Concrete Technology

Aggregate
• In construction perspective, the name aggregate is used to describe the various different
types of stone and loose material such as gravel, crushed down stone (granite, limestone
etc), slag, sand and M sand.
• Aggregate is the overall name given to particulate materials used in building and
construction.
• It’s primary job is to act as a bulking agent for concrete, asphalt and similar substances,
giving them not only mass (in some cases making up nearly 80% of a mix of concrete) but
also providing strength and durability.
• When aggregate is mixed with water and a binding agent (namely cement), it cures over a
certain amount of time to produce a solid base or foundation for a great many different
applications.
• When it comes to producing the correct concrete mix for the particular job you are doing
(more can be found on mixing cement in our project here), this is very much down to the type
of aggregate that is used in the mix and the quantities of aggregate, cement and water that’s
used.
• Aside from the amount of aggregate used in a concrete mix, it’s quality is also a huge factor
that ultimately determines how long the concrete itself lasts.
• For the very best concrete mix, any aggregate that’s used should be clean and free of any
form of contaminent or chemicals, any unwanted fine material, clay or other organic matter
and should certainly not contain any substance that is likely to react with the cement itself.
When it comes to sourcing aggregates, typically it is quarried out of the ground, mined from
underground, dredged from river beds or where the required rock deposits are found (e.g.
limestone, marble, granite etc).
Due to the vast costs involved in both extracting and transporting aggregates, most heavily
populated areas are close to quarries or mines where the required aggregate needed for large scale
construction can fairly easily and cost effectively be extracted.
If the required resources are not close by, then they need to be transported which can increase
costs dramatically.
• Classifying Aggregate by Grain Size
• Once the aggregate in it’s raw form of rock has been extracted through quarrying or mining it then
needs to be crushed down and graded into different sizes for different requirements and then any
unwanted matter and particles removed.
• Once crushed up and cleaned, it’s then run over a series of different sieves where the different
grains are seperated out depending on their size.
• When it comes to differentiating the different types of aggregate this is primarily done on the basis
of grain size and there are 2 main grain grading sizes:
• Fine Aggregate: Grain sizes range from 0.15mm up to 5mm e.g. they easily pass through a sieve
of 4.75mm but collect on a sieve of 0.15mm. A good example of a fine aggregate is sand (more
can be found about the different types of sand here)
• Course Aggregate: Grain sizes range from 5mm up to around 9.5mm e.g. they are trapped by a
5mm sieve. A good example of a course aggregate is gravel
• In terms of what each type of aggregate should be used for:
• Fine Aggregate: Fine aggregates are used for creating thinner
concrete slabs and bases, mortar, plaster and general repairs. The
smaller, finer particles help to fill any voids and through this
produces a very smooth finish. Also finer aggregates improve the
workability of a concrete mix
• Course Aggregate: Course aggregates are mainly used to provide
strength and load bearing capabilities, so are used extensively for
concreting, forming foundations, creating roads and pavements, sub
bases and also due to their size are ideal for drainage, but do make
a concrete mix harder to work with
• Classifying Aggregate by Weight (or Density)
• As we mentioned above, classifying aggregate by it’s grain size is
probably the most useful and common method from a general and
domestic perspective, but when defining from a more professional, larger
scale construction point of view a different classification scale is generally
used:
• Light Weight Aggregate: Made up of low density artificial and natural
material to produce a very light weight concrete mix that’s used to create
light weight concrete blocks, fire proof covering and also some sound
proofing applications. A good example of such an aggregate is Vermiculite
• Standard Aggregate: The most commonly used types of aggregate
that include sand and gravel. Generally used in making concrete
mixes to provide both mass and strength
• High-Density Aggregate: Used to create very dense and heavy
weight concrete mixes that are used mainly for shielding against
radiation or for pipeline ballast. Heavy weight natural aggregates
such as Baryle, Hermatite, Iron Ore and Magnetite are good
examples
• With the above points in mind, standard aggregates are fairly self-
explanatory in that if you have done any form of concreting,
plastering, rendering etc then you will have used sand, gravel or
both.
• When it comes to light weight and high density aggregates, these
are a fair bit more specialist and as with all specialist items beit
materials, products and skills, costs are considerably greater.
• In summary, light weight aggregates are as they say, light weight
and are ideal for use where any additional weight needs to be kept
at a minimum. They are also much more porous.
• Hight density or heavy weight aggregates are the desired choice
where strength, durability and containment are the key
requirements.
• Classifying Aggregate by its Source or Origin
• In some situations, aggregate is also classified by its origin or where it has
been sourced from.
• Natural: As we have already touched on, natural aggregates are either
quarried or mined from the ground or dredged from rivers or the sea bed e.g.
from natural sources
• Processed/Manufactured: As the name suggests, this aggregate type is
manufactured or man made. In most cases it’s created by crushing up existing
waste concrete to a desired size. It’s mainly used for making light weight
concretes or as a base layer for other materials to be put on top
• Bye-Product: Again as the name suggests, this aggregate is formed from the
waste produced by other processes. Examples of this are cinder from burning
coal and slag sourced from blast furnaces
• Ultimately, natural aggregate is nearly always the best choice as it
provides the most strength, durability and longevity to any concrete
mix, but if costs are a consideration then manufactured or bye-
product aggregates are cheaper.
• On the other hand there are some downsides to non-natural
aggregate in that it’s more porous and may not be as dense which
ultimately means that any concrete mix produced using either of
these materials won’t be as strong as a mix made using natural
materials
• One other point to note concern the chloride content of a concrete
mix made using either bye-product or manufactured materials. The
presence of high levels of chloride can weaken concrete and
decrease its lifespan.
• Also it can react with other materials present in the mix and may
also react with and corrode steel.
• Classifying Aggregate by its Shape
• The final commonly used method of classifying aggregate is through the shape of it’s grains or particles.
• Again, as with classifying by origin, this may seem like a fairly odd way to distinguish the different types and on the whole
pointless, but the shape of aggregate used in a concrete mix has a considerable bearing on the overall finish and how workable
the mix is.
• Aggregates are classified by shape in the following way:
• Angular: Used mainly for high strength concrete mixes as they provide up to 20% more compressive strength due to an
improved bond with other materials present. Appearance-wise particles have angular and defined edges and a fairly rough
surface
• Rounded: Formed through erosion and wave action (typically sourced from beaches and rivers), all surfaces and edges are
smooth and rounded. Due to their smooth shape, concrete mixes created using rounded aggregates are very workable and
produce a smooth flat surface but as they do not interlock well together, do not produce a very strong mix
• Partly Rounded or Irregular: Formed again through the action of waves and erosion but particles are not as rounded and
smoothed as for fully rounded aggregate. Although more workable than angular, it’s not quite as easy to use and fully rounded.
In terms of strength, again concrete formed using it will be stronger than fully rounded but not strong as angular
• Elongated: Individual particles are longer than they are wider or deeper and due to this appear to be long and thin. This particle-
type provides more surface area to a concrete mix
• Flaky: Normally appear as fairly equal in terms of width and length but particles are very thin e.g. square or rectangular in terms
of width and length but not very thick. Like the above, this type also adds surface area to a mix
• Elongated and Flaky: A bit of a combination of the above, the length of a particle is greater than its width and also its width is
greater than its thickness. Not suitable for forming a reliable concrete mix
• You should now be much more familiar with the different types of aggregate and how each type should be used when creating a
concrete mix.
 What is Grade of Concrete?
• Grade of concrete is defined as the minimum strength the concrete must posses after 28
days of construction with proper quality control. Grade of concrete is denoted by prefixing
M to the desired strength in MPa. For example, for a grade of concrete with 20 MPa
strength, it will be denoted by M20, where M stands for Mix. These grade of concrete is
converted into various mix proportions. For example, for M20 concrete, mix proportion will
be 1:1.5:3 for cement:sand:coarse aggregates.
• Grade of concrete construction is selected based on structural design requirements. There
are two types of concrete mixes, nominal mix and design mix. Nominal mix concrete are
those which are generally used for small scale construction and small residential buildings
where concrete consumption is not high. Nominal mix takes care of factor of safety against
various quality control problems generally occurring during concrete construction. Design
mix concrete are those for which mix proportions are obtained from various lab tests. Use
of design mix concrete requires good quality control during material selection, mixing,
transportation and placement of concrete. This concrete offers mix proportions based on
locally available material and offers economy in construction if large scale concrete
construction is carried out. Thus, large concrete construction projects uses design mix
concrete. So, suitable grade of concrete can be selected based on structural requirements.
Nominal mixes for grades of concrete such as M15, M20, M25 are generally used for small
scale construction. Large structures have high strength requirements, thus they go for
higher grades of concrete such as M30 and above. The mix proportions of these concretes
are based on mix design.
 Regular Grades of Concrete and their Uses
• Regular grades of concrete are M15, M20, M25 etc. For plain cement
concrete works, generally M15 is used. For reinforced concrete
construction minimum M20 grade of concrete are used.

