13 Vector Calculus

(x, y, z)

• Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights

F(x, y, z)=<P(x, y, z), Q(x, y, z), R(x, y, z) >
reserved.

1
13.1 Vector Fields

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Vector Fields
The vectors in Figure 1 are air velocity vectors that indicate
the wind speed and direction at points 10 m above the
surface elevation in the San Francisco Bay area.

Figure 1 Velocity vector fields showing San Francisco Bay wind patterns

3
Vector Fields
Associated with every point in the air we can imagine a
wind velocity vector. This is an example of a velocity vector
field.

Other examples of velocity vector fields are illustrated in

Figure 2: ocean currents and flow past an airfoil.

Velocity vector fields

Figure 2 4
Vector Fields
Another type of vector field, called a force field, associates
a force vector with each point in a region. An example is
the gravitational force field.

In general, a vector field is a function whose domain is a

set of points in (or ) and whose range is a set of
vectors in V2 (or V3).

F : D → VR22
(x,y)|~~> F(x,y)

5
Vector Fields
The best way to picture a vector field is to draw the arrow
representing the vector F(x, y) starting at the point (x, y).

Of course, it’s impossible to do this for all points (x, y), but
we can gain a reasonable impression of F by doing it for a
few representative points in D as in Figure 3.

Figure 3 Vector field on

6
Vector Fields
Since F(x, y) is a two-dimensional vector, we can write it in
terms of its component functions P and Q as follows:
F(x, y) = P(x, y) i + Q(x, y) j = P(x, y), Q(x, y)

or, for short, F=Pi+Qj

Notice that P and Q are scalar functions of two variables

and are sometimes called scalar fields to distinguish them
from vector fields.

F : D → VR33
(x,y,z) |~> F(x,y,z)
7
Vector Fields
A vector field F on is pictured in Figure 4.

Figure 4 Vector field on

We can express it in terms of its component functions

P, Q, and R as

8
Vector Fields
As with the vector functions, we can define continuity of
vector fields and show that F is continuous if and only if its
component functions P, Q, and R are continuous.

We sometimes identify a point (x, y, z) with its position

vector x = x, y, z and write F(x) instead of F(x, y, z).

9
Example 1
A vector field on is defined by F(x, y) = –y i + x j = < –y, x >.

10
Example 1
Since F(1, 0) = j, we draw the vector j = 0, 1 starting at the
point (1, 0) in Figure 5.

Figure 5 F(x, y) = < –y, x >

Since F(0, 1) = –i, we draw the vector –1, 0 with starting

point (0, 1). 11
Example 1
Since F(1, 0) = j, we draw the vector j = 0, 1 starting at the
point (1, 0) in Figure 5.

Figure 5 F(x, y) = < –y, x >

Since F(0, 1) = –i, we draw the vector –1, 0 with starting

point (0, 1). 12
Example 1
It appears from Figure 5 that each arrow is tangent to a
circle with center the origin.

Figure 5 F(x, y) = < –y, x >

13
Example 1
To confirm this, we take the dot product of the position
vector x = x i + y j with the vector F(x) = F(x, y):

x  F(x) = < x, y >  < –y, x >

= –xy + yx
=0

This shows that F(x, y) is perpendicular to the position

vector x, y and is therefore tangent to a circle with center
the origin and radius

14
Example 1
Notice also that

so the magnitude of the vector F(x, y) is equal to the radius

of the circle.

15
Example 3
Imagine a fluid flowing steadily along a pipe and let
V(x, y, z) be the velocity vector at a point (x, y, z).
Then V assigns a vector to each point (x, y, z) in a certain
domain E (the interior of the pipe) and so V3 is a vector field
on called a velocity field.
A possible velocity field is illustrated in Figure 13.

Velocity field in fluid flow

Figure 13 16
Example 4
Newton’s Law of Gravitation states that the magnitude of
the gravitational force between two objects with masses
m and M is

where r is the distance between the objects and G is the

gravitational constant. (This is an example of an inverse
square law.)

17
Example 4 cont’d

Let the position vector of the object with mass m be

x = x, y, z. Then r = |x|, so r 2 = |x| 2.

The gravitational force exerted on this second object acts

toward the origin, and the unit vector in this direction is

Therefore the gravitational force acting on the object at

x = x, y, z is

18
Example 4 cont’d

[Physicists often use the notation r instead of x for the

position vector, so you may see Formula 3 written in the
form F = –(mMG/r3)r.]

