Data Communication and

Computer Network
 Communication
• Communication
– is the process of sharing ideas, information, and message
with others in particular time and place.
– is the process of exchanging information between two
parties in effective manner
• Forms of Communication include:
– Verbal communication: Writing and taking
– Non-verbal communications: Facial expressions, body
language
– Visual communication: using images or pictures, such as
painting, photography, video, or films
– Electronic communications: such as telephone calls, Fax, e-
mail, cable TV, or satellite broadcast
2
 The elements involved in the communication process are:
• Sender: The sender or the communicator generates the message and
conveys it to the receiver. He is the source and the one who starts the
communication
• Message: It is the idea, information, view, fact, feeling, etc. that is
generated by the sender and is then intended to be communicated
further.
• Encoding: The message generated by the sender is encoded
symbolically such as in the form of words, pictures, gestures, etc.
before it is being conveyed.
• Media: It is the manner in which the encoded message is transmitted.
The message may be transmitted orally or in writing. The medium of
communication includes telephone, internet, post, fax, e-mail, etc. The
choice of medium is decided by the sender.
 Cont…
• Decoding: It is the process of converting the symbols
encoded by the sender. After decoding the message is
received by the receiver.
• Receiver: He is the person who is last in the chain and for
whom the message was sent by the sender. Once the
receiver receives the message and understands it in proper
perspective and acts according to the message, only then
the purpose of communication is successful.
• Feedback: Once the receiver confirms to the sender that he
has received the message and understood it, the process of
communication is complete.
• Noise: It refers to any obstruction that is caused by the
sender, message or receiver during the process of
communication
 Modes of Data transmission
• Data Transmission mode defines the direction
of the flow of information between two
communication devices
• The data transmission modes can be
characterized in the following three types
based on the direction of information
exchange:
– Simplex
– Half-Duplex
– Full Duplex
 Simplex mode
• Simplex is the data transmission mode in which the data can
flow only in one direction, i.e., the communication is
unidirectional.
• In this mode, a sender can only send data but cannot receive it.
Similarly, a receiver can only receive data but cannot send it
Cont….
• It is mainly used in the business field as in sales that do not
require any corresponding reply.
• It is similar to a one-way street.
– For Example, Radio and TV transmission, keyboard, mouse, etc.
Advantages of using a Simplex transmission mode:
– It utilizes the full capacity of the communication channel during
data transmission.
– It has the least or no data traffic issues as data flows only in one
direction.
Disadvantages of using a Simplex transmission mode:
– It is unidirectional in nature having no inter-communication
between devices.
– There is no mechanism for information to be transmitted back
to the sender (No mechanism for acknowledgement).
Half-Duplex
• Half-Duplex is the data transmission mode in which the data can
flow in both directions but in one direction at a time. It is also
referred to as Semi-Duplex. In other words, each station can
both transmit and receive the data but not at the same time.
When one device is sending the other can only receive and vice-
versa

In this type of transmission mode, the entire capacity of the channel can be
utilized for each direction.
 Cont …
• Transmission lines can carry data in both directions, but the data can
be sent only in one direction at a time.
• This type of data transmission mode can be used in cases where there
is no need for communication in both directions at the same time.
• It can be used for error detection when the sender does not send or
the receiver does not receive the data properly. In such cases, the data
needs to be transmitted again by the receiver.
• In such cases, the data needs to be transmitted again by the receiver.
– For Example, Walkie-Talkies in generally Ham radio etc.
Advantages of using a half-duplex transmission mode:
– It facilitates the optimum use of the communication channel.
– It provides two-way communication.
Disadvantages of using a half-duplex transmission mode:
– The two-way communication cannot be established simultaneously
at the same time.
– Delay in transmission may occur as only one way communication
can be possible at a time.
Full-Duplex
• Full-Duplex is the data transmission mode in which the data can flow
in both directions at the same time. It is bi-directional in nature. It is
two-way communication in which both the stations can transmit and
receive the data simultaneously

• Full-Duplex mode has double bandwidth as compared to the half-duplex.