Compressive Strength Standard Grade of Concrete

Concrete M25 1 : 1 : 2 25 MPa 3625 psi
Mix Ratio MPa
Grade psi M30 Design Mix 30 MPa 4350 psi
(N/mm2) M35 Design Mix 35 MPa 5075 psi
Normal Grade of Concrete M40 Design Mix 40 MPa 5800 psi
M45 Design Mix 45 MPa 6525 psi
M5 1 : 5 : 10 5 MPa 725 psi
High Strength Concrete Grades
M7.5 1:4:8 7.5 MPa 1087 psi M50 Design Mix 50 MPa 7250 psi
M55 Design Mix 55 MPa 7975 psi
M10 1:3:6 10 MPa 1450 psi
M60 Design Mix 60 MPa 8700 psi
M15 1:2:4 15 MPa 2175 psi M65 Design Mix 65 MPa 9425 psi
M70 Design Mix 70 MPa 10150 psi
M20 1 : 1.5 : 3 20 MPa 2900 psi
• Types of Concrete Additives
• The additives are added to a water-cement mixture to increase the life of the concrete,
control setting, and hardening and fix the general concrete behavior. They can be
powdered or liquid additives.
• There are two types of additives, chemical and mineral additives. Their usage depends on
what the contractor wants to achieve.
• Chemical Additives
• These are used to:
• Reduce the construction cost
• Overcome emergencies at concrete operations.
• Guarantee quality during mixing all through to curation process.
• Modify the features of a hardened concrete
• Mineral Additives
• They are used to:
• Increase concrete strength.
• Economize on the mixture
• Reduce the permeability levels.
• Affect the nature of concrete (hardened) through the use of hydraulic activity.
Types of admixtures as per American Concrete Institute Committee report and IS 9103: 1999 are:
1. Accelerating admixtures
2. Retarding admixtures
3. Water-reducing and set controlling admixtures
4. Air-entraining admixtures
5. Super plasticizing admixtures
6. Admixtures for flowing concrete
7. Miscellaneous admixtures
Admixtures are used to modify the properties of concrete or mortar to make them
more suitable for the work at hand or for economy or for such other purposes as
saving energy. Some of the important purposes for which admixtures are used are:
To modify properties of fresh concrete, mortar and grout to:

