POINT ( Q ) A
JOIN POINT Q TO F.
CONSTRUCT 900 ANGLE WITH THIS LINE AT POINT F
EXTEND THE LINE TO MEET DIRECTRIX AT T
JOIN THIS POINT TO Q AND EXTEND. THIS IS TANGENT TO ELLIPSE FROM Q
TO THIS TANGENT DRAW PERPENDICULAR
LINE FROM Q. IT IS NORMAL TO CURVE.
 Q
N

T
 Problem 15: PARABOLA
TANGENT &
TO DRAW TANGENT & NORMAL NORMAL
TO THE CURVE T PARABOLA
FROM A GIVEN POINT ( Q )
A

1. JOIN POINT Q TO F.
2.CONSTRUCT 900 ANGLE WITH
THIS LINE AT POINT F
3. EXTEND THE LINE TO MEET
DIRECTRIX AT T
4.JOIN THIS POINT TO Q AND EXTEND. THIS IS
TANGENT TO THE CURVE FROM Q VERTEX V F
5. TO THIS TANGENT DRAW PERPENDICULAR 900
LINE FROM Q. IT IS NORMAL TO CURVE. ( focus)

Q
B N

T
 Problem 16 HYPERBOLA
TANGENT &
TO DRAW TANGENT & NORMAL NORMAL
TO THE CURVE
FROM A GIVEN POINT ( Q )
A

JOIN POINT Q TO F.
CONSTRUCT 900 ANGLE WITH THIS LINE AT POINT F
EXTEND THE LINE TO MEET DIRECTRIX AT T T
JOIN THIS POINT TO Q AND EXTEND. THIS IS TANGENT TO CURVE FROM Q
TO THIS TANGENT DRAW PERPENDICULAR
LINE FROM Q. IT IS NORMAL TO CURVE. (vertex)
V
F ( focus)
900
N

N Q

B
 ENGINEERING CURVES
Part-II
(Point undergoing two types of displacements)

INVOLUTE CYCLOID SPIRAL HELIX

1. Involute of a circle 1. General Cycloid 1. Spiral of 1. On Cylinder
a)String Length =
One Convolution.
D
2. Trochoid 2. On a Cone
( superior) 2. Spiral of
b) String Length > D
3. Trochoid Two Convolutions.
( Inferior)
c) String Length < D
4. Epi-Cycloid
2. Pole having
5. Hypo-Cycloid
Composite shape.
Methods of Drawing Tangen
3. Rod Rolling over
AND
a Semicircular Pole.
 DEFINITIONS
CYCLOID:
IT IS A LOCUS OF A POINT ON SUPERIORTROCHOID:
THE PERIPHERY OF A CIRCLE IF THE POINT IN THE DEFINATION
WHICH ROLLS ON A STRAIGHT OF CYCLOID IS OUTSIDE THE
LINE PATH. CIRCLE

INFERIOR TROCHOID.:
INVOLUTE: IF IT IS INSIDE THE CIRCLE
IT IS A LOCUS OF A FREE END OF A
STRING WHEN IT IS WOUND ROUND A EPI-CYCLOID
CIRCULAR POLE IF THE CIRCLE IS ROLLING ON
ANOTHER CIRCLE FROM
OUTSIDE
SPIRAL:
IT IS A CURVE GENERATED BY A POINT HYPO-CYCLOID.
WHICH REVOLVES AROUND A FIXED IF THE CIRCLE IS ROLLING
POINT AND AT THE SAME MOVES FROM INSIDE THE OTHER
TOWARDS IT. CIRCLE,

HELIX:
IT IS A CURVE GENERATED BY A POINT
WHICH
MOVES AROUND THE SURFACE OF A RIGHT CIRCULAR
CYLINDER / CONE AND AT THE SAME TIME ADVANCES IN AXIAL
DIRECTION AT A SPEED BEARING A CONSTANT RATIO TO THE SPPED
OF ROTATION.
( for problems refer topic Development of surfaces)
Problem: Draw involute of an equilateral triangle of 35 mm sides.

35 3X35
Problem: Draw involute of a square of 25 mm sides

25 100
Problem no 17: Draw Involute of a circle. INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE
String length is equal to the circumference of
circle.
Solution Steps:
1) Point or end P of string AP
is exactly D distance away
from A. Means if this string is
wound round the circle, it will P2
completely cover given circle.
B will meet A after winding.
2) Divide D (AP) distance P3
into 8 number of equal parts. P1
3) Divide circle also into 8
number
of equal parts.
4) Name after A, 1, 2, 3, 4,
etc. up to 8 on D line AP as
well as on circle (in
anticlockwise direction).
5) To radius C-1, C-2, C-3 up to 4 to p
P4
C-8 draw tangents (from 4
1,2,3,4,etc to circle). 5 3
6) Take distance 1 to P in
compass and mark it on 2
tangent from point 1 on circle 6
(means one division less than 1
distance AP). 7
A 8
7) Name this point P1 P5 P8 P
8) Take 2-P distance in 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
compass and mark it on the
P7
tangent from point 2. Name P6 D
it point P2.
9) Similarly take 3 to P, 4 to P,
5 to P up to 7 to P distance in
compass and mark on
respective tangents and
locate P3, P4, P5 up to P8 (i.e.
 INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE
Problem 18: Draw Involute of a circle.
String length MORE than D
String length is MORE than the circumference of
circle.

Solution Steps:
P2
In this case string length is more
than  D.
But remember!
Whatever may be the length of P3
string, mark  D distance P1
horizontal i.e.along the string
and divide it in 8 number of
equal parts, and not any other
distance. Rest all steps are same
as previous INVOLUTE. Draw
the curve completely.

4 to p
P4
4
3
5 2
6
1
P5 7 8
p8 1 P
2 3 4 5 6 7 8
D
P7
165 mm
P6 (more than D)
Problem 19: Draw Involute of a circle. INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE
String length is LESS than the circumference of String length LESS than D
circle.

Solution Steps:
In this case string length is Less P2
than  D.
But remember!
Whatever may be the length of P3
string, mark  D distance P1
horizontal i.e.along the string
and divide it in 8 number of
equal parts, and not any other
distance. Rest all steps are same
as previous INVOLUTE. Draw
the curve completely.

4 to p
P4 4 3
5
2
6
1
7 P
P5 8
P7 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
P
6
150 mm
(Less than D)

D
PROBLEM 21 : Rod AB 85 mm long
rolls
over a semicircular pole without
slipping from it’s initially vertical
position till it becomes up-side- B
down vertical.
A4
Solution Steps? 4
If you have studied previous problems B1
properly, you can surely solve this
also. Simply remember that this being A3
a rod, it will roll over the surface of 3
pole.
Means when one end is approaching,
other end will move away from poll.
OBSERVE ILLUSTRATION CAREFULLY!
D 2

A2
B2
2
1
3
1

A1 4
A

B3
B4
Problem 22: Draw locus of a point on the periphery of a circle which rolls on straight line path. CYCLOID
Take circle diameter as 50 mm. Draw normal and tangent on the curve at a point 40 mm
above the directing line.

6
7 p5 p6
5 p7
8 4 p8
p4

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8 C9 C10 Cp
11
9 C12
9 p3 3
p2 p10
10 2 p11
p1
11 1 p12
12 P
D
Solution Steps:
1)From center C draw a horizontal line equal to D distance. 2)
Divide D distance into 12 number of equal parts and name them C1,etc. C2, C3
Divide the circle also into 12 number of equal parts and in anticlockwise direction, after P name 1, 2, 3 up
From all these points on circle draw horizontal lines. (parallel to locus of C)
With a fixed distance C-P in compass, C1 as center, mark a point on horizontal line from 1. Name it P.
Repeat this procedure from C2, C3, C4 up to C12 as centers. Mark points P2, P3, P4, P5 up to P12 on the
horizontal lines drawn from 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 respectively.
Join all these points by curve. It is Cycloid.
PROBLEM 25: DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT ON THE PERIPHERY OF A CIRCLE WHICH ROLLS ON A CURVED PATH. Take diameter
of rolling Circle 50 mm And radius of directing circle i.e. curved path, 75 mm.

Solution Steps:
1) When smaller circle will roll
on larger circle for one
revolution it will cover D
distance on arc and it will be
decided by included arc angle
.
2) Calculate  by formula  =
(r/R) x 3600. c9 c10
c8
3) Construct angle  with c11
c7
radius OC and draw an arc by c12
taking O as center OC as c6
radius and form sector of angle
. c5
9
8 10
4) Divide this sector into 12
7
number of equal angular parts. 12
c4
And from C onward name 11
them C1, C2, C3 up to C12. 5 6
5) Divide smaller circle c3
4
(Generating circle) also in 12
number of equal parts. And
3
next to P in anticlockw- ise c2
direction name those 1, 2, 3,
up to 12. 2
3’ 2’
6) With O as center, O-1 as 4’
radius draw an arc in the c1
1
sector. Take O-2, O-3, O-4, O-5 5’ 1’
up to O-12 distances with
center O, draw all concentric 6’
arcs in sector. Take fixed θ
distance C- P in compass, C1 C 12’

center, cut arc of 1 at P1. P

Repeat procedure and locate 7’ 11’

8’
 O
OP=Radius of directing circle=75mm
PC=Radius of generating
circle=25mm θ=r/R X360º= 25/75
X360º=120º
PROBLEM 26: DRAW LOCUS OF A POINT ON THE PERIPHERY OF A
CIRCLE WHICH ROLLS FROM THE INSIDE OF A CURVED PATH. Take
diameter of
rolling circle 50 mm and radius of directing circle (curved path) 75 mm.

Solution Steps:
1) Smaller circle is
rolling here, inside the
larger circle. It has to
9
rotate anticlockwise 8
11
10
to move ahead. 7 12
2) Same steps should 6
be taken as in case of 5

EPI – CYCLOID. Only

4
change is in c11
c8 c9 c10 c12
numbering direction c7
3
of 12 number of c6
equal parts on the c5
smaller circle. 2 3’ c4
3) From next to P in 2’
c
3
4’
clockwise direction,
c2
name 1
1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10,11 1’ c1 5’
,12 θ
4) Further all steps
12’ 6’
P C
O
7’
11’

10’ 8’
9’
OP=Radius of directing circle=75mm
PC=Radius of generating circle=25mm
θ=r/R X360º= 25/75 X360º=120º
STEPS:
DRAW INVOLUTE AS USUAL. Involute
MARK POINT Q ON IT AS DIRECTED.
Method of Drawing
Tangent & Normal
JOIN Q TO THE CENTER OF CIRCLE
C. CONSIDERING CQ DIAMETER,
DRAW A SEMICIRCLE AS SHOWN.
INVOLUTE OF A CIRCLE
MARK POINT OF INTERSECTION OF
THIS SEMICIRCLE AND POLE
CIRCLE AND JOIN IT TO Q.
Q
THIS WILL BE NORMAL TO INVOLUTE.

DRAW A LINE AT RIGHT ANGLE

TO THIS LINE FROM Q.

IT WILL BE TANGENT TO INVOLUTE.

4
3
5
C 2
6
1
7
8
P8 1 P
2 3 4 5 6 7 8


D
STEPS:
DRAW CYCLOID AS USUAL. CYCLOID
MARK POINT Q ON IT AS DIRECTED.
Method of Drawing
WITH CP DISTANCE, FROM Q. CUT THE
POINT ON LOCUS OF C AND JOIN IT TO
Tangent & Normal
Q.

FROM THIS POINT DROP A PERPENDICULAR

ON GROUND LINE AND NAME IT N

JOIN N WITH Q.THIS WILL BE NORMAL TO

CYCLOID.

DRAW A LINE AT RIGHT ANGLE

TO THIS LINE FROM Q.

IT WILL BE TANGENT TO CYCLOID.

CYCLOID

C C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 C7 C8

P N
D
UNIT 2
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
OF POINTS, LINES, PLANES, AND SOLIDS.

TO DRAW PROJECTIONS OF ANY OBJECT,

ONE MUST HAVE FOLLOWING
INFORMATION
A)OBJECT
{ WITH IT’S DESCRIPTION, WELL DEFINED.}
B)OBSERVER
{ ALWAYS OBSERVING PERPENDICULAR TO RESP. REF.PLANE}.
C) LOCATION OF OBJECT,
{ MEANS IT’S POSITION WITH REFFERENCE TO H.P. & V.P.}

TERMS ‘ABOVE’ & ‘BELOW’ WITH RESPECTIVE TO H.P.

AND TERMS ‘INFRONT’ & ‘BEHIND’ WITH RESPECTIVE TO
V.P
FORM 4 QUADRANTS.
OBJECTS CAN BE PLACED IN ANY ONE OF THESE 4 QUADRANTS.

IT IS INTERESTING TO LEARN THE EFFECT ON THE POSITIONS OF VIEWS ( FV, TV )

OF THE OBJECT WITH RESP. TO X-Y LINE, WHEN PLACED IN DIFFERENT
 QUADRANTS.