• The capacity of the channel is divided between the two directions of
communication.
Cont…
• This mode is used when communication in both directions is
required simultaneously.
– For Example, a Telephone Network, in which both persons
can talk and listen to each other simultaneously.
Advantages of using a full-duplex transmission mode:
– The two-way communication can be carried out
simultaneously in both directions.
– It is the fastest mode of communication between devices.
Disadvantages of using a half-duplex transmission mode:
– The capacity of the communication channel is divided into
two parts. Also, no dedicated path exists for data transfer.
– It has improper channel bandwidth utilization as there
exist two separate paths for two communicating devices.
Data transmission mode based on data synchronization
between the transmitter and the receiver

• The data transmission modes can be

characterized in the following two types based
on the synchronization between the
transmitter and the receiver:
• Synchronous
• Asynchronous
Synchronous Serial Transmission
• Synchronous transmission mode is a mode of
communication in which the bits are sent one after another
without any start/stop bits or gaps between them.
• Both the sender and receiver are paced by the same system
clock. In this way, synchronization is achieved.
• Data bits are transmitted as a continuous stream in time
with a master clock
• The data transmitter and receiver both operate using a
synchronized clock frequency; therefore, start bits, stop
bits, and gaps are not used.
– This means that data moves faster and timing errors are less
frequent because the
• Since there is no start and stop bits in the message block. It
is the responsibility of the receiver to group the bits
correctly
 Cont…
• In synchronous mode, the bits are sent successively with no
separation between each character, so it becomes necessary to
insert some synchronization elements with the message, this is
called “Character-Level Synchronization ".
• For Example, communication in CPU, RAM, etc.

Advantage of using a Synchronous transmission mode:

• Transmission speed is fast as there is no gap between the data bits.
Disadvantage of using a Synchronous transmission mode:
• It is very expensive.
The Asynchronous transmission mode
• The Asynchronous transmission mode is a mode of
communication in which a start and the stop bit is
introduced in the message during transmission.
• The start and stop bits ensure that the data is transmitted
correctly from the sender to the receiver.
– Generally, the start bit is '0' and the end bit is '1'.
– Asynchronous here means 'asynchronous at the byte level', but
the bits are still synchronized.
– The time duration between each character is the same and
synchronized.
– In an asynchronous mode of communication, data bits can be
sent at any point in time. The messages are sent at irregular
intervals and only one data byte can be sent at a time.
– This type of transmission mode is best suited for short-distance
data transfer.
For Example, if there are two bytes of data, say (10001101, 11001011)
then it will be transmitted in the asynchronous mode as follows:

For Example, Data input from a keyboard to the computer.

Advantages of using an Asynchronous transmission mode:
• It is a cheap and effective mode of transmission.
• Data transmission accuracy is high due to the presence of start and stop bits.
Disadvantages of using an Asynchronous transmission mode:
• The data transmission can be slower due to the gaps present between
different blocks of data.
 Data transmission mode based on the number of bits sent
simultaneously in the network
• The data transmission modes can be characterized in the following two
types based on the number of bits sent simultaneously in the network:
– Serial
– Parallel
• The Serial data transmission mode is a mode in which the data bits
are sent serially one after the other at a time over the transmission
channel
Cont…
• It needs a single transmission line for communication. The data bits
are received in synchronization with one another..
• In serial data transmission, the system takes several clock cycles to
transmit the data stream. In this mode, the data integrity is
maintained, as it transmits the data bits in a specific order, one
after the other.
• This type of transmission mode is best suited for long-distance data
transfer, or the amount of data being sent is relatively small.
– For Example, Data transmission between two computers using serial
ports.
Advantages of using a serial transmission mode:
• It can be used for long-distance data transmission as it is reliable.
• The number of wires and complexity is less.
• It is cost-effective.
Disadvantage of using a serial transmission mode:
• The Data transmission rate is slow due to a single transmission channel.
The Parallel data transmission mode is a mode in which the data
bits are sent parallel at a time. In other words, there is a
transmission of n-bits at the same time simultaneously.