• Increase workability without increasing water content or decrease water content

at the same workability.
• Retard or accelerate time of initial setting.
• Reduce or prevent settlement.
• Modify the rate or capacity for bleedings.
• Reduce segregation.
• Improve pumpability.
• Reduce the rate of slump loss.
• To modify the properties of hardened concrete, mortar and grout to:
• Retard or reduce heat evaluation during early hardening.
• Accelerate the rate of strength development at early ages.
• Increase strength (compressive, tensile or flexural).
• Increase durability or resistance to severe condition of exposure.
• Decrease permeability of concrete.
• Control expansion caused by the reaction of alkalies with certain aggregate constituents.
• Increase bond of concrete to steel reinforcement.
• Increase bond between existing and new concrete.
• Improve impact resistance and abrasion resistance.
• Inhibit corrosion of embedded metal.
• Produce colored concrete or mortar
• When Concrete Admixtures Used?
• When properties cannot be made by varying the composition of basic material.
• To produce desired effects more economically.
• Unlikely to make a poor concrete better.
• Not a substitute for good concrete practice.
• Required dose must be carefully determined and administered
• How to Use Concrete Admixtures?
• Check job specification
• Use the correct admixture
• Never use one from an unmarked container.
• Keep containers closed to avoid accidental contamination.
• Add the correct dosage.
• Avoid adding 'a little bit extra
• Use a dispenser
• Wash thoroughly at the end the day
• Best if added to the mixing water
• Manufacturer's recommended dosage is usually adequate
• Trial mixes are important to determine most effective dosage
• Air Entraining Admixture
• These are generally used to improve workability, ease of placing, increased durability, better resistance to frost action and reduction in bleeding.
The common Air-Entraining agents are natural wood resins, neutralized vinsol resins, polyethylene oxide polymers and sulfonated compounds.
• Mechanism of Air Entraining Concrete Admixtures
• These are anionic, because the hydrocarbon structures contain negatively charged hydrophilic groups, such as COO, SO3 and OSO so that large
anions are released in water. Conversely, if the hydrocarbon ion is positively charged, the compound is cation active or cationic. In other words,
anionic surface active agents produce bubbles that are negatively charged, cationic charged cause bubbles to be positively charged, surface
active agents of all classes can cause air entrainment in concrete, but their efficiency and characteristics of air-void system vary widely.
• Properties of Air entraining Admixtures
• These are foaming agents, gas producing chemicals. It introduces millions of tiny, stable bubbles of uniform size that are uniformly distributed
throughout the mix (usually about 5% of the volume).
• Improves properties of fresh concrete such as workability, cohesion and reduces segregation and bleeding.
• Improves properties of hardened concrete - For every 1% of air there is a 4% loss in strength which is minimized by the reduction in water content.
It improves durability of hardened concrete.
• 2. Accelerating Admixtures
• Accelerating admixtures are used for quicker setting times of concrete. It provides higher early strength development in freshly cast concrete.
• Main uses of Accelerating Concrete Admixtures
• These admixtures are suitable for concreting in winter conditions
• During any emergency repair work
• In case of early removal of formwork
• Disadvantages of Accelerating Concrete Admixtures
• It has increased drying shrinkage
• It offers reduced resistance to sulphate attack
• 3. Water Reducing Admixtures
• Chemical Types for Water Reducing Admixtures
1. Calcium or sodium salt of lignosulfonic acid
2. Poly carboxylic acid
• Mode of Action
1. The principal role on mechanism of water reductions and set retardation of admixtures are usually composed of long-
chain organic molecules and that are hydrophobic (not wetting) at one end and hydrophilic (readily wet) at the other.
Such molecules tend to become concentrated and form a film at the interface between two immiscible phases such as
cement and water, and alter the physio-chemical forces acting at this interface. The mechanism by which water reducing
admixture operate is to deflocculated or to disperse the cement agglomerates into primary particles or atleast into much
smaller fragments. This deflocculating is believing to be a physio chemical effect whereby the admixture is first of all
adsorbed on to the surface of the hydrating cement, forming a hydration “sheath”, reduces the antiparticle separated
from one another. The presence of water reducing admixture in a fresh concrete results in: a reduction of the interfacial
tension.
2. an increase in the electro kinetic potentials and
3. protection sheath of water dipoles around each particle i.e. mobility of fresh mix becomes greater, partly because of
reduction in inter-particle forces and partly because of water freed from the restraining influence of the highly
flocculated system which is now available to lubricate the mixture. Hence less water is required to achieve given
consistency.
• Why Water Reducing Admixtures are used?
• a) Concrete having greater workability be made without the need for more water and so strength losses are not
encountered b) By maintaining some workability, but at a lower water content, concrete strengths may be increased
without the need for further cement addition c) While maintaining the same w/c ratio and workability concrete can be
made to a given strength as in the reference concrete at lower cement content.
• Effect on durability
• The straight addition of admixtures of this type does not came any increase in permeability and
indeed where the admixture is used to reduce the w/c, then permeability is considerably reduced.
• Effect on shrinkage
• Admixture of this type when used as workability aids on water reducers do not adversely effect the
shrinkage.
• Effect on creep
• Materials of this type of admixture have no deleterious effect on the creep of concrete.
• Detrimental effect
• While using water reducing agent. Care must be taken in controlling the air content in the mix. Most
water-reducing agent entrain air due to their surfactant properties. b) At high dosages of
lignosulphonate material, retardation of the mix occurs.
• Applications of Water Reducing Concrete Admixtures
• The application of the type of admixtures are as follows — a) When concrete pours are restricted due
to either congested reinforcement or this sections. b) When harsh mixes are experienced such as