The function given by Equation 3 is an example of a vector

field, called the gravitational field, because it associates a
vector [the force F(x)] with every point x in space.

19
Gradient (Vector) Fields

20
Gradient Fields
If f is a scalar function of two variables, recall that its
gradient f (or grad f ) is defined by
f (x, y) = fx(x, y) i + fy(x, y) j = < fx(x, y), fy(x, y) >
Therefore f is really a vector field on and is called a
gradient vector field.

Likewise, if f is a scalar function of three variables, its

gradient is a vector field on given by
f(x, y, z) = fx(x, y, z) i + fy(x, y, z) j + fz(x, y, z) k
= < fx(x, y, z), fy(x, y, z), fz(x, y, z) >

21
Example 6
Find the gradient vector field of f (x, y) = x2y – y3. Plot the
gradient vector field together with a contour map of f . How
are they related?

Solution:
The gradient vector field is given by

22
Example 6
Find the gradient vector field of f (x, y) = x2y – y3. Plot the
gradient vector field together with a contour map of f . How
are they related?

Solution:
The gradient vector field is given by

23
Example 6 – Solution cont’d

Figure 15 shows a contour map of f with the gradient vector

field.

y = x; x = < x, x >,
x ∆f = < x, x > <2x2, -2x2 >
● ●

=0

Figure 15

Notice that the gradient vectors are perpendicular to the

level curves.
24
Gradient Fields
A vector field F is called a conservative vector field if it is
the gradient of some scalar function, that is,
if there exists a function f such that F = f.

In this situation f is called a potential function for F.

g′(y) = ̶ 3y2
예. f (x, y) = x2y – y3
g(y) = ̶ y3 + K

fx(x, y) = 2xy, f (x, y) = x2y + g(y), fy(x, y) = x2 + g′(y),

f (x, y) = x2y ̶ 3y3 + K

25
Gradient Fields F = f .

For example, the gravitational field F in Example 4 is

conservative because if we define

then

26
Note.
In particular, we often need to parametrize a line segment,
so it’s useful to remember that a vector representation of
the line segment that starts at r0 and ends at r1 is given by

(x1, y1)
(x, y)
(x0, y0)

r1
r0

27
Note.
In particular, we often need to parametrize a line segment,
so it’s useful to remember that a vector representation of
the line segment that starts at r0 and ends at r1 is given by

C = line segment (1, 1) → (1, 2).

C = r(t) = < x(t), y(t) > = <1, t >, (1 ≤ t ≤ 2).

28
13.2 Line Integrals

Copyright © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

29
Line Integrals
In this section we define an integral that is similar to a
single integral except that instead of integrating over an
interval [a, b], we integrate over a curve C.

Such integrals are called line integrals, although “curve

integrals” would be better terminology.

They were invented in the early 19th century to solve

problems involving fluid flow, forces, electricity, and
magnetism.

30
Line Integrals
p

line integrals

31
Line Integrals
We start with a plane curve C given by the parametric
equations
x = x(t) y = y(t), atb

or, equivalently, by the vector equation r(t) = < x(t), y(t) >,
and we assume that C is a smooth curve. [This means that
r is continuous and r(t)  0.]

32
Line Integrals
If we divide the parameter interval [a, b] into n subintervals
[ti –1, ti] of equal width and we let xi = x(ti), and yi = y(ti),
then the corresponding points Pi(xi, yi) divide C into n sub-
arcs with lengths s1, s2, . . . , sn. (See Figure 1.)

Figure 1
33
 Line Integrals
p

담장(?)의 면적?

in [ti –1, ti]

lim
n→

34
Line Integrals
Then we take the limit of these sums and make the
following definition by analogy with a single integral.

We
We have
have found
found that
that the
the length
length of C is
of C is

35
Line Integrals
A similar type of argument can be used to show that if f is a
continuous function, then the limit in Definition 2 always
exists and the following formula can be used to evaluate
the line integral: C: r(t) = < x (t), y(t) >, (a ≤ t ≤ b)

36
Line Integrals
In the special case where C is the line segment that joins
(a, 0) to (b, 0), using x as the parameter, we can write the
parametric equations of C as follows: x = x, y = 0, a  x  b.
C : r(x) = < x, 0 > (a ≤ x ≤ b)
Formula 3 then becomes

and so the line integral reduces to an ordinary single

integral in this case.