• Multiple transmission lines are used in such modes of transmission. So,

multiple data bytes can be transmitted in a single system clock.
• This mode of transmission is used when a large amount of data has to be sent
in a shorter duration of time. It is mostly used for short-distance
communication.
• It is mostly used for short-distance communication.
 Cont…
– The following are the advantages of using a parallel
transmission mode:
• It is easy to program or implement.
• Data transmission speed is high due to the n-transmission channel.
– The following are the disadvantages of using a parallel
transmission mode:
• It requires more transmission channels, and hence cost-
ineffective.
• Interference in data bits, likewise in video conferencing.
– Hence, these points need to be considered when selecting
a data transmission mode:
• Transmission Rate.
• The Distance that it covers.
• Cost and Ease of Installation.
• The resistance of environmental conditions.
Chapter 2
 Computer Network
Network Definition
• A stand-alone system is a computer that is not connected to any
other computer
• A computer which is not part of any network is considered as stand-
alone computer.
• A stand-alone environment is a work environment in which each user
has a computer, but works independently.
• Before network, users needed either to print document or copy
document to a disk for others to edit or use them.
• A network is simply a collection of computers and other hardware
devices that are connected together, either physically of logically,
using special hardware and software, to allow them to exchange
information and cooperate.
• Computer networks allow sharing of resources and information
among devices connected to the network.
 Cont…
• Networking is the term describes the processes involved in
designing, implementing, upgrading, managing and
working with networking and network technology.
• Experts agree that Networking is worth your time and
effort and can help you to get ahead in the professional
world.
• Properly implemented network is a system that provides
its users with unique capabilities, above and hence their
users, to be connected together. They also allow for the
easy sharing of information and resources, and cooperation
between the devices in other ways.
 Network Applications
• Computer networks support an enormous number of applications and services such as
access to the World Wide Web, digital video, digital audio, shared use of application and
storage servers, printers, and fax machines, and use of email and instant
messaging applications as well as many others.
• The specific advantage and characteristics of a computer networking are: -
– Sharing information
– Sharing resources
• You can connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to a computer and let other
computers of the network to print, scan or fax.
– Internet access sharing
– You can play a CD music from one computer while sitting on another
computer
– You can create files and store them in one computer, then access those
files form the other computers connected to it.
• The fewer disadvantage of computer networking are: -
– Network hardware, software and setup costs.
– Hardware and software management and administration cost.
– Undesirable sharing (viruses)
– Data security concerns.
 Cont…
Factors that affect the performance of a network
are: -
– Hardware capacity of computers on the network,
– Total number of queued commands waiting to be
executed,
– Types of applications being run on the network,
– Types of cable used on the network,
– Distances between computers on the network and
etc.
 Geographical Area

• There are various types of computer networks based

on geographical areas they cover, functionality,
ownership, and communication media used.
a. PAN
• A personal area network (PAN) is the smallest and
simplest type of network. PANs connect devices within
the range of an individual and are no larger than about
10 meters (m)
• It provides short-range connectivity with infrared
technology.
• An example of a wireless PAN is when users connect
Bluetooth devices, like wireless headsets, to a
smartphone or laptop
 b. LAN
• A local area network (LAN) is a system where
computers and other devices connect to each other in
one location.
• The scope of a LAN can range from a few meters in a
home to hundreds of meters in a large company office..
• LANs use both wired and wireless connectivity options.
Wireless LAN (WLAN)
• wired LAN is more secure and reliable option. Wired
LANs use physical cables, like Ethernet, and switches
• WLANs use WLANs use devices, like wireless routers
and access points, to interconnect network devices
through radio frequency waves.
 Cont…
• LAN benefits
– Resource sharing. Resource sharing is one of the most
important reasons for setting up any network. As more devices
connect to each other, they can share more files, data and
software among each other.
– Secure data storage. Network data is stored in a centralized
location that all connected devices can access. Devices must
receive permission to access the network, preventing
unauthorized users from retrieving sensitive information.
– Fast communication. Ethernet cables provide fast, reliable data
transmission speeds, which increase the rate of communication
between devices.
– Seamless communication. Any authorized user can
communicate with another on the same network.
 Virtual LANs