those produced with aggregates (crushed). Then considerable improvement in the plastic properties
of concrete can be obtained. c) When required strengths are difficult to obtain within specified
maximum cement content and where early lifting strengths are required. d) By addition of this
admixture in concrete cement economics of about 10% can be obtained.
4. Retarding Concrete Admixtures
• The function of retarding concrete admixture is to delay or extend the setting time of cement paste in concrete. These are
helpful for concrete that has to be transported to long distance in transit mixers and helpful in placing the concrete at high
temperatures, specially used as grouting admixture and water reducers results in increase of strength and durability.
• Chemical type for Retarding Concrete Admixture
• a) Unrefined lignosulphonates containing sugar, which of course the component responsible for retardation. b) Hydroxyl
carboxylic acid and their salts c) Carbohydrates including sugar d) Soluble zinc e) Soluble borates etc.
• Mode of action
• It is thought that retarding admixtures are absorbed on to the C3A phase in cement forming a film around the cement
grains and presenting or reducing the reaction with water. After a while thus film breaks down and normal hydration
proceeds. This a simple mixture and there is a reason to believe that retards also interact with C3S since retardation can be
extended to a period of many days.
• Why Retarding Concrete Admixtures are used?
• To delay in the setting time of concrete without adversely effecting the subsequent strength development.
• Advantage of Retarding Concrete Admixture
• a) The hydroxyl carboxylic acid type admixture normally produces concrete having a slightly lower aim content them that
of a control mix. b) Materials of this class (lignosulphonate containing sugar and derivatives of hydroxyl carboxylic acid) in
some cases have a much higher dispersing effect and hence water reducing capacity. c) Durability increases.
• Detrimental effect
• a) When lignosulphonate based material used, then the air content might be 0.2 to 0.3% higher unless materials of the
tributyle phosphate type are added. b) As the water content increases, so there is a tendency for drying shrinkage.
• Applications of Retarding Concrete Admixture
• Retarding admixtures are used a) Where long transportation of ready mixed concrete is required then
premature setting can be usefully avoided by this type admixture. b) When concrete is being placed
or transported under conditions of high ambient temperature. c) In case of large concrete pours d)
Concrete construction involving sliding formwork
• . Super Plasticizers or High Range Water-Reducing Admixtures in Concrete
• These are the second generation admixture and also called as Superplasticizers. These are synthetic
chemical products made from organic sulphonates of type RSO3, where R is complex organic group
of higher molecular weight produced under carefully controlled condition.
• The commonly used superplasticizer are as follows:
• i) Sulphonated melamine formaldehyde condensate (S M F C) ii) ii) Sulphonated naphthalene
formaldehyde condensate (S N F C) iii) iii) Modified lignosulphonates and other sulphonic esters,
acids etc.,
• Chemical type
• a) formaldehyde derivatives such as melamine formaldehyde and naphthalene sulphonate
formaldehyde.
• Mode of action of Super Plasticizer Admixtures
• This admixture acts as the same way as that of a water reducing admixture acts. It disperses the
cement agglomerates when cement is suspended in water and adsorbed on to the surface of
cement, causing them mutually repulsive as a result of the anionic nature of super plasticizers.
• Why Super Plasticizer Admixtures are used?
• a) At a given w/c ratio, this admixture increases the workability, typically by raising
the slump from 75 mm to 200 mm. b) The second use of this admixtures is in the
production of concrete of normal workability but with an extreme high strength
(super plasticizer can reduce the water content for a given workability by 25 – 35
percent compared with half that value in the case of conventional water reducing
admixtures).
• Advantages of Super Plasticizer Admixtures
• a) The concrete using this admixture can be placed with little or no compaction and
is not subject to excessive bleeding or segregation. b) They can be used as high
dosages became they do not markedly change the surface tension of water. c) It
does not significantly affect the setting of concrete except that when used the
cements having a very low C3A content. d) They do not influence shrinkage, creep
modulus of elasticity or resistance to freeing to thawing.
• Disadvantage
• The only real disadvantage of superplasticizer is their relatively high cost.
• Applications of Super Plasticizer Admixtures
• a) In very heavily reinforced sections, in inaccessible areas in floor or road slabs. b)
Where very rapid placing is desired.
• 6. Mineral Admixtures for Concrete
• Mineral admixtures are finely divided materials which are added to the concrete in relatively large amounts,
usually of the order of 20 to 100 percent by weight of Portland cement.
• Source of Mineral Admixtures
• a) Raw or calcined natural minerals b) Industrial by products
• Reasons for using mineral admixtures
• a) In recent years’ considerable efforts have been made by the cement industry world wide to reduce energy
consumption in the manufacture of Portland cement. Therefore, a partial replacement of Portland cement by
mineral admixtures which can be of the order of 50 – 60% by weight of total cementitious material, represents
considerable energy savings. b) The ability of cement and concrete industries to consume mithions of tons of
industrial byproducts containing toxic metal would qualify these industries to be classified as environmentally
friendly. c) Since natural Pozzolana and industrial by products are generally available substantially lower costs
than Portland cement, the exploitation of the Pozzolanic and cementitious properties of mineral admixtures
are used as a partial replacement of cement can lead to a considerable economic benefit. d) Possible
technological benefits from the use of mineral admixtures in concrete include entrancement of impermeability
and chemical durability, improved resistance to thermal cracking and increase in ultimate strength.
• Classification of Mineral Admixture
• Mineral admixtures may be classified as follows — a) Pozzolanic — Silicon and admixtures material which itself
possesses little or no cementitious value but is the presence of moisture chemically react with CaOH2 at
ordinary temperature to form compounds possessing cementitious properties. b) Pozzolanic & Cementitious —
The materials which have some cementitious properties in itself. ASIM specification C618 recognizes the