STUDY ILLUSTRATIONS GIVEN ON HEXT PAGES AND NOTE THE RESULTS.TO MAKE IT
EASY HERE A POINT A IS TAKEN AS AN OBJECT. BECAUSE IT’S ALL VIEWS ARE JUST
POINTS.
 NOTATIONS

FOLLOWING NOTATIONS SHOULD BE FOLLOWED WHILE NAMEING

DIFFERENT VIEWS IN ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS.

OBJECT POINT A LINE AB

IT’S TOP VIEW a ab

IT’S FRONT VIEW a’ a’ b’

IT’S SIDE VIEW a” a” b”

SAME SYSTEM OF NOTATIONS SHOULD BE FOLLOWED

INCASE NUMBERS, LIKE 1, 2, 3 – ARE USED.
 VP
2nd Quad. 1ST Quad.

Y
Observer

X Y HP
X

3rd Quad. 4th Quad.

THIS QUADRANT PATTERN,

IF OBSERVED ALONG X-Y LINE ( IN RED ARROW DIRECTION)
WILL EXACTLY APPEAR AS SHOWN ON RIGHT SIDE AND
HENCE,
IT IS FURTHER USED TO UNDERSTAND ILLUSTRATION PROPERLLY.
 Point A is VP POINT A IN 1ST QUA
POINT A IN
Placed In a’
2 QUADRANT
ND
different A VP A
quadrants
and it’s Fv & Tv
are brought in
a’ HP
same plane for OBSERVER
Observer to see a
clearly. OBSERVER
Fv is visible as
it is a view on
HP a
VP. But as Tv is
is a view on Hp,
it is rotated
downward 900,
In clockwise
direction.The
In front part of
Hp comes below
xy line and the
a
part behind Vp HP
comes above. OBSERVER
OBSERVER

Observe and HP
note the
process. a
a’
a’ A POINT A IN
A VP 4TH QUADRANT
POINT A IN
3 QUADRANT
RD
VP
Basic concepts for drawing projection of point
FV & TV of a point always lie in the same vertical line

FV of a point ‘P’ is represented by p’. It shows position of

the point with respect to HP.

If the point lies above HP, p’ lies above the

XY line. If the point lies in the HP, p’ lies on

the XY line.

If the point lies below the HP, p’ lies below the XY line.
TV of a point ‘P’ is represented by p. It shows position of the point
with respect to VP.
If the point lies in front of VP, p lies below the
XY line. If the point lies in the VP, p lies on the
XY line.
If the point lies behind the VP, p lies above the XY line.
 PROJECTIONS OF A POINT IN FIRST QUADRANT.
POINT A ABOVE HP POINT A ABOVE HP POINT A IN HP
& INFRONT OF VP & IN VP & INFRONT OF VP
For Tv
For Tv

PICTORIAL PICTORIAL For Tv

PRESENTATION A PRESENTATION
a’ a’
A
Y Y
Y
a a’

X
a
a X X A

ORTHOGRAPHIC PRESENTATIONS
OF ALL ABOVE CASES.

Fv above Fv above Fv on xy,

xy, Tv below xy, Tv on Tv below xy.
xy. xy.
 VP VP VP

a’ a’

X Y X Y X
a’ Y
a

a a

HP HP HP
 PROJECTIONS OF STRAIGHT LINES.
INFORMATION REGARDING A LINE means
IT’S LENGTH,
POSITION OF IT’S ENDS WITH HP & VP
IT’S INCLINATIONS WITH HP & VP WILL BE GIVEN.
AIM:- TO DRAW IT’S PROJECTIONS - MEANS FV &
TV.
SIMPLE CASES OF THE LINE
1. A VERTICAL LINE ( LINE PERPENDICULAR TO HP & // TO VP)

2. LINE PARALLEL TO BOTH HP & VP.

3. LINE INCLINED TO HP & PARALLEL TO VP.

4. LINE INCLINED TO VP & PARALLEL TO HP.

5. LINE INCLINED TO BOTH HP & VP.

STUDY ILLUSTRATIONS GIVEN ON NEXT PAGE

SHOWING CLEARLY THE NATURE OF FV & TV OF
LINES LISTED ABOVE AND NOTE RESULTS.
 For Orthographic Pattern
(Pictorial Presentation) Tv
V.P.
a’
Note: a’
Fv is a vertical line
1. Showing True Fv
A
FV Length &
Tv is a b’
A Line b’ point.
perpendicular Y
X Y
to B

Hp TV a b
& Tv a b
// to Vp X

H.P.
Orthographic Pattern
(Pictorial Presentation) For
Tv
Note: V.P.
Fv & Tv both are
2. Fv
// to xy & a’ b’
b’ both show T. L.
A Line B
// to Hp a’
& A Y X Y
// to Vp
b a b
Tv
X
a
H.P.
 Fv inclined to xy V.P.
3. Tv parallel to xy. b’
b’

A Line inclined to B
a’ 
Hp and  Y
parallel to Vp a’ X Y

(Pictorial presentation) A
a b
b T.V.
X

a
H.P.
Orthographic Projections

Tv inclined to xy V.P.
4. Fv parallel to xy.
b’ Fv
A Line inclined to Vp a’ b’
and a’
Ø
parallel to Hp A B
X Y
(Pictorial presentation)
a Ø

Ø
a b Tv

b
H.P.
 For Tv For Tv
5. A Line inclined to both
b’ Hp and Vp b’
(Pictorial presentation)
B B
 
Y On removal of object Y

a’ i.e. Line AB a’
Fv as a image on Vp. Tv as a image on Hp,

A A

 X
X
a b a T.V. b
T.V.
V.P.
b’
FV
a’

X Y
Orthographic Projections Note These Facts:-
Fv is seen on Vp clearly. Both Fv & Tv are inclined to xy.
, HP is rotated 900 downwards, Hence it comes
a below xy. (No view is parallel to xy)
Both Fv & Tv are reduced lengths. (No view shows
TV

H.P. b
 Orthographic Projections Note the procedure Note the procedure
Means Fv & Tv of Line When Fv & Tv known, When True Length is known,
AB are shown below, How to find True How to locate FV & TV.
with their apparent Inclinations Length. (Component a’b2’ of TL is drawn
& (Views are rotated to which is further rotated
determine True Length & it’s to determine FV)
inclinations with Hp & Vp).
V.P. V.P.
b’ b’ b1’
FV FV
a’ TL
a’ 

X Y X Y

a a TV
b1

TV
TV
H.P.
b H.P. b

Here TV (ab) is not // to XY Hp. In this sketch, TV is rotated

line Hence it’s corresponding and made // to XY line. Hence
FV a’ b’ is not showing it’s corresponding FV a’ b1’ Is
True Length & showing
True Inclination with True Length &
True Inclination with Hp. Here a’b1’ is
component of TL ab1
gives length of FV.
Hence it is brought
Up to Locus of a’ and
further rotated to get
point b’. a’ b’ will be
Fv.
Similarly drawing
component
of other TL(a’b1‘) TV can be
drawn.
 1) True Length ( TL) – a’ b1’ & a b2
The most important diagram showing graphical
relations among all important parameters of this 2) Angle of TL with Hp -  Important
topic. TEN parameters to be remembered with Notations
3) Angle of TL with Vp –Ø used here onward
Study and memorize it as a CIRCUIT DIAGRAM
And use in solving various problems. Angle of FV with xy – 
Angle of TV with xy – 
LTV (length of FV) – Component (a-1)
V.P. LFV (length of TV) – Component (a’-1’)
Distance between
End Projectors. Position of A- Distances of a & a’ from xy
b’ b1 ’ Position of B- Distances of b & b’ from xy
Distance between End Projectors


 1’ NOTE this
a’
LTV
 &  Construct with a’
X Y Ø & Construct with a b’ & b1’ on same locus. b &
LFV
a1
Ø


Also Remember
b b2
H.P. True Length is never rotated. It’s horizontal
component is drawn & it is further rotated to
locate view.
Views are always rotated, made horizontal &
further extended to locate TL,  & Ø
 GROUP (A)
GENERAL CASES OF THE LINE INCLINED TO BOTH HP
PROBLEM 1) & VP
( based on 10 parameters).
Line AB is 75 mm long and it is ward &
30 & 40 Inclined to Hp & Vp
0 0
get point
respectively. End A is 12mm b’ b’
b. Join a
1
above Hp and 10 mm in front of &b
Vp. I.e. Tv.
Draw projections. Line is in 1 quadrant.
st
FV
TL
SOLUTION STEPS:
1) Draw xy line and one projector.
2) Locate a’ 12mm above xy 
line & a 10mm below xy line.
3) Take 300 angle from a’ & 400 from a’
a and mark TL I.e. 75mm on
both Y
Xa
lines. Name those points b1’ and b1 LFV
respectively. Ø 1
4) Join both points with a’ and a resp.
5) Draw horizontal lines (Locus)
from both points.
6) Draw horizontal component of TL
a b1 from point b1 and name it 1. TV TL
( the length a-1 gives length of Fv
as we have seen already.)
7) Extend it up to locus of a’ and
rotating a’ as center locate b’
as shown. Join a’ b’ as Fv.
8) From b’ drop a projector down
b b1
PROBLEM 2:
Line AB 75mm long makes 450 inclination with Vp while it’s Fv
makes 550. End A is 10 mm above Hp and 15 mm in front of Vp.If
line is in 1st quadrant draw it’s projections and find it’s inclination
with Hp.

It will be true b
Solution Steps:- angle of line ’
with HP. b
1. Draw x-y line.
2. Draw one projector for a’ &
a 3.Locate a’ 10mm above x-y 550
& Tv a 15 mm below xy.
4. Draw a line 450 inclined to xy
from point a and cut TL 75 mm a’
on it and name that point b1
Draw locus from point b1 X y
5. Take 550 angle from a’ for Fv
above xy line.
6. Draw a vertical line from b1 a LFV
1
up to locus of a and name it 1.
It is horizontal component of
TL & is LFV.
7. Continue it to locus of a’ and
rotate upward up to the line
of Fv and name it b’.This a’ b’
line is Fv.
8. Drop a projector from b’ on
locus from point b1 and
name intersecting point b.
Line a b is Tv of line AB.
9. Draw locus from b’ and from LOCUS OF b
a’ with TL distance cut point b1‘
10. Join a’ b1’ as TL and measure
it’s angle at a’.
b’1 LOCUS OF
 PROBLEM 3:
Fv of line AB is 500 inclined to xy and
measures 55 mm long while it’s Tv is 600
inclined to xy line. If
end A is 10 mm above Hp and 15 mm in
front of Vp, draw it’s projections,find TL, b’ b’1
inclinations of line with Hp & Vp.

SOLUTION STEPS:
1.Draw xy line and one
projector. 2.Locate a’ 10
mm above xy and a 15 mm 500
below xy line. 
3.Draw locus from these a’
points. 4.Draw Fv 500 to xy X
from a’ and mark b’ Cutting y
55mm on it.
5. Similarly draw Tv 600 to xy a
from a & drawing projector 
from b’ Locate point b and join 600
a b.
6. Then rotating views as
shown, locate True Lengths
ab1 & a’b1’ and their angles
with Hp and Vp.

b1
b
 PROBLEM 4 :-
Line AB is 75 mm long .It’s Fv and Tv measure 50 mm & 60 mm long respectively.
End A is 10 mm above Hp and 15 mm in front of Vp. Draw projections of line AB
if end B is in first quadrant.Find angle with Hp and Vp.
b’ b’1

SOLUTION STEPS:
1.Draw xy line and one
projector. 2.Locate a’ 10
mm above xy and a 15 mm
below xy line.
3.Draw locus from these  LTV 1’
points. 4.Cut 60mm distance a’
on locus of a’
& mark 1’ on it as it is LTV. Y
5.
locus of a and mark point 1 as it is LFV.
Similarly Similarly cut 50mm on
a LFV
X
 1
6. From 1’ draw a vertical line
upward and from a’ taking TL
( 75mm ) in compass, mark
b’1 point on it.
Join a’ b’1 points.
7. Draw locus from b’1
8. With same steps below get b1
point and draw also locus from
it.
9. Now rotating one of the components
I.e. a-1 locate b’ and join a’ b1
with it to get Fv.
10. Locate tv similarly and measure
Angles  & 
b
 GROUP (B)
PROBLEMS INVOLVING TRACES OF THE LINE.

TRACES OF THE LINE:-

THESE ARE THE POINTS OF INTERSECTIONS OF A LINE ( OR IT’S EXTENSION

) WITH RESPECTIVE REFFERENCE PLANES.

A LINE ITSELF OR IT’S EXTENSION, WHERE EVER TOUCHES H.P.,

THAT POINT IS CALLED TRACE OF THE LINE ON H.P.( IT IS CALLED H.T.)

SIMILARLY, A LINE ITSELF OR IT’S EXTENSION, WHERE EVER TOUCHES

V.P., THAT POINT IS CALLED TRACE OF THE LINE ON V.P.( IT IS CALLED
V.T.)