– A virtual LAN (VLAN) is a type of LAN configuration

that virtually groups network components into
segments. Network administrators create VLANs
to operate segments as individual systems,
separate from the rest of the LAN.
– VLANs prevent network congestion by isolating
LAN traffic for each segment, in turn improving
network performance and efficiency, simplifying
network management and increasing security.
 c. MAN
• A metropolitan area network (MAN) is an interconnection of several LANs
throughout a city, town or municipality. Like LANs, a MAN can use various
wired or wireless connectivity options, including fiber optics, Ethernet
cables, Wi-Fi or cellular.
• MAN benefits
– Municipal coverage. A MAN can span an entire city or town, stretching network
connectivity by dozens of miles.
– Efficient networking standards. MAN configurations typically use IEEE
802.11 networking standards to increase bandwidth capacity and frequency
levels, which boost network performance.
– High-speed connectivity. Fiber optic cables are the most popular form of MAN
connectivity because they provide safe and fast connection data rates.
• MAN uses
– The main purpose of a MAN is to have the same network available in several
locations. In a LAN, the network is accessible in one location.
– In a MAN, organizations with LANs in the same municipality -- such as different
office buildings -- can extend their network connectivity to those different
locations.
• Government entities may also configure a MAN to provide public network
connectivity to users. An example of this is when municipalities offer free,
public Wi-Fi to city residents using wireless MAN technology
 d. WAN
• A wide area network (WAN) is the most expansive type of computer network
configuration.
• Like a MAN, a WAN is a connection of multiple LANs belonging to the same
network. Unlike MANs, however, WANs aren't restricted to the confines of
city limits.
• A WAN can extend to any area of the globe. For example, an organization
with a corporate office in New York can connect a branch location in London
in the same WAN. Users in both locations obtain access to the same data,
files and applications, and can communicate with each other.
• WAN benefits
– Large area coverage. WANs provide more expansive connectivity because
networks can connect from anywhere in the world.
– Improved performance. WANs use links with dedicated bandwidth to connect
LANs together. These links enhance network speeds and provide faster data
transfer rates than LANs.
– Increased security. Dedicated links also increase safety across the network
because the network only connects to itself, lowering the chances for hackers to
hijack a system.
 Cont…
• WAN uses
– The main use of a WAN is its facilitation of long-
distance network connectivity.
– Organizations use WANs to connect branch offices
located away from headquarters.
– But businesses aren't the only ones that can use
WANs; an estimated two-thirds of the global
population uses the internet which is the world's
most popular and largest WAN today.
 Architecture
• Network architecture refers to a network’s structural and logical
layout.
• It describes how the network devices are connected and the
rules that govern data transfer between them.
• There are many ways to approach network architecture design,
which depend on the purpose and size of the network.
• Planning the network architecture is vital because it either
enhances or hinders the performance of the entire system.
• Network architecture can also facilitate security, becoming
increasingly important as more user devices connect to the
network. The design and protocols of the network need to
support quick and efficient user recognition and authorization.
• The two type of network architectures are: Peer-to-Peer and
Client/ Server
 a. Peer-to-Peer
• In a peer-to-peer architecture, all devices in a
network have equal responsibilities and privileges
with each other.
• Files in one computer can be shared with every
other computer.
• Resources like a printer connected to one device
are also visible to every other device on the
network.
• A peer-to-peer architecture is suitable for small
networks, such as a branch office.
• Your home network, by the way, often uses a
peer-to-peer model
 b. Client/ Server
• In a client /server architecture, all devices in the network, called
“clients,” are connected to a central switch.
• In this network there is one or more dedicated servers computers.
• The server handles the bulk of the network operations like: data
storage, processing of client requests, cyber security, and access
control, etc.
• Most large network, often use the client/server model.
• In this architecture there is central management.
• it is more complex to install, configure, and manage, but a server-
based network has many advantages over a simple peer-to-peer
network:
1. Sharing Resources
2. Security
3. Backup
4. Number of Users
5. Redundancy
 Server-Based Network Advantages
• Server-Based Network Advantages
• Sharing Resources
• A server is designed to provide access to many files
and printers while maintaining performance and
security for the user.
• Server-based data sharing can be centrally
administered and controlled.
• Because these shared resources are centrally located,
they are easier to find and support than resources on
individual computers.
• Security:- Security is often the primary reason for
choosing a server-based approach to networking.
 Cont…
• Backup :-Backups can be scheduled several times
a day or once a week depending on the
importance and value of the data.
• Server backups can be scheduled to occur
automatically, according to a predetermined
schedule, even if the servers are located on
different parts of the network.
• Number of Users
• A server-based network can support thousands
of users. This type of network would be
impossible to manage as a peer-to-peer network
 Cont…
• Redundancy:- Through the use of backup methods known as
redundancy systems, the data on any server can be duplicated
and kept online.
• Even if harm comes to the primary data storage area, a
backup copy of the data can be used to restore the data
 Cont…
Specialized Servers
• As networks increase in size (as the number of
connected computers, and the physical distance
and traffic between them, grows), more than one
server is usually needed.
• Servers for large networks have become
specialized to accommodate the expanding needs
of users.
• When Servers must perform varied and complex
tasks, Spreading the networking tasks among
several servers ensures that each task will be
performed as efficiently as possible.
 Network Components
• A network component is a component that is
needed to install computer networks that
include both physical and software parts.
• Switches, cables, hubs,
routers, networking operating systems, and
other network components are some of the
most used network components.
• The parts that must be installed for a network
largely depend on the kind of network we
have selected
 Cont…
• The following figure shows a network along with its
components