following three classes of mineral admixtures. a) Class N — Raw or calcined natural pozzolanic such as
diatomaceous earths, clay and shales, tuffs and volcanic ashes. b) Class F — Fly ash produced from burning
anthracite or bituminous coal. c) Class C — Ash normally produced from lignite or sub-bituminous coal which
may contain analytical CaO higher than 10%.
• 7. Silica Fume as Concrete Admixture
• Although the use of silica fume (SF) in concrete has increased significantly in the past
few years, its beneficial properties were not well realized until comprehensive
research was undertaken in the late 70’s and early 80’s at the Norwegian Ins. of
technology to study the influence of SF on concrete properties.
• Production of Silica Fume
• Silicon, ferrosilicon or other alloys are produced in so-called “submerged are electric
furnaces”. There are two types of electric furnaces one is with heat recovery system
and the other is without heat recovery system.
• Types of Alloys Produced in Submerged Arc Electric Furnaces
• a) Ferrosilicon of various Si contents - FeSi – 50% with a 43 to 50% Si content - FeSi –
75% with a 72 to 78% Si content - FeSi – 90% with a 87 to 96% Si content b) Calcium
silicon c) Ferrochromium Silicon d) Silicomanganese
• Specific Gravity and Specific Surface Area of SF
• The specific gravity of SF is generally equal to that of amorphous silica which is about
2.20. However, depending on its chemical composition, the specific gravity of SF
particle can be as high as 2.40 and 2.55, as in the case of FeSi. The specific surface
area of SF is measured by nitrogen absorption is given below.
However, regardless of the differences in Calculated Measured by Mean
SF Surface Area Nitrogen Diameter
chemical composition, color and carbon (m2/kg) Adsorption (mm)
content, all types of SF share a certain Si 20000 18500 0.18
number of common, yet important FeCrSi 16000 - 0.18
physio chemical characteristics, which FeSi –
15000 - 0.21
make them effective supplementary 50%
cementitious materials to cement FeSi –
13000 15000 0.26
75%
concrete. these properties are as follows
— a) SF originates from the condensed
SiO vapors and generally has a high
content of silica of 35 to 98% b) SF is an
amorphous material c) SF is composed
mostly of fine spheres with a mean
diameter of 0.1 to 0.2 mm.
• Filler and Pozzolanic effects of Silica Fume
• The unique characteristics of SF that make it suitable for use as supplementary cementitious
materials are its fineness, highly amorphous in nature and elevated content of SiO2. The
small SF spheres act as fillers since they occupy some of the space between the
relatively coarser cement grains which can be otherwise occupied by water. This
results also in a denser matrix with a better gradation of fine particles. In a super
plasticized, low w/c ratio concrete, small SF spheres can displace water entrapped between
the flocculated cement grains, thus increasing the amount of free water in the paste which
enhances fluidity. Several researchers have studied the pozzolanic properties of SF. The
resulting reactions between SF and Ca(OH)2 increases the volume of CSH and reduces the
total volume of capillary pores in the cement paste. The pozzolanic reactions of SF with
Ca(OH)2 reduces the amount of Portlandite in the hydrate cement paste. Mehta explained
that the absence of large Portlandite crystals in a SF mixture can be due to the fact that each
SF particles can act as a “nucleation site” for precipitation of Ca(OH)2. As a result, numerous
small crystals of Ca(OH)2 can form rather than a few large ones. This absence of large and
week crystals of Portlandite enhance the mechanical properties of concrete. The beneficial
action of SF has also been attributed to the reduction of the porosity of the transition zone
between the cement paste and aggregate which increases the strength and impermeability of
the concrete. In or conventional concrete, the transition zone can have large and oriented
Portlandite crystals which form weak zones in the concrete. The thickness of the transition
zone can be drastically produced by adding SF to the concrete since SF reduces bleeding
and the amount of water accumulation under aggregate. As a result, it decreases the porosity
of the transition zone and it also reduces the concentration of oriented Ca(OH)2 crystals.
• Selection of Concrete Admixtures
• Concrete admixtures shall be selected carefully as per the specifications and shall be
used as recommended by the manufacturer or by lab testing report. The quantity of
admixtures to be used for specific application of admixtures are recommended by the
manufacturers. For use in large construction projects, the quantity of the admixture
to be used shall be obtained from tests reports for concrete mixed with admixtures at
various percentage admixtures use. These tests are conducted to understand the
behavior of admixtures on the desired quality and strength of concrete at different
quantity of admixtures used. Thus, the optimum quantity of admixtures can be
selected for specific application based on results. The selection of specific admixtures
for use in concrete to alter properties of concrete should be selected carefully as per
requirement of concrete works. Concrete admixtures should be used judiciously
according to specification and method of application to avoid adverse effect on
concrete properties at fresh and hardened state. After selecting the admixtures
product, one should carefully choose the supplier with quality product, timely service
and at competitive price. The admixture supplier should be with good history and
should possess the staff with efficient and professional experience to guide on
effective application/use of admixture in right way. Concrete admixtures should be
accepted with test certificate, manufacturing date and its chemical composition,
should comply specifications given by the authorities.
Types of Cement
• There are various types of cement used in concrete construction. Each type of cement has its
properties, uses, and advantages based on composition materials used during its manufacture.
• 13 Types of Cement and their Uses
1.Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
2.Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
3.Rapid Hardening Cement
4.Quick setting cement
5.Low Heat Cement
6.Sulphate resisting cement
7.Blast Furnace Slag Cement
8.High Alumina Cement
9.White Cement
10.Coloured cement
11.Air Entraining Cement
12.Expansive cement
13.Hydrographic cement
• 1. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC)
• Ordinary Portland cement is the most widely used type of cement, which
is suitable for all general concrete construction. It is the most commonly