V.T.:- It is a point on Vp.

Hence it is called Fv of a point in Vp.
Hence it’s Tv comes on XY line.( Here onward named as v)
H.T.:- It is a point on Hp.
Hence it is called Tv of a point in Hp.
Hence it’s Fv comes on XY line.( Here onward named as ’h’ )
 b’

STEPS TO LOCATE HT.

(WHEN PROJECTIONS ARE GIVEN.)
1. Begin with FV. Extend FV up to XY
a’
line.
2. Name this point h’ v h’
( as it is a Fv of a point in Hp)
x y
3. Draw one projector from h’.
4. Now extend Tv to meet this VT’ HT
a
projector. This point is HT

STEPS TO LOCATE VT.

(WHEN PROJECTIONS ARE GIVEN.) Observe & note :-
1. Points h’ & v always on x-y line. b
1. Begin with TV. Extend TV up to XY
2. VT’ & v always on one projector.
line.
2. Name this point v 3. HT & h’ always on one projector.
( as it is a Tv of a point in Vp) 4. FV - h’- VT’ always co-linear.
3. Draw one projector from v.
4. Now extend Fv to meet this 5. TV - v - HT always co-linear.
projector. This point is VT
These points are used to solve nex
PROBLEM 6 :- Fv of line AB makes 450 angle with XY line and measures 60 mm.
Line’s Tv makes 300 with XY line. End A is 15 mm above Hp and it’s VT is 10 mm
below Hp. Draw projections of line AB,determine inclinations with Hp & Vp and locate HT, VT.

b’ b’1

a’  450

15
SOLUTION STEPS:-
Draw xy line, one projector and x v h’
y
locate fv a’ 15 mm above xy. 300
10
Take 450 angle from a’ and
marking 60 mm on it locate point b’. VT’
Draw locus of VT, 10 mm below xy a 
& extending Fv to this locus
locate VT. as fv-h’-vt’ lie on one
st.line.
Draw projector from vt, locate v
on xy. From v take 300 angle b b1
downward as Tv and it’s
inclination can begin with v.
Draw projector from b’ and locate b I.e.Tv point.
Now rotating views as usual TL
and it’s inclinations can be
found.
Name extension of Fv, touching xy as
h’ and below it, on extension of Tv,
locate HT.
PROBLEM 7 :
One end of line AB is 10mm above Hp and other end is 100 mm in-front of Vp.
It’s Fv is 450 inclined to xy while it’s HT & VT are 45mm and 30 mm below xy respectively.
Draw projections and find TL with it’s inclinations with Hp & VP.
b’ LOCUS OF b’ & b’1
b’1

a’ 450

10 v h’
X Y
30
45
VT’ HT
SOLUTION STEPS:-
Draw xy line, one projector and
locate a’ 10 mm above xy. 100
Draw locus 100 mm below xy for points b & b1 a
Draw loci for VT and HT, 30 mm & 45 mm

below xy respectively.
Take 450 angle from a’ and extend that line
backward to locate h’ and VT, & Locate v on
xy above VT. Locate HT below h’ as shown.
Then join v – HT – and extend to get top view end b.
Draw projector upward and locate b’ Make a b & a’b’ dark. b b1 LOCUS OF b & b1
Now as usual rotating views find TL and it’s inclinations.
PROBLEM 8 :- Projectors drawn from HT and VT of a line
AB are 80 mm apart and those drawn from it’s ends are
50 mm apart.
End A is 10 mm above Hp, VT is 35 mm below
Hp while it’s HT is 45 mm in front of Vp. Draw
projections,
VT
locate traces and find TL of line & inclinations with Hp
and Vp. b’ b’1

SOLUTION STEPS:-
1. Draw xy line and two 55
projectors, 80 mm apart and
locate HT & VT ,
35 mm below xy and 55 mm Locus of a’ a’ 
above xy
respectively on these projectors.
2. Locate h’ and v on xy as usual. X 10 50 v
y
h’ b
3. b
Now just like previous two problems, 1

Extending certain lines complete Fv & Tv

35
And as usual find TL and it’s inclinations.
a 
HT

80
 Instead of considering a & a’ as projections of first point,
if v & VT’ are considered as first point , then true inclinations of line with
Hp & Vp i.e. angles  &  can be constructed with points VT’ & V respectively.

b’ b1’

Then from point v & HT

a’
angles  &  can be drawn.
X v &
Y From point VT’ & h’

angles  &  can be drawn.


VT’

THIS CONCEPT IS USED TO SOLV

a

b b1
PROBLEM 9 :-
Line AB 100 mm long is 300 and 450 inclined to Hp & Vp respectively.
End A is 10 mm above Hp and it’s VT is 20 mm below Hp b’ b1’
.Draw projections of the line and it’s HT.
FV

Locus of a & a1’ a’ a1’

SOLUTION STEPS:- 10
Draw xy, one projector X v h’
and locate on it VT and V. (450) Y
Draw locus of a’ 10 mm above xy. (300)
20 

Take 300 from VT and draw a VT’

line. Where it intersects with HT
locus of a’ name it a1’ as it is
TL of that part.
From a1’ cut 100 mm (TL) on it and locate point b1’
Now from v take 450 and draw a line downwards
& Mark on it distance VT-a ’ I.e.TL of extension & namea it a a 1
1 1
Extend this line by 100 mm and mark
point b1. Draw it’s component on locus
of VT’
& further rotate to get other end of Fv i.e.b’ TV
Join it with VT’ and mark intersection point
(with locus of a1’ ) and name it a’
Now as usual locate points a and b and h’ and HT.
b b1
 PROBLEM 10 :-
A line AB is 75 mm long. It’s Fv & Tv make 450 and 600 inclinations with X-Y line
resp End A is 15 mm above Hp and VT is 20 mm below Xy line. Line is in first
quadrant. b1’
Draw projections, find inclinations with Hp & Vp. Also locate HT. b’

FV

Locus of a & a1’ a’ a1’

15 h’
X v Y
600
20 

450
VT’
SOLUTION STEPS:-
Similar to the previous only HT
change is instead of line’s
inclinations, views inclinations a a1
are given.
So first take those angles from VT
& v Properly, construct Fv & Tv of
extension, then determine it’s TL( TV
V-a1)
and on it’s extension mark TL of
line and proceed and complete it.
b b1
 PROBLEM 11 :- The projectors drawn from VT & end A of line AB are 40mm apart.
End A is 15mm above Hp and 25 mm in front of Vp. VT of line is 20 mm below Hp.
If line is 75mm long, draw it’s projections, find inclinations with HP & Vp

b’ b1’

a’ a1’
15
X v Y
20 
25 
VT’
a

Draw two projectors for VT & end 40mm

A Locate these points and then
b b1
YES !
YOU CAN COMPLETE IT.
 GROUP (C)
CASES OF THE LINES IN A.V.P., A.I.P. & PROFILE PLANE.

b’ Line AB is in AIP as shown in above figure no 1.

It’s FV (a’b’) is shown projected on Vp.(Looking in arrow direction)
Here one can clearly see that the
Inclination of AIP with HP = Inclination of FV with XY line
a’ 


A A.V.P.

Line AB is in AVP as shown in above figure no 2.. 

It’s TV (a b) is shown projected on Hp.(Looking in arrow direction) Here one can clearly
a see that the b
Inclination of AVP with VP = Inclination of TV with XY line
LINE IN A PROFILE PLANE ( MEANS IN A PLANE PERPENDICULAR TO BOTH HP & VP)
For T.V.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PATTERN OF LINE IN PROFILE PLANE

VP VT PP
a’ a”
A a’

FV LSV

b’ b’ b”
X Y
HT

a
B
TV
a
b
b HP

Results:-
1. TV & FV both are vertical, hence arrive on one single
projector.
2. It’s Side View shows True Length ( TL)
3. Sum of it’s inclinations with HP & VP equals to 900 (  +
 = 900 )
4. It’s HT & VT arrive on same projector and can be easily
located
From Side View.
OBSERVE CAREFULLY ABOVE GIVEN ILLUSTRATION AND 2nd SOLVED PROBLEM.
PROBLEM 12 :- Line AB 80 mm0long, makes 300 angle with Hp b’
and lies in an Aux.Vertical Plane inclined to Vp. b’ Locus of b’ 1
45
End A is 15 mm above Hp and VT is 10 mm below X-y line.
Draw projections, fine angle with Vp and Ht.

Locus of a’ & a1’ a’ a1’

15 h’
X v 450
10  Y

VT HT

AVP 450 to VP

Simply consider inclination of

AVP as inclination of TV of Locus of b’
our line, well then? b b1
You sure can complete
it as previous problems!
Go ahead!!
 PROBLEM 13 :- A line AB, 75mm long, has one end A in Vp. Other end B is 15 mm above Hp
and 50 mm in front of Vp.Draw the projections of the line when sum of it’s
Inclinations with HP & Vp is 900, means it is lying in a profile plane.
Find true angles with ref.planes and it’s traces.

VT (VT) a”
a’
SOLUTION STEPS:-
Side View
After drawing xy line and one Front view ( True Length )
projector Locate top view of A I.e

VP
point a on xy as It is in Vp, b’ b”
Locate Fv of B i.e.b’15 mm above xy as a  (HT)
Y
it is above Hp.and Tv of B i.e. b, 50 mm X HP
below xy asit is 50 mm in front
of Vp Draw side view structure of
Vp and Hp and locate S.V. of top view
point B i.e. b’’
From this point cut 75 mm distance on Vp
b
and Mark a’’ as A is in Vp. (This is also VT
HT
of line.) From this point draw locus to left
& get a’ Extend SV up to Hp. It will be HT.
As it is a Tv Rotate it and bring it on
projector of b.
Now as discussed earlier SV gives TL of line
and at the same time on extension up to Hp &
Vp gives inclinations with those panes.
 APPLICATIONS OF PRINCIPLES OF PROJECTIONS OF LINES
IN SOLVING CASES OF DIFFERENT PRACTICAL SITUATIONS.

In these types of problems some situation in the field

or
some object will be described .
It’s relation with Ground ( HP )
And
a Wall or some vertical object ( VP ) will be given.

Indirectly information regarding Fv & Tv of some line or lines,

inclined to both reference Planes will be given
and
you are supposed to draw it’s
projections and
further to determine it’s true Length and it’s inclinations with ground.

Here various problems along with properly.

actual pictures of those situations are
given
for you to understand those
clearly.
Now looking for views in given ARROW directions,
YOU are supposed to draw projections & find
answers, Off course you must visualize the situation
CHECK YOUR ANSWERS WITH THE
SOLUTIONS GIVEN IN THE END.
ALL THE BEST !!
PROBLEM 14:-Two objects, a flower (A) and an orange (B) are within a rectangular
compound wall, whose P & Q are walls meeting at 900. Flower A is 1M & 5.5 M from walls
P & Q respectively.
Orange B is 4M & 1.5M from walls P & Q respectively. Drawing projection, find distance
between them If flower is 1.5 M and orange is 3.5 M above the ground. Consider suitable
scale..
TV

B Wall Q

A
FV
PROBLEM 15 :- Two mangos on a tree A & B are 1.5 m and 3.00 m above
ground and those are 1.2 m & 1.5 m from a 0.3 m thick wall but on
opposite sides of it.
If the distance measured between them along the ground and parallel to
wall is 2.6 m, Then find real distance between them by drawing their
projections.

TV

0.3M THICK
A
PROBLEM 16 :- oa, ob & oc are three lines, 25mm, 45mm and 65mm
long respectively.All equally inclined and the shortest
is vertical.This fig. is TV of three rods OA, OB and OC
whose ends A,B & C are on ground and end O is 100mm
above ground. Draw their projections and find length of
each along with their angles with ground.

TV

C
A

FV
45 mm

B
PROBLEM 17:- A pipe line from point A has a downward gradient 1:5 and it runs due
East-South. Another Point B is 12 M from A and due East of A and in same level of A.
Pipe line from B runs 200 Due East of South and meets pipe line from A at point C.
Draw projections and find length of pipe line from B and it’s inclination with ground.

A
12 M
B E

C
PROBLEM 18: A person observes two objects, A & B, on the ground, from a tower,
15 M high, At the angles of depression 300 & 450. Object A is is due North-West
direction of observer and object B is due West direction. Draw projections of
situation and find distance of objects from observer and from tower also.

O
300

450

A
S

B
W
PROBLEM 19:-Guy ropes of two poles fixed at 4.5m and 7.5 m above
ground, are attached to a corner of a building 15 M high, make 300
and 450 inclinations with ground respectively.The poles are 10 M
apart. Determine by drawing their projections,Length of each rope
and distance of poles from building.
TV

15 M

A 300

4.5 M

450

7.5M
PROBLEM 20:- A tank of 4 M height is to be strengthened by four stay rods from each corner
by fixing their other ends to the flooring, at a point 1.2 M and 0.7 M from two adjacent walls respectively,
as shown. Determine graphically length and angle of each rod with flooring.