For simplicity of explanation and understanding, we have divided or grouped

various network components into two categories like Hardware components
and Software components.
 Hardware Components
• The server, client, peer, transmission media, and connecting devices are the
hardware components.
– Server −Servers are high-configuration computers that manage the resources of
the network. The network operating system is typically installed in the server
and so they give user accesses to the network resources. Servers can be of
various kinds: file servers, database servers, print servers etc.
– Clients − Clients are computers that request and receive service from the
servers to access and use the network resources.
– Peers − Peers are computers that provide as well as receive services from other
peers in a workgroup network.
– Transmission Media − Transmission media are the channels through which data
is transferred from one device to another in a network. Transmission media may
be guided media like coaxial cable, fiber optic cables etc.; or maybe unguided
media like microwaves, infra-red waves etc.
– Connecting Devices − Connecting devices act as middleware between networks
or computers, by binding the network media together. Some of the common
connecting devices are: Routers, Bridges, Hubs, Repeaters, Gateways, and
Switches etc.
 Software Components
Networking Operating System − Network
Operating Systems is typically installed in the server
and facilitate workstations in a network to share
files, database, applications, printers etc.
– Protocol Suite − A protocol is a rule or guideline
followed by each computer for data communication.
Protocol suite is a set of related protocols that are laid
down for computer networks.
– The two popular protocol suites are:
– OSI Model
– TCP / IP Model
 Network Topology
• Network topology is the layout pattern of interconnections
of the various elements of a computer network
• There are two types of topologies: -Physical topology and
Logical topology.
– The physical topology of a network refers to the layout of
cables, computers and other peripherals.
– Logical topology is the method used to pass the information
between the computers.
Physical topology
• The physical topology describes the layout of the network,
just like a map shows the layout of various roads. The most
common and standard types of physical topologies are Bus,
Star, Ring and Mesh topology.
 Bus Topology
• With Bus topology, all workstations are connected
directly to the main backbone that carries the data.
• Traffic generated by any computer will travel across
the backbone and be received by all workstations.
• This works well in a small network of 2-5
computers, but as the numbers of computers
increases so will the network traffic and this can
greatly decrease the performance and available
bandwidth of your network.
• Because only one computer at a time can send data on a bus
network, the number of computers attached to the bus will affect
network performance.
The more computers there are on a bus, the more computers will be
waiting to put data on the bus and, consequently, the slower the
network will be.
Under bus topology if one computer fails, it does not affect the rest
of the network.
 Star Topology
• Star topology is one of the most common
network topologies found in most offices and
home networks.
• It has become very popular in contrast to the bus
type, because of the cost and the ease of
troubleshooting.
• In star topology, cable segments from each
computer are connected to a centralized
component called a hub.
• Signals are transmitted from the sending
computer through the hub to all computers on
the network.
Cont…
• If the central point fails, the entire network goes down. And
also if one computer or the cable that connects to the hub
fails on a star network, only the failed computer will not be