produced and used type of cement around the world, with annual global
production of around 3.8 million cubic meters per year. This cement is
suitable for all kinds of concrete construction.
• 2. Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC)
• Portland pozzolana cement is prepared by grinding pozzolanic clinker with
Portland cement. It is also produced by adding pozzolana with the
addition of gypsum or calcium sulfate or by intimately and uniformly
blending Portland cement and fine pozzolana. This cement has a high
resistance to various chemical attacks on concrete compared with
ordinary portland cement, and thus, it is widely used. It is used in marine
structures, sewage works, sewage works, and for laying concrete
underwater, such as bridges, piers, dams, and mass concrete works, etc.
• 3. Rapid Hardening Cement
• Rapid hardening cement attains high strength in the early days; it is used in concrete
where formworks are removed at an early stage and are similar to ordinary portland
cement (OPC). This cement has increased lime content and contains higher c3s
content and finer grinding, which gives higher strength development than OPC at an
early stage.
• The strength of rapid hardening cement at the three days is similar to 7 days
strength of OPC with the same water-cement ratio. Thus, the advantage of this
cement is that formwork can be removed earlier, which increases the rate of
construction and decreases the cost of construction by saving formwork cost. Rapid
hardening cement is used in prefabricated concrete construction, road works, etc.
• 4. Quick setting cement
• The difference between the quick setting cement and rapid hardening cement is that
quick-setting cement sets earlier. At the same time, the rate of gain of strength is
similar to Ordinary Portland Cement, while quick hardening cement gains strength
quickly. Formworks in both cases can be removed earlier.
• Quick setting cement is used where works is to be completed in very short period
and for concreting in static or running water.
• 5. Low Heat Cement
• Low heat cement is produced by maintaining the percentage of tricalcium
aluminate below 6% by increasing the proportion of C2S. A small quantity of
tricalcium aluminate makes the concrete to produce low heat of hydration. Low
heat cement suitable for mass concrete construction like gravity dams, as the
low heat of hydration, prevents the cracking of concrete due to heat.
• This cement has increased power against sulphates and is less reactive and
initial setting time is greater than OPC.
• 6. Sulfates Resisting Cement
• Sulfate resisting cement is used to reduce the risk of sulfate attack on concrete
and thus is used in the construction of foundations where the soil has high
sulfate content. This cement has reduced the contents of C3A and C4AF.
• Sulfate resisting cement is used in construction exposed to severe sulfate action
by water and soil in places like canals linings, culverts, retaining walls, siphons,
etc.
• 7. Blast Furnace Slag Cement
• Blast furnace slag cement is obtained by grinding the clinkers with about 60% slag and resembles more or less
in properties of Portland cement. It can be used for works where economic considerations are predominant.
• 8. High Alumina Cement
• High alumina cement is obtained by melting a mixture of bauxite and lime and grinding with the clinker. It is a
rapid hardening cement with initial and final setting time of about 3.5 and 5 hours, respectively.
• The compressive strength of this cement is very high and more workable than ordinary portland cement and is
used in works where concrete is subjected to high temperatures, frost, and acidic action.
• 9. White Cement
• It is prepared from raw materials free from Iron oxide and is a type of ordinary portland cement, which is
white. It is costlier and is used for architectural purposes such as precast curtain wall and facing panels, terrazzo
surface, etc. and for interior and exterior decorative work like external renderings of buildings, facing slabs,
floorings, ornamental concrete products, paths of gardens, swimming pools, etc.
• 10. Colored cement
• It is produced by mixing 5- 10% mineral pigments with ordinary cement. They are widely used for decorative
works on floors.
• 11. Air Entraining Cement
• Air entraining cement is produced by adding indigenous air-entraining agents such as resins, glues, sodium salts
of sulfates, etc. during the grinding of clinker.
• This type of cement is especially suited to improve the workability with a smaller water-cement ratio and to
improve frost resistance of concrete.
• 12. Expansive Cement
• Expansive cement expands slightly with time and does not shrink during
and after the time of hardening. This cement is mainly used for grouting
anchor bolts and prestressed concrete ducts.
• 13. Hydrographic cement
• Hydrographic cement is prepared by mixing water-repelling chemicals
and has high workability and strength. It has the property of repelling
water and is unaffected during monsoon or rains.
• Hydrophobic cement is mainly used for the construction of water
structures such as dams, water tanks, spillways, water retaining
structures, etc.
Importance of High Strength Concrete
• Tall structures were made earlier using steel. Now, tall structures can be constructed even with concrete. For such structures, high
strength concrete is necessary.
• Using HSC reduced the cost of construction. One report suggested that the increase in load carrying capacity by 4.7 times increases the
cost by only 3.1 times.
• How to make High Strength Concrete?
• High strength concrete can be manufactured in the batching plants mechanically.
• Following are some of the factors that need to be paid attention to:
• Mix proportioning
• Shape of aggregates
• Use of cementitious materials
• Usage of silica fume
• Use of superplasticizers
• High Strength Concrete Mix Design
• 1. Reduced Porosity:
• In HSC, the factor holding much significance is the porosity of all 3-phases, viz. aggregate, hardened cement paste, and aggregate
cement bond.
• Precise models for calculating strength cannot be developed owing to the inability to determine the porosity of matrix and transitional
zone in concrete.
• Many empirical relations have been given with time and experience though.
• 2. Reduced W/C Ratio:
• A very small decrease in the w/c ratio can result in a notable increase in the compressive strength of concrete.
• Water cement ratio for high strength concrete should be low.
• But reducing water content makes the concreting process difficult. Hence, water-reducing admixtures like superplasticizers are used.
• 3. Reducing Maximum Coarse Aggregate Size: Compressive Strength of
Maximum size of CA
HSC
≤ 70 MPa 20-25 mm
100 MPa 14-20 mm
> 125 MPa 10-14 mm