TV

4M
PROBLEM 21:- A horizontal wooden platform 2 M long and 1.5 M wide is supported by
four chains from it’s corners and chains are attached to a hook 5 M above the center of
the platform.
Draw projections of the objects and determine length of each chain along with it’s inclination
with ground.

TV
Hook H

A C

B
PROBLEM 22.
A room is of size 6.5m L ,5m D,3.5m high.
An electric bulb hangs 1m below the center of ceiling.
A switch is placed in one of the corners of the room, 1.5m above
the flooring. Draw the projections an determine real distance
between the bulb and switch.

Ceiling

TV

Bulb

Switch

D
PROBLEM 23:-
A PICTURE FRAME 2 M WIDE AND 1 M TALL IS RESTING ON HORIZONTAL WALL RAILING
MAKES 350 INCLINATION WITH WALL. IT IS ATTAACHED TO A HOOK IN THE WALL BY TWO STRINGS.
THE HOOK IS 1.5 M ABOVE WALL RAILING. DETERMINE LENGTH OF EACH CHAIN AND TRUE ANGLE BETWEEN THEM

350

Wall railing
 PROBLEM NO.24
T.V. of a 75 mm long Line CD, measures 50 mm.
SOME CASES OF THE LINE End C is 15 mm below Hp and 50 mm in front of Vp.
IN DIFFERENT QUADRANTS. End D is 15 mm in front of Vp and it is above Hp.
Draw projections of CD and find angles with Hp and Vp.
REMEMBER:
BELOW HP- Means- Fv below xy
BEHIND V p- Means- Tv above xy. d’ d’1 LOCUS OF d’ & d’1

X Y
 d d1 LOCUS OF d & d1
c’

c 
PROBLEM NO.25
End A of line AB is in Hp and 25 mm behind Vp.
End B in Vp.and 50mm above Hp.
Distance between projectors is 70mm.
Draw projections and find it’s inclinations with Ht, Vt.

LOCUS OF b’ & b’1

b’ b’1

a 

X a’  b b1 Y
LOCUS OF b & b1

70
PROBLEM NO.26
End A of a line AB is 25mm below Hp and 35mm behind Vp.
Line is 300 inclined to Hp.
There is a point P on AB contained by both HP & VP.
Draw projections, find inclination with Vp and traces.

a 
b’ b’1 LOCUS OF b’ & b’1

35

p p’
X y
p’1

25
=300
a’

LOCUS OF b & b1
b b1
PROBLEM NO.27
End A of a line AB is 25mm above Hp and end B is 55mm behind Vp.
The distance between end projectors is 75mm.
If both it’s HT & VT coincide on xy in a point,
35mm from projector of A and within two
projectors,
Draw projections, find TL and angles and HT, b b1
VT.

55

a’ 
25
X Vt Ht Y


a
35 b’ b’1

75
 PROJECTIONS OF PLANES
In this topic various plane figures are the objects.
What is usually asked in the problem?

To draw their projections means F.V, T.V. &

S.V.
What will be given in the problem?

1. Description of the plane figure.

2. It’s position with HP and VP.

In which manner it’s pUopstoition with HP & VP will be described?

16th
1.Inclination of it’s SURF
ACEsheet
w ith one of the reference planes will nbe
.
2. Inclination of one of it’s EDGES with other reference plane will be
given
 Study the illustration showing
surface & side inclination given on next page.

(Hence this will be a case of an object inclined to both reference

Planes.)
 CASE OF A RECTANGLE – OBSERVE AND NOTE ALL STEPS.

SURFACE PARALLEL TO SURFACE INCLINED TO ONE SMALL SIDE INCLINED TO

HP HP VP
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION PICTORIAL PRESENTATION PICTORIAL PRESENTATION

ORTHOGRAPHIC
FV- Apparent Shape TV-Previous S

ORTHOGRAPHIC ORTHOGRAPHIC
TV-True FV- Inclined to
Shape FV- XY TV- Reduced
VP Line // to xy VPShape VP
d1’ c1’

a’ d’ a1’
b’ c’ b1’

a a1 d1
d
b c b1 c1
C
 PROCEDURE OF SOLVING THE PROBLEM:
IN THREE STEPS EACH PROBLEM CAN BE SOLVED:( As Shown In Previous Illustration )
STEP 1. Assume suitable conditions & draw Fv & Tv of initial
position. STEP 2. Now consider surface inclination & draw 2nd
Fv & Tv.
STEP 3. After this,consider side/edge inclination and draw 3rd ( final) Fv &
Tv.

ASSUMPTIONS FOR INITIAL POSITION:

(Initial Position means assuming surface // to HP or VP)
1. If in problem surface is inclined to HP –
assume it // HP Or If surface is inclined to VP
– assume it // to VP
2. Now if surface is assumed // to HP- It’s TV will show True
Shape. And If surface is assumed // to VP – It’s FV will
show True Shape.
3. Hence begin with drawing TV or FV as True Shape.
4. While drawing this True Shape –
keep one side/edge ( which is making inclination) perpendicular to xy
line
( similar to pair
A on previous page illustration ).
no.
Now Complete STEP 2. By making surface inclined to the resp plane & project it’s other view.
(Ref. 2nd pair B on previous page illustration )
Now Complete STEP 3. By making side inclined to the resp plane & project it’s other view.
(Ref. 3nd pair C on previous page illustration )

APPLY SAME STEPS TO SOLVE NEXT ELEVEN PROBLEMS

Q12.4: A regular pentagon of 25mm side has one side on the ground. Its plane is inclined
at 45º to the HP and perpendicular to the VP. Draw its projections and show its traces

Hint: As the plane is inclined to HP, it should be

kept parallel to HP with one edge perpendicular to
VP

a’ b’
e’ d’ c’
45º
X Y

b
b1
a a1

c
c1
2
5

e e1
d d1
Q.12.5:Draw the projections of a circle of 5 cm diameter having its plane vertical and
inclined at 30º to the V.P. Its centre is 3cm above the H.P. and 2cm in front of the V.P.
Show also its traces

50 Ø

4’ 4 1’
3’ 5’ 3 1’ 5 1’

2’ 6’ 6 1’
2 1’

1’ 7’ 1 1’ 7 1’

12’ 8’ 121’ 8 1’
3
0

9 1’
11’ 9’ 111 ’
X 10’ Y
101’
2
0

30º
1 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7
12 11 10 9 8
Problem 5 : draw a regular hexagon of 40 mm sides, with its two sides vertical. Draw a circle of 40

aa’ a 1’

11’
1’ f1’ 121 ’ 21’ b1’
f’ 12’ b’
2’
11 1’
31’
11’ 3’
101’ 41’
10’ 4’
51’
9’ 5’ e1’ 91 ’
8’ 61’ c1’
e’ 6’ 8 1’
7’ c’ 7 1’

d’
30º d 1’
X Y
e f

a d b c 10 9
e f 11 a d
8
10 9 81 23 4 121
11 127 65 7 2
6 3 b c
45
Problem 1 : Draw an equilateral triangle of 75 mm sides and inscribe a circle in it. Draw the projec

a1’
a’
11’
1’ 121’ 21’
12’ 2’
c 1’
11’ 3’ c’ 111’
31’

10’ 4’ 101’ 41’

9’ 5’ 91’ 51’
81’
8’ 6’ 61’
7’ 71’

b’

30º b1’
45º
X Y

a b c
8
10 9 12 1 2 3 4
11 7 6 5
Q12.7: Draw the projections of a regular hexagon of 25mm sides, having one of its
side in the H.P. and inclined at 60 to the V.P. and its surface making an angle of
45º with the H.P.

Side on the H.P. making

60° with the VP.
Plane inclined to
HP
at 45°and ┴ to VP
Plane parallel to HP
e1’ d1’
f1’
1’
5º c
a’b’ c’ f’ d’e’ 4
a1 ’ Y
X f1 60º b1’
f
ae1 e a1

b d b1 d1

c c1
Q12.6: A square ABCD of 50 mm side has its corner A in the H.P., its diagonal AC inclined at 30

Keep AC parallel to the H.P. & BDIncline

perpendicular
AC at 30ºtotoV.P.
the (considering
H.P. inclination of AC as incl
i.e. incline the edge Incline BD at 45º to the V.P.
view (FV) at 30º to the
HP
c1 ’

b1’ d1’
b’
a’ d’ c’ 30º
X Y
45º 45º a1’
b b1

a c a1 c1

d d1
 c’ c1

b’d’ d1 b1

a’ c’ a’
X Y
60 a1
b1
a1
b

b
Q: Draw a rhombus of 100 mm and 60 mm long diagonals with longer diagonal horizontal. The figure is th
d1 b1

60
a c a1 c1
100

c1

d d1 100
100
Q4: Draw projections of a rhombus having diagonals 125 mm and 50 mm long, the smaller diag

Keep AC parallel to the H.P. & BD perpendicular

Incline ACtoatV.P.
30º(considering
to the H.P.inclination of AC as inclination of the
Make BD parallel to XY

c 1’

d1’ b1’
b’
d’ c’
X a’ 30º Y
12 5 a1’

b b
1

b
1
c1
a c a1
5
0

c
1
a
1
d
d1

d
1
Q 2:A regular hexagon of 40mm side has a corner in the HP. Its surface inclined at45°
to the HP and the top view of the diagonal through the corner which is in the HP makes
an angle of 60° with the VP. Draw its projections.

Top view of the diagonal

Plane inclined to making 60° with the VP.
Plane parallel to HP at 45°and ┴ to
HP VP
d 1’

c1 ’
e 1’

b 1’
f1’
b’ c’
a’ f’ e’ d’ 45° a1 ’ Y
X 60°
f1
f1 e1 a1
f e

e1
b1

a d d1
a1

d1
c
1

b c
b1 c1
Q7:A semicircular plate of 80mm diameter has its straight edge in the VP and inclined at 45
to HP.The surface of the plate makes an angle of 30 with the VP. Draw its projections.
Plane inclined at 30º to the V.P.
Plane in the V.P. with and straight edge in the H.P. St.edge in V.P. and
straight edge ┴ to H.P inclined at 45º to the
H.P.

1’ 11’
2’21’

3’
31’
4’
41’
80
Ø

5’ 51’

6’ 61’
7’ 71’ 45º 71 11
X 1 Y
2 3 4 30 º
7 5 21
6 61
31
51 41
Problem 12.8 : Draw the projections of a circle of 50 mm diameter resting on the HP on point A on t

6, 7
5, 8
9
4,
10
3,

2,
11
12 45º
X 1 Y
1 2, 3, 4, 6, 7
12 11 10 5 8
,
4 9
3 5
2 6

1 7 11

12 8

11 9
10
Q12.10: A thin rectangular plate of sides 60 mm X 30 mm has its shorter side in the V.P. and inc

A rectangle can be seen as a F.V. (square) is drawn first Incline a1’b1’ at 30º to the H.P.
square in the F.V. only when
its surface is inclined to VP. So
for the first view keep the
plane // to VP & shorter edge ┴
to HP
60

b’ c’b1’ c1 ’
3
0

a’ d’ a1’ d1’ b1 a1 30º

X Y
c
a a
d
b b

c c1 d1
d
A circle can be seen as a ellipse in the F.V. only when its surface is inclined to VP. So for the first view keep
Incline the F.V. till the major a
Incline the T.V. till the

distance between the end

projectors is 30 mm
50
Ø
3 ’ 41’

41
3’ 4’

51’
’
5’ 1 51’

31
’
2’ 6’ 21’ 61’

21

61
’

’
11’ 71’
1’ 7’

11

71
’
’
12’
8’ 121’ 81

121

81
’

’
’
X 11’ 9’ 91’
10’ 12 11’ Y
101’ ’ 1 2’
111’

91
11

101’
1’
30 1

31’
111’
1 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 10 ’
Q12.11: A41circular
’
12 11
plate of negligible
8 thickness and 50 mm diameter appears as an ellipse in the
10 9 1

91 51’
’ 81
’ 7’
61’
Problem 9 : A plate having shape of an isosceles triangle has base 50 mm long a

c1’
a’ a 1’
a 1’
c’c1’
5
0

b’ b1 ’ b 1’
45º

a.b 70 c a.b a1 b1

c c1
 Problem 1:
Rectangle 30mm and 50mm
sides is resting on HP on one
small side which is 300 inclined
to VP,while the surface of the
plane makes 450 inclination with
HP. Draw it’s projections.

Read problem and answer following questions

Surface inclined to which plane? -------HP
Assumption for initial position?------// to HP
So which view will show True shape? ---TV
Which side will be vertical?---One small side.
Hence begin with TV, draw rectangle below X-Y drawing one small side vertical.