able to send or receive network data. The rest of the network
continues to function normally.
 Ring Topology
• In the ring topology, computers are connected on a single
circle of cable.
• Unlike the bus topology, there are no terminated ends.
• The signals travel around the loop in one direction and pass
through each computer, which acts as a repeater to boost the
signal and send it to the next computer.
• On a larger scale, multiple LANs can be connected to each
other in a ring topology by using Thick-net coaxial or Fiber-
optic cable.
• Token Passing:-One method of transmitting data around a
ring. (A token is a special series of bits that travels around a
token-ring network. Each network has only one token.)
• The token is passed from computer to computer until it gets
to a computer that has data to send.
The sending computer modifies the token, puts an electronic
address on the data, and sends it around the ring
The data passes by each computer until it finds the one with an address that
matches the address on the data.
The receiving computer returns a message to the sending computer
indicating that the data has been received.
After verification, the sending computer creates a new token and releases it
on the network.
The token circulates within the ring until a workstation needs it to send data.
 Mesh Topology
• A mesh topology network offers superior redundancy
and reliability.
• In a mesh topology, each computer is connected to every
other computer by separate cabling. This configuration
provides redundant paths throughout the network so
that if one cable fails, another will take over the traffic.
• While ease of troubleshooting and increased reliability is
definite pluses, these networks are expensive to install
because they use a lot of cabling.
• Suppose, N number of devices are connected with each
other in a mesh topology, then the total number of
dedicated links (cable) required to connect them is N(N-
1)/2.
• .
Often, a mesh topology will be used in conjunction with
other topologies to form a hybrid topology
 Hybrid Topology
• With the hybrid topology, two or more standard topologies are
combined to form a complete network.
• A hybrid topology could be the combination of a star and bus
topology.
• These are also the most common in use:
Star-Bus
– In a star-bus topology, several star topology networks are
linked to a bus connection.
– In this topology, if a computer fails, it will not affect the rest
of the network.
– However, if the central component, or hub, that attaches all
computers in a star, fails, then you have big problems since no
computer will be able to communicate.
 Star-Ring
• In the Star-Ring topology, the computers are connected to a central
component as in a star network.
• These components, however, are wired to form a ring network. Like the
• star-bus topology, if a single computer fails, it will not affect the rest of the
network.
• By using token passing, each computer in a star-ring topology has an equal
chance of communicating.
• This allows for greater network traffic between segments than in a star-bus
topology.
 Selecting a Topology

• There are many factors to consider when

deciding which topology is best suits
the needs of an organization. The following
table provides some guidelines for selecting a
topology.
 Logical topology

• A logical topology is a concept in networking that

defines the architecture of the communication
mechanism for all nodes in a network.
• It also describes how the data is sent across the
network or how the cars are able to travel (the
direction and speed) at every road on the map.
• Using network equipment such as routers and
switches, the logical topology of a network can be
dynamically maintained and reconfigured.
• Two of the most common logical topologies are
broadcast (also known as bus) and sequential
(also known as ring):