• 4. Increasing Fine Aggregates Size:

• Generally, fine aggregates having fineness modulus greater than 3.0 are taken for HSC.
• 5. Cement Content:
• As discussed above, aggregate size is reduced and the w/c ratio is reduced too.
• Hence, cement content in HSC should be increased.
• Generally, a minimum cement content of 385 kg/m3 is taken.
• Beyond a certain threshold of 600 kg /m3, no more increase in the strength of HSC is observed.
• This is because the increase in cement content increases the heat of hydration, which promotes
drying shrinkage in concrete.
• As a result, microcracks are formed in concrete even before loading.
• Thus, the constituent of cement itself becomes a limiting factor for strength gain.
 High Strength Concrete vs Regular Concrete
SI No. High Strength Concrete Regular Concrete

1 Strength greater than 40 MPa is achieved Strength up to 35 MPa is generally achieved

2 Permeability of HSC is low Permeability is comparatively more

Very low w/c ratio is used Low to medium w/c ratio is used
2
(w/c ratio as low as 0.3 is used) (w/c ratio of about 0.4 is normally used)

Superplasticizers are required to compensate for the loss in Workable concrete is prepared normally; usage of
3
workability with the usage of a low w/c ratio superplasticizers is not mandatory

4 More cement content is used Less cement content is used

Maximum size of coarse aggregates is more than those
5 Maximum size of coarse aggregates is reduced
used in HSC
Stress-strain curve of HSC is steeper and linear to a higher stress Stress-strain curve is less steep and linear to a higher stress
6
strength ratio strength ratio