Surface // to Hp Surface inclined to Hp

d’ c’ c’1 d’1

a’b’ a c’ d’ b’450
a’
d a’1
X
a1 d1
Side
Inclined
b’1 Y to Vp
0
30

b c b1 c1
 X1
4’
3’ 5’ 4”
41’
2’ 31’ 51’ 6’ 5”3”
21’ 6”2”
61’
1’
11’ 7’ 7”1”
71’
1122’’ 88’’ 8”12”
1 1
60º 9”11”
11111’’41 99’’ 10”
11 5
001’’ 11 6 Y
X 21 31 1
11 71
121
81
111 91
101 Y1
 X1
4’
3’ 5’ 4”

2’ 6’ 5”3”

6”2”

1’ 7’
7”1”
41’
31’ 51’
12’ 8’
8”12
21’ 61’
”
41 11’ 9’ 60 9”11
31 Y
10’ 1 ’ º ” 7’
10”
X 51
21 61 1 1

11
12 ’ 8’
71
121 1 1

8
11 1 111’ 91’
1
91 Y1 101’
101
The top view of a plate, the surface of which is inclined at 60º to the HP is a circle of 60 mm diamet

X1

7’ 7”
6’
8’ 6” 8”
5’
9’ 5” 9”
4’
10’
4” 10”
3’
11
’ 3” 11”
2’
12’ 2” 12”
600
X 1’ Y
1”

4
3 5
2 6

1 7

12 8
11 9
10
60 1
 Problem 12.9: Read problem and answer following questions
A 300 – 600 set square of longest 1 .Surface inclined to which plane? -------VP
side 100 mm long, is in VP and Assumption for initial position?------// to VP
300 inclined to HP while it’s So which view will show True shape? ---FV
surface is 450 inclined to VP.Draw Which side will be vertical?------longest side.
it’s projections
(Surface & Side inclinations directly given)
Hence begin with FV, draw triangle above X-Y
keeping longest side vertical.
a’ a’1

c’ side inclined to Hp
c’1
c’1

a’1

b’1
b’1
b’
X a
b 450 a1
300
Y
b1
a c
b c1
c
Surface // to Vp Surface inclined to Vp
Problem 3: Read problem and answer following
A 30 – 60 set square of longest
0 0
questions 1 .Surface inclined to which
side 100 mm long is in VP and plane? ------- VP
it’s surface 450 inclined to VP.
One end of longest side is 10 mm 2. Assumption for initial position? ------// to VP
and other end is 35 mm above 3. So which view will show True shape? --- FV
HP. Draw it’s projections 4. Which side will be vertical? ------longest side.

(Surface inclination directly Hence begin with FV, draw triangle above X-
given. Side inclination indirectly
given) Y keeping longest side vertical.

First TWO steps are similar to previous problem.

Note the manner in which side inclination is given.
a’ a’1 End A 35 mm above Hp & End B is 10 mm above
Hp.
c’ c’1 So redraw 2nd Fv as final Fv placing these ends as said.

c’1
a’1

35

b’1 b’1

X b’
a
10 Y
b 450 a1
b1
c
a c1
b c
Problem 4: Read problem and answer following questions
A regular pentagon of 30 mm sides is 1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP
resting on HP on one of it’s sides with it’s 2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // to HP
surface 450 inclined to HP. 3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV
Draw it’s projections when the side in 4. Which side will be vertical?-----------any side.
HP makes 300 angle with VP Hence begin with TV,draw pentagon
SURFACE AND SIDE INCLINATIONS below X-Y line, taking one side vertical.
ARE DIRECTLY GIVEN.
d’ d’1

c’e’
e’1 c’1
d’b’ a’ a’1
X b’ a’ c’e’ 450 b’1 Y
e e1 a1 300

a1 e1
a b1

d1
d
d1 c1
b b1

c c1
 Problem 5: Read problem and answer following questions
A regular pentagon of 30 mm sides is resting 1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP
on HP on one of it’s sides while it’s 2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // to HP
opposite vertex (corner) is 30 mm above 3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV
HP. 4. Which side will be vertical? --------any side.
Draw projections when side in HP is 300 Hence begin with TV,draw pentagon below
inclined to VP.
SURFACE INCLINATION INDIRECTLY GIVEN X-Y line, taking one side vertical.
SIDE INCLINATION DIRECTLY GIVEN:

ONLY CHANGE is
the manner in which surface inclination is
described:
One side on Hp & it’s opposite corner 30 mm above d’ d’1
Hp.
Hence redraw 1 Fv as a 2nd Fv making above
st c’e’
e’1 c’1
arrangement.
Keep a’b’ on xy & d’ 30 mm above xy.
3
0

X b’ a’ b a’
c’e’ d’
b’
e1
e
a a1
b1
d
c c1
 b’ a’1
300 1
a1 Y
e1

d1 b1
d1

c1
 c’1
1
Problem 8: A circle of 50 mm diameter is b’
a’ b’ d’c’
resting on Hp on end A of it’s diameter 300
a’ d’1 Y
1
AC d1 450
X d
which is 300 inclined to Hp while it’s Tv
is 450 inclined to Vp.Draw it’s projections.
a ca1 c1

Read problem and answer following questions

1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP b b1
2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // to HP
3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV The difference in these two problems is in step 3
4. Which diameter horizontal? ---------- AC only.
Hence begin with TV,draw rhombus below In problem no.8 inclination of Tv of that AC is
X-Y line, taking longer diagonal // to X-Y given,It could be drawn directly as shown in 3rd
step.
While in no.9 angle of AC itself i.e. it’s TL, is
given. Hence here angle of TL is taken,locus of c1
Problem 9: A circle of 50 mm
Is drawn and then LTV I.e. a1 c1 is marked and
diameter is resting on Hp on end A
of it’s diameter AC which is 300 c’1
inclined to Hp while it makes 450 b’1
a’ b’ d’c’ a’1 d’1
inclined to Vp. Draw it’s projections.
d d1
Note the difference in construction of 3rd step in both solutions.
300
a ca1 c1

b b1
 Read problem and answer following questions
Problem 10: End A of diameter AB of a circle is 1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP
in HP A nd end B is in VP.Diameter AB, 50 2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // to HP
mm long is 300 & 600 inclined to HP & VP 3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV
respectively.
Draw projections of circle.
4. Which diameter horizontal? ---------- AB
Hence begin with TV,draw CIRCLE below
X-Y line, taking DIA. AB // to X-Y

The problem is similar to previous problem of circle – no.9.

But in the 3rd step there is one more change.
Like 9th problem True Length inclination of dia.AB is definitely expected
but if you carefully note - the the SUM of it’s inclinations with HP & VP is 900.
Means Line AB lies in a Profile Plane.
Hence it’s both Tv & Fv must arrive on one single projector.
So do the construction accordingly AND note the case carefully..

300
X 600 Y
SOLVE SEPARATELY
ON DRAWING SHEET GIVING NA
AS THE CASE IS IMPORTANT
 Problem 11: Read problem and answer following questions
A hexagonal lamina has its one side in HP
1. Surface inclined to which plane? ------- HP
and Its apposite parallel side is 25mm
above Hp and In Vp. Draw it’s 2. Assumption for initial position? ------ // to HP
projections. 3. So which view will show True shape? --- TV
Take side of hexagon 30 mm long. 4. Which diameter horizontal? ---------- AC
Hence begin with TV,draw rhombus below
ONLY CHANGE is the manner in which surface
inclination is described:
X-Y line, taking longer diagonal // to X-Y
One side on Hp & it’s opposite side 25 mm above
Hp. Hence redraw 1st Fv as a 2nd Fv making above
arrangement. Keep a’b’ on xy & d’e’ 25 mm above
xy.

e’1 d’1

25 f’1 c1’
X a’b’ a’
c’ f’ d’e’ 1 b’1 Y
f f1 e1 d1
f1 c1
ae a1 e1
a1 b1 As 3rd step redraw 2nd Tv
b d b1 d1 side DE on xy line. Becau
c c1
 FREELY SUSPENDED
CASES. IMPORTANT POINTS
1. In this case the plane of the figure always remains perpendicular to Hp.
Problem 12:
2. It may remain parallel or inclined to Vp.
An isosceles triangle of 40 mm long
3. Hence TV in this case will be always a LINE view.
base side, 60 mm long altitude Is
4. Assuming surface // to Vp, draw true shape in suspended position as
freely suspended from one corner
FV. (Here keep line joining point of contact & centroid of fig.
of Base side.It’s plane is 450 inclined
vertical ) 5.Always begin with FV as a True Shape but in a suspended
to Vp. Draw it’s projections.
position.
AS shown in 1st FV.

a’1
a’
C

b’1
b’ g’ g’1
H
G c’ c’1
X Y
H/3

A B

b a,g c 450
gle With given dimensions, Locate it’s centroid position And
join it with point of suspension.

Similarly solve next problem of Semi-circle

 IMPORTANT POINTS
Problem 13 In this case the plane of the figure always remains perpendicular to Hp.
:A semicircle of 100 mm It may remain parallel or inclined to Vp.
diameter is suspended from Hence TV in this case will be always a LINE view.
a point on its Assuming surface // to Vp, draw true shape in suspended position as FV. (Here k
straight edge 30 mm from the AS shown in 1st FV.
midpoint of that edge so that the
surface makes an angle of 450
with VP.
Draw its projections.

A
a’
20 mm
p’
P
G b’
CG g’

c’

e’
d’
X Y

First draw a given semicircle

With given diameter,
Locate it’s centroid position b c a p,g d e
And
join it with point of suspension.
To determine true shape of plane figure when it’s projections are given.
BY USING AUXILIARY PLANE METHOD
WHAT WILL BE THE PROBLEM?
Description of final Fv & Tv will be given.
You are supposed to determine true shape of that
plane figure.
Follow the below given steps:
1. Draw the given Fv & Tv as per the given information in problem.
2. Then among all lines of Fv & Tv select a line showing True Length (T.L.) (It’s other view must b
Draw x1-y1 perpendicular to this line showing T.L. Project view on x1-y1 ( it must be a line view
3. Draw x2-y2 // to this line view & project new view on it.
4.
5.
It will be the required answer i.e. True Shape.

The facts you must know:-

If you carefully study and observe the solutions of all previous
problems, You will find
IF ONE VIEW IS A LINE VIEW & THAT TOO PARALLEL TO XY
LINE, THEN AND THEN IT’S OTHER VIEW WILL SHOW TRUE
SHAPE:

NOW FINAL VIEWS ARE ALWAYS SOME SHAPE, NOT LINE

VIEWS: SO APPLYING ABOVE METHOD: Study Next
WE FIRST CONVERT ONE VIEW IN INCLINED LINE VIEW .(By using x1y1
aux.plane) THEN BY MAKING IT // TO X2-Y2 WE GET TRUE SHAPE. Four Cases
 Problem 14 Tv is a triangle abc. Ab is 50 mm long, angle cab is 300 and angle cba is 650.
a’b’c’ is a Fv. a’ is 25 mm, b’ is 40 mm and c’ is 10 mm above Hp respectively. Draw projections
of that figure and find it’s true shape.
As per the procedure-
1. First draw Fv & Tv as per the data.
2. In Tv line ab is // to xy hence it’s other view a’b’ is TL. So draw x1y1 perpendicular to
it. 3.Project view on x1y1.
a) First draw projectors from a’b’ & c’ on x1y1.
b) from xy take distances of a,b & c( Tv) mark on these projectors from x1y1. Name points a1b1 & c1.
c) This line view is an Aux.Tv. Draw x2y2 // to this line view and project Aux. Fv on it.
for that from x1y1 take distances of a’b’ & c’ and mark from x2y= on new
projectors.
4.Name points a’1 b’1 & c’1 and join them. This will be the required true shape.
Y1 b
a1 1 Y2

b’ b’1
15

a’ C1
15 C’ X1 a’

10
X Y 1
c X2 c’1

a b
50 mm
300 65
0
ALWAYS FOR
NEW FV TAKE
DISTANCES
OF PREVIOUS
FV AND FOR
NEW TV,
DISTANCES
OF PREVIOUS
TV
R
E
M
E
M
B
E
R
!!
Problem 15: Fv & Tv of a triangular plate are shown.
Determine it’s true shape.

50
USE SAME PROCEDURE STEPS
OF PREVIOUS PROBLEM: 25
BUT THERE IS ONE c’
DIFFICULTY: 15
a
’ 1’
NO LINE IS // TO XY IN ANY VIEW.
MEANS NO TL IS AVAILABLE.
20 b’
IN SUCH CASES DRAW ONE Y
LINE 10
X x1
// TO XY IN ANY VIEW & IT’S 15 c
OTHER VIEW CAN BE a
CONSIDERED AS TL FOR THE 1 c’
PURPOSE. 40
a’ 1
b 1 y
HERE a’ 1’ line in Fv is drawn // to
2
xy. b’1
HENCE it’s Tv a-1 becomes TL. y1
c1
x2
THEN FOLLOW SAME STEPS
AND DETERMINE TRUE
SHAPE. (STUDY THE
ILLUSTRATION)

ALWAYS FOR NEW FV TAKE b1

DISTANCES OF PREVIOUS FV
AND FOR NEW TV, DISTANCES d1
OF PREVIOUS TV
REMEMBER!!
 PROBLEM 16: Fv & Tv both are circles of 50 mm diameter. Determine true shape of an elliptical plate.

ADOPT SAME PROCEDURE.

a c is considered as line // to xy.
Then a’c’ becomes TL for the purpose. Using steps properly true shape can be Easily determined.

Study the illustration. y1

50D
b’ b1 y2

TL c’ ac
1
1
a’ b’1
X1 c’1
d’ d1
Y
X d
X2
ALWAYS, FOR NEW FV a’1
TAKE DISTANCES OF d’1
PREVIOUS FV AND a c TRUE SHAPE
FOR NEW TV,
DISTANCES OF
PREVIOUS TV
50 D. b
REMEMBER!!
 Problem 17 : Draw a regular pentagon
of 30 mm sides with one side 300
inclined to xy. This figure is Tv of some
plane whose Fv is A line 450 inclined
to xy. b1
Determine it’s true shape.
a1
c1
IN THIS CASE ALSO TRUE LENGTH IS NOT AVAILABLE IN ANY VIEW.
X1
BUT ACTUALLY WE DONOT REQUIRE TL TO FIND IT’S TRUE SHAPE, AS ONE VIEW (FV) IS ALREADY A L

STUDY THE ILLUSTRATION..

a’ e1 d1
b’
e’
c’ Y1
d’
450 Y
X 300
e

d
a

c
b
ALWAYS FOR NEW FV TAKE DISTANCES OF PREVIOUS FV AND FOR NEW TV, DISTANCES OF PREVIOUS TV
REMEMBER!!
UNIT III
 SOLIDS
To understand and remember various solids in this subject
properly,
those are classified & arranged in to two major groups.
Group A Group
Solids having top and base of same shape
B
Solids having base of some shape
and just a point as a top, called apex.

Cylinder
Cone

Prisms Cube
( A solid having
six square
faces)

Triangular Square Pentagonal Hexagonal

 Pyramids

Triangular Square Pentagonal Hexagonal

Tetrahedron
( A solid having
Four triangular faces)
 SOLIDS
Dimensional parameters of different solids.

Square Prism Square Pyramid Cylinder Cone

Apex Apex
Top
Rectangula Slant
r Face Edge Triangular
Longer Base Face Base Base
Base
Edge

Corner of Edge Edge Corner of

Generators
base of of base
Imaginary lines
Base Base
generating curved surface
of cylinder & cone.

Sections of solids( top & base not parallel) Frustum of cone & pyramids.
( top & base parallel to each other)
 STANDING ON H.P RESTING ON H.P LYING ON H.P
On it’s base. On one point of base On one generator.
(Axis perpendicular to circle. (Axis inclined to Hp (Axis inclined to Hp
Hp And // to Vp.) And // to Vp) And // to Vp)

F.V.
F.V. F.V.

X Y
While observing Fv, x-y line represents Horizontal Plane. (Hp)

X While observing Tv, x-y line represents Vertical Plane. (Vp) Y

T.V. T.V. T.V.

STANDING ON V.P RESTING ON V.P Vp And // to Hp

On it’s base. On one point of base circle.
Axis perpendicular to Vp Axis inclined to
And // to Hp
 LYING
ON V.P
On one
generator.
Axis inclined
to Vp And //
to Hp
 STEPS TO SOLVE PROBLEMS IN SOLIDS
Problem is solved in three steps:
STEP 1: ASSUME SOLID STANDING ON THE PLANE WITH WHICH IT IS MAKING
INCLINATION. ( IF IT IS INCLINED TO HP, ASSUME IT STANDING ON HP)
( IF IT IS INCLINED TO VP, ASSUME IT STANDING ON VP)
IF STANDING ON HP - IT’S TV WILL BE TRUE SHAPE OF IT’S BASE OR
TOP: IF STANDING ON VP - IT’S FV WILL BE TRUE SHAPE OF IT’S BASE
OR TOP. BEGIN WITH THIS VIEW:
IT’S OTHER VIEW WILL BE A RECTANGLE ( IF SOLID IS CYLINDER OR ONE OF THE
PRISMS): IT’S OTHER VIEW WILL BE A TRIANGLE ( IF SOLID IS CONE OR ONE OF THE
PYRAMIDS):
DRAW FV & TV OF THAT SOLID IN STANDING POSITION:
STEP 2: CONSIDERING SOLID’S INCLINATION ( AXIS POSITION ) DRAW IT’S FV & TV.
STEP 3: IN LAST STEP, CONSIDERING REMAINING INCLINATION, DRAW IT’S FINAL FV & TV.

GENERAL PATTERN ( THREE STEPS ) OF SOLUTION:

GROUP B SOLID. GROUP A SOLID. GROUP B SOLID. GROUP A SOLID.
CONE CYLINDER CONE CYLINDER
AXIS AXIS
AXIS AXIS INCLINED HP INCLINED HP
AXIS AXIS VERTICAL INCLINED HP
VERTICAL INCLINED HP

er er
AXIS AXIS AXIS AXIS
TO VP AXIS TO VP
INCLINED VP AXIS INCLINED INCLINED
INCLINED VP VP VP

Three steps Three steps Three steps

If solid is inclined to If solid is inclined to If solid is inclined to
 Three steps
If solid is inclined to
Study Next Twelve Problems and Practice them separately !!
 CATEGORIES OF ILLUSTRATED PROBLEMS!

PROBLEM NO.1, 2, 3, 4 GENERAL CASES OF SOLIDS INCLINED TO HP & VP

PROBLEM NO. 5 & 6 CASES OF CUBE & TETRAHEDRON

PROBLEM NO. 7 CASE OF FREELY SUSPENDED SOLID WITH SIDE VIEW.

PROBLEM NO. 8 CASE OF CUBE ( WITH SIDE VIEW)

PROBLEM NO. 9 CASE OF TRUE LENGTH INCLINATION WITH HP & VP.

PROBLEM NO. 10 & 11 CASES OF COMPOSITE SOLIDS. (AUXILIARY PLANE)

PROBLEM NO. 12 CASE OF A FRUSTUM (AUXILIARY PLANE)

Q Draw the projections of a pentagonal prism , base 25 mm side and axis 50 mm long, resting o

As the axis is to be inclined with the VP, in the first view it must be kept perpendicular to the VP

b’ 2’ b 1’ 21’

a’ 1’ c’ 3’ a 1’ 31
’
c 1’ 11’

X e d1’
e’5’ d’ 4’
45 51’
25 1 1
’ c
5 º d
a e 2 d c

b e
a
5
0

5
4 3 1
 4 1’
Y

3
4
2
 a’b a 1’ b 1’
’
a’b c’d
’ ’

c’d’
d 1’ c 1’

1’2’ 11’
21
’

450
3’ 41’ 31
1’2’
4’ 300 ’
21
3’4’
b2 21 31 b1 c1
11
c3
31

a1
d4 1
41 a1 b1
4 d1
a1
1 c1

d1
Problem 13.19: Draw the projections of a cone, base Steps
45 mm diameter and axis 50 mm long, when it is
(1) Draw the TV & FV of the cone assuming its base on the HP
resting on the ground on a point on its base circle
(2) To incline axis at 30º with the HP, incline the base at 60º with
with (a) the axis making an angle of 30º with the HP
HP and draw the FV and then the TV.
and 45º with the VP (b) the axis making an angle of (3) For part (a), to find β, draw a line at 45º with XY in the TV, of 50
30º with the HP and its top view making 45º with the mm length. Draw the locus of the end of axis. Then cut an arc of
VP length equal to TV of the axis when it is inclined at 30º with HP.
Then redraw the TV, keeping the axis at new position. Then draw the
new FV
(4) For part (b), draw a line at 45º with XY in the TV. Then redraw
the TV, keeping the axis at new position. Again draw the FV.

30º
60º
X Y

45º
45º
Q13.22: A hexagonal pyramid base 25 mm side and axis 55 mm long has one of its slant edge on the ground. A plane con

The inclination of the axis is given indirectly in this problem. When the slant edge of a pyramid rests on the HP its axis is inclin

The vertical plane containing the slant edge on the HP and the axis is seen in the TV as o1d1 for drawing auxiliary FV draw an

o
’ f 1’
a e1 ’ a 1’
’

b 1’
b’
c1
d1 ’
X1 ’
f’

c’
e’

b c’
X ’ o’
Y
a’ f f1 o1 ’
d’
f’ e’ d’
e1
e
a
d d1 a1
o 45º Y1
o1

b c c1 b1
 Solution Steps:
Problem 5: A cube of 50 mm long 1.Assuming standing on HP, begin with TV,a square with all sides
edges is so placed on HP on one equally inclined to XY. Project FV and name all points of FV & TV.
2.Draw a body-diagonal joining c’ with 1’( This can become // to xy)
corner that a body diagonal is 3.From 3’ drop a perpendicular on this and name it p’
parallel to HP and perpendicular to 4.Draw 2nd Fv in which 3’p’ line is vertical means c’-1’ diagonal
VP Draw it’s projections. must be horizontal. .Now as usual project TV..
6.In final TV draw same diagonal is perpendicular to VP as said in problem.
Then as usual project final FV.

a1’

b1’ d1’
a’ b’d’ c’
c 1’
3’
11
21’ ’
2’ 4’ 41’

X 1’ 2’ 4’ 3’ 3’ 31’1 Y
1
d4 41 d1

21 41

a1 c 11 a1 31 c1
3
b1 d1
 21 b1 c1
b2
Problem 6:A tetrahedron of 50 mm long Solution
edges is resting on one edge on Hp while one tria
Steps
As it is resting assume it standing on Hp.
Begin with Tv , an equilateral triangle as side case as shown:
First project base points of Fv on xy, name those & axis line.
From a’ with TL of edge, 50 mm, cut on axis line & mark o’
(as axis is not known, o’ is finalized by slant edge length)
IMPORTANT: Then complete Fv.
Tetrahedron is a special type In 2nd Fv make face o’b’c’ vertical as said in problem.
of triangular pyramid in which base sides
And& slant
like edges are
all previous equal in
problems length.
solve completely.
Solid of four faces. Like cube it is also described by One dimension only..
Axis length
generally not given. o’1
o’
TL
a’1
900
X b’
a’ c’ c’1 b’1
Y
c 450
c1

a o
a1
o1

b
b1
Problem 1. A square pyramid, Solution Steps :
40 mm base sides and axis 60 Triangular face on Hp , means it is lying on Hp:
1. Assume it standing on Hp.
mm long, has a triangular face 2. It’s Tv will show True Shape of base( square)
on the ground and the vertical 3. Draw square of 40mm sides with one side
plane containing the axis makes vertical Tv & taking 50 mm axis project Fv. ( a
triangle)
an angle of 450 with the VP. 4. Name all points as shown in illustration.
Draw its projections. Take apex 5. Draw 2nd Fv in lying position I.e.o’c’d’ face on xy. And
nearer to VP project it’s Tv. 6.Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted,
as per the procedure.
7.Then construct remaining inclination with Vp
( Vp containing axis ic the center line of 2 nd Tv.Make it 450 to xy
o’ as shown take apex near to xy, as it is nearer to Vp) & project
final Fv.

a’1 b’1

X a
c’d’ d c’1
o ’
b d d1 1
a’ a1

b’ c c o1 (APEX
1
o’1 Y
NEARER (APEX
For dark and dotted lines AWAY
TO V.P).
1. Draw proper outline of new view DARK. 2. Decide direction of an observer. FROM V.P.)
3. Select nearest point to observer and draw all lines starting from it-dark.
4. Select farthest point to observer and draw all lines (remaining)from it- dotted.
Problem 13.20:A pentagonal pyramid base 25 mm side and axis 50 mm long has one of its
triangular faces in the VP and the edge of the base contained by that face makes an angle of
30º with the HP. Draw its projections.
Step 1. Here the inclination of the axis is given indirectly. As one triangular face of the pyramid is in the VP its axis will be
inclined with the VP. So for drawing the first view keep the axis perpendicular to the VP. So the true shape of the base will
be seen in the FV. Secondly when drawing true shape of the base in the FV, one edge of the base (which is to be inclined
with the HP) must be kept perpendicular to the HP.
Step 2. In the TV side aeo represents a triangular face. So for drawing the TV in the second stage, keep that face on XY so
that the triangular face will lie on the VP and reproduce the TV. Then draw the new FV with help of TV
Step 3. Now the edge of the base a1’e1’ which is perpendicular to the HP must be in clined at 30º to the HP. That is incline the
FV till a1’e1’ is inclined at 30º with the HP. Then draw the TV.
o1’
b1’
b’
a’a1’
o’ c1’
o1’ b1’
c’ c1’
25

a1’
e’ e1’
d 1’
d’ d 1’ e1’
ae bd
30º e1 a1
c o1
X o ae Y

bd d1 b1
50

c
c1
o
 Problem 2: Solution Steps:
A cone 40 mm diameter and 50 mm axis Resting on Hp on one generator, means lying on
Hp: 1.Assume it standing on Hp.
is resting on one generator on Hp 2. It’s Tv will show True Shape of base(
which makes 300 inclination with VP circle )
Draw it’s projections. 3. Draw 40mm dia. Circle as Tv &
taking 50 mm axis project Fv. ( a
triangle) 4.Name all points as shown
in illustration.
5. Draw 2nd Fv in lying position I.e.o’e’
For dark and dotted lines on xy. And project it’s Tv below xy.
Draw proper outline of new vie DARK.
6. Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted,
Decide direction of an observer.
as per the procedure.
Select nearest point to observer and draw all lines starting from it-dark.
Then construct remaining inclination with
Select farthest point to observer and draw all lines (remaining) from7.it- dotted.
Vp
( generator o1e1 300 to xy as shown) & project
o’
final Fv.
a’1
h’1 b’1

g’1

f’1 c’
X a’ h’b’ c’ g f’ d’ e’ o’
e’ 1
d’1 1 Y o1
30
’
g g1
g1 o1
h f f1 h1 h1
f1 a1
a e e1 a1 o1 e1b1

b1
Problem 3: Solution Steps:
Resting on Vp on one point of base, means
A cylinder 40 mm diameter and 50 mm inclined to Vp: 1.Assume it standing on Vp
axis is resting on one point of a base 2. It’s Fv will show True Shape of base & top( circle )
circle on Vp while it’s axis makes 450 3. Draw 40mm dia. Circle as Fv & taking 50 mm axis
project Tv. ( a Rectangle)
with Vp and Fv of the axis 350 with 4. Name all points as shown in illustration.
Hp. Draw projections.. 5. Draw 2nd Tv making axis 450 to xy And project it’s Fv
above xy. 6.Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted, as
per the procedure. 7.Then construct remaining inclination
with Hp
( Fv of axis I.e. center line of view to xy as shown) & project
final Tv.