7 More brittle failure than regular concrete More elastic failure than high strength concrete

8 Durability is increased due to less permeability Durability is less than HSC

• Manufacture of High Strength Concrete
• High strength concrete can be developed using the following
methods:
1.Seeding
2.Re-vibration
3.High speed slurry mixing
4.Use of admixtures
5.Inhibition of cracks
6.Sulphur impregnation
• 1. Seeding
• A small percentage of finely ground and fully hydrated Portland cement particles are added to the mixed fresh concrete.
• The mechanism of how high strength is attained by the addition of fine hydrated cement particles is unknown.
• Seeding method is not very effective in making high strength concrete.
• 2. Re-vibration
• The strength of concrete is reduced as:
• Concrete, after mixing, undergoes plastic shrinkage.
• Mixing water creates continuous channels of capillary water in concrete.
• Besides this, the water also accumulates in some places.
• Above defects can be overcome and strength can be increased by controlled vibration.
• 3. High Speed Slurry Mixing
• In high speed slurry mixing, the following steps are taken:
• Cement and water mixture is prepared
• This cement water mixture is then blended vigorously with aggregates to form concrete
• The vigorous blending of cement paste enables efficient hydration of cement paste, which contributes to higher strength
• 4. High Strength Concrete Admixtures’ Usage
• As discussed above, reducing water content can increase the strength of concrete.
• To compensate for the loss of workability upon reducing water content, water reducing admixtures like superplasticizers are added.
• High consistency of 200-250 mm slump and low w/c ratio under 0.3 to achieve a strength of more than 70 MPa uses a high range of superplasticizers.
• Addition of 0.5-1.5 % of superplasticizers by weight of cement can increase the consistency so that the initial slump of 50-75 mm rises to 200-250 mm.
• The drawback is that the concrete returns to its original consistency within 30-60 minutes.
• Solution to Recovering Initial Slump Loss while using Superplasticizers:
• To overcome this slump loss, repeated dosages of admixtures are added. It is observed that adding second or third dosages may lead to segregation in concrete.
• Another solution to overcoming slump loss is to add retarding agent to the admixture composition itself. By doing so, the high consistency period will increase from 0.5-1
hour to 3-6 hours.
• 5. Inhibition of Cracks
The concept of inhibition of cracks is as follows:
•Cracks propagate once formed in concrete members
•Concrete fails owing to the crack formation
•Hence, inhibition of cracks can make concrete stronger as well as durable
•For the inhibition of cracks, 2-3 % of fine aggregates can be replaced by polythene or polystyrene
lenticules of thickness of 0.025 mm and diameter of 3-4 mm.
•These polythene/polystyrene lenticules act as crack arresters without raising the need for extra water
for workability
Concrete cubes with the usage of crack inhibitors by polythene/polystyrene can produce strength up
to 105 MPa.
6. Sulphur Impregnation
Satisfactory HSC can be prepared by impregnating Sulphur.
Process of producing HSC by Sulphur impregnation is as follows:
•Fresh concrete specimen is moist cured for 24 hours
•Moist cubes are dried at 120 °C for 24 hours
•Dried cubes are immersed in molten Sulphur in a vacuum for 2 hours
•Vacuum is released
•Cubes are again soaked in Sulphur for 0.5 hours.
Sulphur-impregnated concrete can provide strength up to 58 MPa.
• 7. Use of Cementitious Aggregates
• Usage of cementitious aggregates can produce high strength concrete.
• Cement fondu is a glassy clinker
• Fine grinding of cement fondu produces cement
• Coarse grinding of cement fondu produces aggregates called ALAG
• Usage of ALAG as aggregates in place of regular aggregates yields high strength concrete
• HSC of strength 125 MPa can be obtained with a w/c ratio of 0.32 using ALAG as aggregates.
• 8. Reducing Maximum Size of Coarse Aggregates
• The weakest zone in concrete is the transition zone. Reducing the maximum size of coarse aggregates results in increased
surface area.
• Thus, the strength of the transition zone is increased in HSC by reducing the maximum size of aggregates.
• 9. Addition of Pozzolanic Materials
• As discussed above, the microstructure of cement itself becomes a limiting factor in concrete for strength development.
• No more strength can be increased after increasing the cement content beyond 600 kg/m3.
• In such cases, the microstructure of cement can be modified by eliminating or reducing components causing
inhomogeneity in cement and reducing the heat of hydration.
• In PCC, this can be done by adding pozzolanic materials like fly ash.
• Fly ash reacts with Ca(OH)2 and the resulting product exhibits similar composition and properties as that of OPC.
• Additionally, it gives rise to pozzolanic action, which greatly reduces pores in concrete.
• The reduction of pores also helps in enhancing the strength of concrete.
• Silica Fume:
• As silica fume is an ultra fine particle, it can fill the nano-scale voids in
concrete. The size of a particle of silica fume is about 100 times
smaller than that of a cement particle.
• Ca(OH)2, a product of hydration of cement, is converted to CSH gel by
silica fume. CSH gel contributes to strength in concrete.
• Ca(OH)2 is harmful in concrete. It reduces strength of concrete by
leaching, and many other factors.
• Characteristics of High Strength Concrete
• 1. Workability
• In the initial stage, HSC will be sticky and stiff with low workability due to
the following reasons:
• Presence of high amount of cementitious materials like high cement
content, pozzolana
• Low w/c ratio
• But as superplasticizers start working, desired high workability without
segregation can be achieved with the w/c ratio as low as 0.3.
• However, concreting should be done quickly after the addition of the
superplasticizer else, the concrete will return to its original consistency as
discussed
• 2. Strength
• The most important characteristic of the high strength concrete is its ability to develop high strength as its name suggests.
• High strength can be attained even without steam curing in HSC.
• Under Normal Curing, the strength attained will be as follows:
• HSC – 20-27 MPa in 24 hours
• UHSC – 42 MPa in 12 hours
• 64 MPa in 24 hours
• UHSC stands for ultra high strength concrete
• 3. Microstructure, stress strain relationship, creep and failure
• All the above characteristics of HSC are different from those of normal strength concrete owing to the reduction in the number and size of
microcracks.
• At compressive strength of 30-75 MPa, HSC behaves more like homogenous material.
• Stress-strain curve of HSC is steeper and linear to a higher stress strength ratio as compared to normal strength concrete.
• The mode of failure is more brittle than regular concrete.
• HSC shows less volumetric dilation.
• 4. Durability
• Low permeability:
• The durability of HSC is enhanced, as its permeability is less. HSC is durable to many physical and chemical agents causing deterioration in concrete.
• High cement content:
• However, high cement content raises the temperature. For every 100kg/m3 of cement, a temperature rise of 10-40 °C should be expected.
• This temperature rise may result in thermal cracking, which may give rise to durability concerns.
High Strength Concrete Advantages and
Disadvantages
• High strength concrete possesses the following advantages and disadvantages.
• Advantages of High Strength Concrete
• 1. Achieving high strength
• HSC attains relatively higher strength as indicated by its name.
• 2. Reduction in construction period
• As the construction can be started even when the superstructure is partially built, the work can be accomplished earlier.
• 3. Economy in high rise construction
• To increase the load carrying capacity by 4.7 times, the cost is increased by 3.1 times.
• 4. Reduction in self weight of the structure
• As the total concrete used is less owing to its high strength, the dead load on the buildings is reduced.
• 5. Increase in carpet area
• As high strength concrete facilitates thinner cross-sections of concrete members, available carpet area is increased for usage.
• 6. Reduction in creep
• Modulus of elasticity of concrete is increased which reduces creep in the structure.
• 7. Reduction in deflection
• As the modulus of elasticity decreases, the deflection of the structure is reduced too.
• 8. Increase in durability of structure
• Low w/c ratio, high cement content, and usage of pozzolana and superplasticizers reduce the permeability and enhance the durability of the
structure. An increase in durability is a good factor for sustainable construction.
• Disadvantages of High Strength Concrete
• HSC cannot be used for the construction of members subjected to
freeze and thaw cycles.
• Stricter quality control measures are to be enforced on the site
• Materials for HSC are to be selected carefully and they might be more
expensive
• Application of High Strength Concrete
• 1. HSC can be used in the construction of columns of high rise buildings.
• The most economical solution for columns is using the maximum compressive strength
of concrete and minimum possible steel.
• 2. HSC can be used in the construction of multistorey buildings.
• Construction cost increases only by 3.1 times for the increase in load carrying capacity
by 4.7 times.
• 3. HSC can be used for flooring in the chemical and food industry and bridge deck
overlays.
• These structures are exposed to physical and chemical agents causing concrete
deterioration. Here, high strength concrete with low w/c ratio, good quality pozzolana,
super plasticized, and high cement content should be used.
• 4. HSC can be used in sea water construction like the construction of islands in the
ocean.
• HSC shows good durability in the marine environment. Hence, it can be used for
marine construction.
• 5. HSC can be used in the construction of shear walls as well. High resistance to
compressive stresses facilitates its usage in shear walls.
• Uses of High Strength Concrete
• Columns of high rise buildings
• Construction of multistorey buildings or skyscrapers
• Marine construction
• Long-span bridge construction
• Flooring of chemical and food industry
• Shear wall construction
• In prestressed members