4’d’ d’ 4’

3’ c’
1’ a’ c’ 1’ 3’
a’

b’ 2’
2’
X
b’
350
a bd c 450 c1 Y
d1
1
b

a1
3

4
 2
1 24 3
1
 Solution Steps :
1. Assume it standing on Hp but as said on apex.
( inverted ). 2.It’s Tv will show True Shape of base(
Problem 4:A square pyramid 30 mm base side
square)
and 50 mm long axis is resting on it’s apex on 3.Draw a corner case square of 30 mm sides as Tv(as shown)
Hp, such that it’s one slant edge is vertical and a Showing all slant edges dotted, as those will not be visible
triangular face through it is perpendicular to Vp. from top. 4.taking 50 mm axis project Fv. ( a triangle)
Draw it’s projections. 5. Name all points as shown in illustration.
6. Draw 2nd Fv keeping o’a’ slant edge vertical & project
it’s Tv 7.Make visible lines dark and hidden dotted, as per
the procedure. 8.Then redrew 2nd Tv as final Tv keeping
a1o1d1 triangular face
perpendicular to Vp I.e.xy. Then as usual project final Fv.

a’ b’d’ c’ a’1
d’1 b’1
c’1

X o’ o’1 Y
d d1

a a1
c
1 o
b1

c1
 FREELY SUSPENDED SOLIDS:
Positions of CG, on axis, from base, for different solids are shown below.

H
CG

H/2 CG
H/4

GROUP A SOLIDS GROUP B SOLIDS

( Cylinder & Prisms) ( Cone & Pyramids)
 Solution Steps:
Problem 7: A pentagonal pyramid In all suspended cases axis shows inclination with Hp.
30 mm base sides & 60 mm long axis, 1.Hence assuming it standing on Hp, drew Tv - a regular pentagon,corner case.
is freely suspended from one corner of 2.Project Fv & locate CG position on axis – ( ¼ H from base.) and name g’
base so that a plane containing it’s axis and
remains parallel to Vp. Join it with corner d’
Draw it’s three views. 3. As 2nd Fv, redraw first keeping line g’d’ vertical.
4. As usual project corresponding Tv and then Side View looking from.

IMPORTANT:
When a solid is freely
suspended from a
corner, then line
joining point of
contact & C.G.
remains vertical.
( Here axis shows
inclination with Hp.)
So in all such cases,
assume solid standing
on Hp initially.)
X
e e1
a1
a
d1
o d o1
b b1
c c1
 Solution Steps:
Problem 8:
A1.Assuming
cube of 50 mmit standing on Hpisbegin
long edges with on
so placed Tv,Hp
a square
on oneofcorner
corner case.
that a body diagonal
2.Project corresponding Fv.& name all points as usual in both views. through this corner is perpendicular to
3.Join a’1’ as body diagonal and draw 2nd Fv making it vertical (I’ on xy) Hp and parallel to Vp Draw it’s three
4.Project it’s Tv drawing dark and dotted lines as per the procedure. views.
5.With standard method construct Left-hand side view.
( Draw a 450 inclined Line in Tv region ( below xy).
Project horizontally all points of Tv on this line and
reflect vertically upward, above xy.After this, draw
horizontal lines, from all points of Fv, to meet these
lines. Name points of intersections and join properly. a’’
For dark & dotted lines
locate observer on left side of Fv as shown.)

d’’ b’’
a’ b’d’ c’

c’’

X 1’ Y
1’
d d1 1’

a c a1 c1
b b1
 Problem 9: A right circular cone, 40 mm base This
diameter
case resembles
and 60 mmto problem
long axisno.7
is resting
& 9 from
on Hp
projections
on one point
of of
planes
base topic.
circle such th
vDraw
of axis
it’sisprojections.
inclined to Vp etc. But here it is clearly said that the axis is 400 inclined to Vp. Means here TL inclination is expected.
So assuming it standing on HP begin as usual.

o’1
o’
a’1
h’1 b’1

g’1 c’1

X a’ h’b’ c’ g’ f’ d’ 450 f’1 d’1 y

e’

g g1 e’1 Axis True Length

400
h f h1 f1

a e a1 Axis Tv Length
1 e1
o1
Locus of
b Center 1
b d 1 d1 1
c c1
Axis Tv
Length
Problem 10: A triangular prism, 40 mm base side 60 mm axis
is lying on Hp on one rectangular face
with axis perpendicular to Vp.
One square pyramid is leaning on it’s face centrally with axis // to vp. It’s base side is 30 mm & axis is 60 mm long resting on
on an AVP 450 inclined to VP.
F.V.

X Y
450
Steps :
Draw Fv of lying prism
( an equilateral Triangle)
And Fv of a leaning pyramid. T.V.
Project Tv of both solids.
Draw x1y1 450 inclined to xy
and project aux.Fv on it. Aux.F.V.
Mark the distances of first FV
from first xy for the distances
of aux. Fv from x1y1 line.
Note the observer’s directions
Shown by arrows and further
steps carefully.
Problem 11:A hexagonal prism of
base side 30 mm longand axis 40 mm long, is standing on Hp on it’s base with
one base edge // to Vp.
A tetrahedron is placed centrally
on the top of it.The base of tetrahedron is
a triangle formed by joining alternate corners
of top of prism..Draw projections of both solids. Project an auxiliary Tv on AIP 450 inclined to Hp.
o’

STEPS:
Draw a regular hexagon as Tv of
standing prism With one side // to xy
Y1
and name the top points.Project it’s Fv – a’b’ d’
f’ c’ e’
a rectangle and name it’s top.
Now join it’s alternate corners
Fv
a-c-e and the triangle formed is base
of a tetrahedron as said. X Aux.Tv
Y
Locate center of this triangle e1 o1
& locate apex o 450
Extending it’s axis line upward f e
f1 d1
mark apex o’
By cutting TL of edge of tetrahedron
equal to a-c. and complete Fv Tva o d a1 c1
of tetrahedron.
Draw an AIP ( x1y1) 450 inclined to xy b1
And project Aux.Tv on it by using similar
b c
Steps like previous problem.
X1
Problem 12: A frustum of regular hexagonal pyrami is standing on it’s larger base
On Hp with one base side perpendicular to Vp.Draw it’s Fv & Tv.
Project it’s Aux.Tv on an AIP parallel to one of the slant edges showing TL.
Base side is 50 mm long , top side is 30 mm long and 50 mm is height of frustum.

Fv

1’ 2’5’ 3’4’ AIP // to slant edge

Y Showing true
1 length
i.e. a’- 1’
4
5 3
1 2

X a’ b’ e’ c’ d’ Y Aux.Tv
e d1
c1
d e1
Tv 5
4 X1 a1 b1
a 1
3
2
c

b
UNIT IV
 DEVELOPMENT OF SURFACES OF SOLIDS.
MEANING:-
ASSUME OBJECT HOLLOW AND MADE-UP OF THIN SHEET. CUT OPEN IT FROM ONE SIDE AND UNFOLD

LATERLAL SURFACE IS THE SURFACE EXCLUDING SOLID’S TOP & BASE.

ENGINEERING APLICATION:
THERE ARE SO MANY PRODUCTS OR OBJECTS WHICH ARE DIFFICULT TO MANUFACTURE BY CONVEN
DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUE. THERE IS A VAST RANGE OF SUCH OBJECTS.

EXAMPLES:-
Boiler Shells & chimneys, Pressure Vessels, Shovels, Trays, Boxes & Cartons, Feeding Hoppers, Large Pipe sections, B

WHAT IS To learn methods of development of surfaces of different solids, their sec

OUR OBJECTIVE IN THIS TOPIC ?

But before going 1. Development is different drawing than PROJECTIONS.

ahead, note following 2. It is a shape showing AREA, means it’s a 2-D plain drawing.
3. Hence all dimensions of it must be TRUE dimensions.
Important points. 4. As it is representing shape of an un-folded sheet, no edges can remain hidden
And hence DOTTED LINES are never shown on development.
Study illustrations given on next page carefully.
 Development of lateral surfaces of different solids.
(Lateral surface is the surface excluding top & base)
Cylinder: A Rectangle
Cone: (Sector of circle) Pyramids: (No.of triangles)

H
D

 L= Slant edge.
D H= Height D= base diameter S = Edge of base
Prisms: No.of Rectangles R=Base circle radius.
L=Slant height.
RL 3600
 =
H

S S H= Height S = Edge of
base Cube: Six Squares.

Tetrahedron: Four Equilateral Triangles

All sides
equal in length
 FRUSTUMS
DEVELOPMENT OF DEVELOPMENT OF
FRUSTUM OF CONE FRUSTUM OF SQUARE PYRAMID
Base side

Top side

 = R
L
3600

R= Base circle radius of cone

L= Slant height of cone L= Slant edge of pyramid
L1 = Slant height of cut part. L1 = Slant edge of cut part.

STUDY NEXT NINE PROBLEMS OF SECTIONS

Problem 7:Draw a semicircle 0f 100 mm diameter and inscribe in it a largest TO DRAW
rhombus.If the semicircle is development of a cone and rhombus is some curve
on it, then draw the projections of cone showing that curve.
PRINCIPAL VIEWS
FROM GIVEN
DEVELOPMENT.

Solution Steps:
Similar to
o’
previous
E
D F Problem:

C G

2’ 6’
B H
3’ 5’
a’ h’ b’ c’ g’ f’ d’ e’
X 4’ Y 
1’ 7’
g A A
O L
h 7 6
5 f
R=Base circle radius.
L=Slant height.
a R 3600
4
e  = L

b 3
d
2
1
c
Problem 8: A half cone of 50 mm base diameter, 70 mm axis, is standing on it’s half base on HP with it’s flat
face parallel and nearer to VP.An inextensible string is wound round it’s surface from one point of base circle and
brought back to the same point.If the string is of shortest length, find it and show it on the projections of the cone.

TO DRAW A CURVE
ON PRINCIPAL VIEWS
FROM DEVELOPMENT.
Concept: A string wound
from a point up to the
o’ same Point, of shortest
A length Must appear st.
line on it’s
B Development.
Solution steps:
C Hence draw
1
development, Name it
2’ 3’ 4’ as usual and join A to
2 D
1’ A This is shortest
Length of that string.
3 Further steps are as
X Y E usual. On dev. Name the
a’ b’ c’ 4
d’ e’ points of Intersections of
a e O this line with Different
o 4 generators.Bring Those
on Fv & Tv and join by
3 smooth curves.
1 2
b d Draw 4’ a’ part of string
dotted As it is on back side
c of cone.

A
Q 15.26: draw the projections of a cone resting on the ground on its base and show on them, the shortest path by

1
12

11

10

8
θ=141º
7

X 2
11 1
4 5 6
10 9 8 7
Y
3 2 1 4
5
3
6
2

1 7
12 8
11 9
10
Q.15.11: A right circular cylinder, base 50 mm diameter and axis 60 mm long, is standing on HP on its

2’
3’ 4’ 5’ 6’
1’ 12’
11 10 9’ 8’ 7’
’ ’

b’ B B

a’ c’ A C C A

d’ D D

X a c Y
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1

4b
3 d 5
a c
2 6

1 7

12 8

a c
11 9
1
b
0
d
Q.15.21: A frustum of square pyramid has its base 50 mm side, top 25 mm side and axis 75 mm. Draw the

o’ A A1

D
True
P
length of
slant
edge C
R
D1
B
a’ b’
p’ c’ A
d’

r’

S
C1
s’
75

B1
Q
q
’ b 1’

X
a1’
d 1’
c1’ Y
A1
d1 c1
p r
c
d

50 25 o

a b
s
a1 q b1
Q: A square prism of 40 mm edge of the base and 65 mm height stands on its base on the HP with ve

a’ b’d’ c’

4’ 4 5 4
3’ 5’ 3 3 5
2’ 6’ 2 6 2 6

1’ 7’ 1 7 1 7
12’
8’
12 8 12 8
11’ 9’
10’ 11 11 9
109 10
X a’ Y
b’d’ c’ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 C 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
4 b10 A 12 11 10 9 8 8 9 10 11 12 A
3 5 B D
2 11 9
4
12 8
1
7

a c
1
2 7
4
12 8
3 5
11 9

d
4 10
UNIT V
 DRAWINGS:
( A Graphical Representation)

The Fact about:

If compared with Verbal or Written Description,
Drawings offer far better idea about the Shape, Size & Appearance of
any object or situation or location, that too in quite a less time.

Hence it has become the Best Media of Communication

not only in Engineering but in almost all Fields.
 Drawings
(Some Types)

Portraits
Botanical Drawings ( human faces,
Nature Drawings ( plants, flowers etc.) expressions etc.)
( landscape, Geographical
scenery etc.) Zoological Drawings
Drawings Engineering Drawings,
(creatures, animals etc.)
( maps etc.) (projections.)

Building Related Drawings. Machine component Drawings

Isometric ( Mech.Engg.Term.) or Perspective(Civil

Orthographic Projections Engg.Term) (Actual O
terms) (Plan, Elevation- Civil Engg.terms) (Working Drawings 2-D type)
 Isometric projection
Projection on a plane such that mutually perpendicular edges appear at 120o to
each other.
Iso (same) angle between the axes.
Example shown for a cube tilted on its corner (like the photograph taken of the
cube such that its edges appear at 120o to each other).

16
7
Isometric projection is often constructed using isometric scale which
gives dimensions smaller than the true dimensions.
However, to obtain isometric lengths from the isometric scale is
always a cumbersome task.
Therefore, the standard practice is to keep all dimensions as it is.
The view thus obtained is called isometric view or isometric drawing. As
the isometric view utilizes actual dimensions, the isometric view of
the object is seen larger than its isometric projection.

168
 Isometric View
 It is a drawing showing the 3 dimensional
view of an object.
 The perpendicular edges of an object are
drawn on 3 axes at 120o to each other.
 ACTUAL distances are drawn on the axes.
f
Top view
e
f e a 120o
d

a d b h
a’ d’ d” e” c
 Actual distances are drawn for
distances parallel to the axes
b’ c’ c” h”  Hidden lines are not shown
Front Right side 169
view view
10 mm

170
 Isometric scale (not used except for spheres)
Earlier an isometric scale used to be used as shown below
This is because the relative distances get shortened in the isometric projection
Now a days, TRUE LENGTHS are drawn on the axes

171
 F.V. & T.V. and S.V.of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

20

20

20
x O O y
20 50

30

O O
20 20 20

TOP VIEW

172
 Isometric view of polygons
 Polygons are first enclosed in a rectangle
 The corners lie on the sides of the rectangle
 The distances from the corner of the
rectangle to the corners of the polygon are
measured
 These distances are plotted on the isometric axes
d

a d
e a

e c

b f c

b f
173
 All corners of polygon not on edges
of rectangle
Draw a rectangle covering as many polygon corners as possible. In this example the
point i does not lie on the rectangle
From the edges of the rectangle, measure distances ki = cl and li = ck
Mark points f, g, h, j, and e in the isometric view similar to the previous example
d
Mark distances ck and ki on the isometric view to get point i
e

a e
d a j
k
i
f f
j c
i k
g g h
b h l c
b
174
1
ISOMETRIC Isometric view if the Shape is
SHAPE F.V. or T.V.
OF
D
PLANE H
FIGURES
RECTANGLE D
A
D A
C C
A
B
C B B
B
H
TRIANGLE 3 B
1 B 1 3
2 3
B C
3

2 A

PENTAGON
1 E
4

A D
 A
1

2 2
4
H E
1 D 4
D
E
A
1
3 A
C
B B
2 2 17
5
 F.V. & T.V. of an object are given. Draw it’s isometric view.

20 40

F.V.
30

10
X Y
O

10

30

10

30
80
O
T.V.
176
 ISOMETRIC VIEW OF A
FRUSTOM OF SQUARE PYRAMID
STANDING ON H.P. ON IT’S LARGER BASE.

FV
60

X Y
SQ40

SQ20

TV

177
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS:
IT IS A TECHNICAL DRAWING IN WHICH DIFFERENT VIEWS OF AN OBJECT
ARE PROJECTED ON DIFFERENT REFERENCE PLANES
OBSERVING PERPENDICULAR TO RESPECTIVE REFERENCE
PLANE
Different Reference planes are
Horizontal Plane (HP), Vertical
Frontal Plane ( VP ) Side Or
Profile Plane ( PP)
And
Different Views are Front View (FV), Top View (TV) and Side View (SV)
FV is a view projected on VP.
TV is a view projected on HP.
SV is a view projected on PP.
IMPORTANT TERMS OF ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS:
1 Planes.
2 Pattern of planes & Pattern of views
3 Methods of drawing Orthographic Projections
 PLANES
1
PRINCIPAL PLANES
HP AND VP

AUXILIARY PLANES

Auxiliary Vertical
Plane Auxiliary Inclined Plane Profile Plane ( P.P.)
(A.V.P.) (A.I.P.)

غ
A.V.P.
 to Hp &  to Vp

θº
 PATTERN OF PLANES & VIEWS (First Angle Method)
2
THIS IS A PICTORIAL SET-UP OF ALL THREE PLANES.
ARROW DIRECTION IS A NORMAL WAY OF OBSERVING THE OBJECT. BUT IN THIS DIREC

PROCEDURE TO SOLVE ABOVE PROBLEM:-

TO MAKE THOSE PLANES ALSO VISIBLE FROM THE ARROW DIRECTION,
A) HP IS ROTATED 900 DOUNWARD
B) PP, 900 IN RIGHT SIDE DIRECTION.
THIS WAY BOTH PLANES ARE BROUGHT IN THE SAME PLANE CONTAINING VP.
Click to view Animation On clicking the button if a warning comes please click YES to
continue, this program is safe for your pc.

VP PP
Y FV LSV

X Y
X TV

HP

HP IS ROTATED DOWNWARD 900 VP.

AND
BROUGHT IN THE PLANE OF
P UGHT IN THE PLANE OF VP.
P

I
S

R
O
T
A
T
E
D

I
N

R
I
G
H
T

S
I
D
E

9
0
0

A ACTUAL PATTERN OF PLANES & VIEWS

N OF ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
D DRAWN IN
B FIRST ANGLE METHOD OF PROJECTIONS
R
O
3
Methods of Drawing Orthographic Projections

First Angle Projections Third Angle Projections

Method Method
Here views are drawn Here views are drawn
by placing object by placing object
in 1st Quadrant in 3rd Quadrant.
SYMBOLIC
( Fv above X-y, Tv below X-y )
( Tv above X-y, Fv below X-y )
PRESENTATION
OF BOTH METHODS
WITH AN OBJECT
STANDING ON HP ( GROUND) TV
FV ON IT’S BASE.

X Y NOTE:- X Y
HP term is used in 1st Angle method
& FV
TV
For the same
G L
Ground term is used
in 3rd Angle method of projections
FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION
FOR T.V.

IN THIS METHOD,
MED TO BE SITUATED IN FIRST QUADRANT MEANS
ABOVE HP & INFRONT OF VP.

OBJECT IS INBETWEEN OBSERVER & PLANE.

VP PP
FV LSV

X Y
TV

HP

ACTUAL PATTERN
OF PLANES & VIEWS
IN
FIRST ANGLE
METHOD OF
 THIRD ANGLE FOR T.V.
PROJECTION
IN THIS METHOD,
THE OBJECT IS ASSUMED TO
BE SITUATED IN THIRD
QUADRANT ( BELOW HP &
BEHIND OF VP. )

PLANES BEING
TRANSPERENT
AND INBETWEEN
OBSERVER &
OBJECT.

TV
X Y
LSV FV

ACTUAL PATTERN
OF PLANES &
VIEWS
OF
THIRD ANGLE
 ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
{ MACHINE ELEMENTS }
OBJECT IS OBSERVED IN THREE DIRECTIONS. THE
DIRECTIONS SHOULD BE NORMAL
TO THE RESPECTIVE PLANES.
AND NOW PROJECT THREE DIFFERENT VIEWS ON THOSE PLANES. THESE
VEWS ARE FRONT VIEW , TOP VIEW AND SIDE VIEW.

FRONT VIEW IS A VIEW PROJECTED ON VERTICAL PLANE ( VP ) TOP

VIEW IS A VIEW PROJECTED ON HORIZONTAL PLANE ( HP ) SIDE VIEW
IS A VIEW PROJECTED ON PROFILE PLANE ( PP )

FIRST STUDY THE CONCEPT OF 1ST AND 3RD ANGLE PROJECTION

METHODS

AND THEN STUDY NEXT 26 ILLUSTRATED CASES CAREFULLY. TRY

TO RECOGNIZE SURFACES
PERPENDICULAR TO THE ARROW DIRECTIONS
 FOR T.V.
1

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

x y

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT TOP VIEW

BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD

 FOR T.V.
2

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

TOP VIEW

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 FOR T.V.
3

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

TOP VIEW
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 4
FOR T.V.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

TOP VIEW

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 FOR T.V. 5

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN TOP VIEW

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 6
FOR T.V.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

TOP VIEW

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 7
FOR T.V.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN TOP VIEW

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 STUDY 8
ILLUSTRZATIO
FOR T.V.
NS ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW

50

X Y

20

25

25 20

BY FIRST ANGLE
PROJECTION METHOD
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
TOP VIEW
 9

FOR T.V.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN TOP VIEW

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 10
FOR T.V. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN TOP VIEW

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 FOR T.V. 11
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

TOP VIEW
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 12
FOR T.V.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

X Y

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN TOP VIEW

DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 13
STUDY
ILLUSTRZATIONS FOR T.V.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

35
FV

35

x 10 y

10 2030

40

70

TV
O
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW FV AND TV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION
METHOD
 14
STU DY
Z
ILLUSTRATIONS

FOR T.V.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
FV

30 10 30 SV

30

10

30
x y

ALL VIEWS IDENTICAL

TV
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
 STUDY 15
ILLUSTRZATIO
NS
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
FOR T.V.
ALL VIEWS IDENTICAL

FV SV

x y

10
40 60

40
TV
60
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION
METHOD
 FOR T.V. 16
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

ALL VIEWS IDENTICAL

FV SV

x y
10

40 60

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

40 TOP VIEW
DRAW THREE VIEWS OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD 60
 17

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW

30 SQUARE
40 20

50

10 20
X
Y
O 30
60
F.V.
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN S.V.
DRAW FV AND SV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION
METHOD
 FOR T.V. 18
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FV
40

X 10 Y
O 30 D
45

O
10
50
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW FV AND TV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
80

TV
 19
FOR T.V.

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

FV 40

X O 10 Y
100
10
25
TV
103010
25
O
30 R

20 D
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
DRAW FV AND TV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION
METHOD
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS 20
DRAW FV AND TV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD
30
FOR T.V.
FV
RECT.
SLOT

10
50
35

10
X Y

20 D

TV

60 D
30 D
TOP VIEW

O
 21

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS
10

25 15

25
40 10

25

25

O O
80 25

F.V. S.V.

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

DRAW FV AND SV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION
METHOD
 FOR T.V.
22
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

450

30
FV

40

X Y

30 D

40

TV

O
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
15
DRAW FV AND TV OF THIS OBJECT 40

BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD

 23

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

HEX PART
30
20
20
40
20

O 50
20
15
O
30
100
60
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN FRONT VIEW L.H.SIDE VIEW
DRAW FV ABD SV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION
METHOD
 FOR T.V.
ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS 24

20 40

FRONT VIEW

F.V.
30

10
X Y
O

10

30

10

O M OD
PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN E
DRAW FV AND TV OF THIS OBJECT T
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION H
 80

T.V. TOP
VIEW
 25

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

10 10 15

25

25
Y
O 50 10

FV LSV

PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN

DRAW FV AND LSV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION
METHOD
 PICTORIAL PRESENTATION IS GIVEN
26
DRAW FV AND SV OF THIS OBJECT
BY FIRST ANGLE PROJECTION METHOD

ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTIONS

30 20 10 20

15
10

15

O 15
30

15
X Y
50
F.V. LEFT S.V.