C : r(t) = < x (t), y(t) >, (a ≤ t ≤ b) 37

Line Integrals
In the special case where C is the line segment that joins
(a, 0) to (b, 0), using x as the parameter, we can write the
parametric equations of C as follows: x = x, y = 0, a  x  b.
C : r(x) = < x, 0 > (a ≤ x ≤ b)
Formula 3 then becomes

and so the line integral reduces to an ordinary single

integral in this case.

C : r(t) = < x (t), y(t) >, (a ≤ t ≤ b) 38

Line Integrals
Just as for an ordinary single integral, we can interpret the
line integral of a positive function as an area. cf) mass?

In fact, if f (x, y)  0, C f (x, y) ds represents the area of one

side of the “fence” or “curtain” in Figure 2, whose base is C
and whose height above the point (x, y) is f (x, y).

Figure 2
39
Example 1
Evaluate C (2 + x 2 y)ds, where C is the upper half of the unit
circle x 2 + y 2 = 1.
Solution:
In order to use Formula 3, we first need parametric
equations to represent C ;
x = cost, y = sint
and the upper half of the circle is
described by the parameter
interval 0  t  . (See Figure 3.)

Figure 3

C : r(t) = < cost, sint >, 0  t  .

40
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Therefore Formula 3 gives C : r(t) = < cost, sint >, 0  t  .

41
Example 1 – Solution cont’d

Therefore Formula 3 gives C : r(t) = < cost, sint >, 0  t  .

42
Line Integrals
Suppose now that C is a piecewise-smooth curve; that is,
C is a union of a finite number of smooth curves
C1, C2, …., Cn, where, as illustrated in Figure 4, the initial
point of Ci +1 is the terminal point of Ci.

C f (x, y) ds

= C1 f (x, y) ds + C2 f (x, y) ds

∙∙∙ + C5 f (x, y) ds

Figure 4 A piecewise-smooth curve

43
Line Integrals
Any physical interpretation of a line integral C f (x, y) ds
depends on the physical interpretation of the function f.
Suppose that  (x, y) represents the linear density at a point
(x, y) of a thin wire shaped like a curve C.

44
Example 2
Evaluate C 2x ds, where C= C1 C2 ; C1= the parabola y=x 2,
∩
(0, 0) → (1, 1), C2= the vertical line segment (1, 1) → (1, 2).
Solution:
We first need parametric equations to represent C1, C2 ;
C1 : x = x, y = x 2 (0 ≤ x ≤ 1)
C2 : x = 1, y = y (1 ≤ y ≤ 2)

Figure 5

45
Example 2
Evaluate C 2x ds, where C= C1 C2 ; C1= the parabola y=x 2,
∩
(0, 0) → (1, 1), C2= the vertical line segment (1, 1) → (1, 2).
Solution:
We first need parametric equations to represent C1, C2 ;
x = 1, y = y (1 ≤ y ≤ 2)

Figure 5

46
Example 2
Evaluate C 2x ds, where C= C1 C2 ; C1= the parabola y=x 2,
∩
(0, 0) → (1, 1), C2= the vertical line segment (1, 1) → (1, 2).
Solution:

?
47
 C f (x, y) dx
Line Integrals C f (x, y) ds  f (x, y) dy
C

Two other line integrals are obtained by replacing si by

either xi = xi – xi–1 or yi = yi – yi–1 in Definition 2.
They are called the line integrals of f along C with respect
to x and y:

-C f (x, y) ds =  C f (x, y) ds

-C f (x, y) dx = -  C f (x, y) dx -C f (x, y) dy = -  C f (x, y) dy
48
 Line Integrals
When we want to distinguish the original line integral
C f (x, y) ds from those in Equations 5 and 6, we call it the
line integral with respect to arc length.
C: r(t) = < x(t), y(t) >
The following formulas say that line integrals with respect
to x and y can also be evaluated by expressing everything
in terms of t: x = x(t), y = y(t), dx = x(t) dt, dy = y(t) dt.

49
Line Integrals
It frequently happens that line integrals with respect to
x and y occur together.

When this happens, it’s customary to abbreviate by writing

C P(x, y) dx + C Q(x, y) dy = C P(x, y) dx + Q(x, y) dy

50
Example 4
Evaluate C y 2 dx + xdy, where (a) C=C1 is the line segment
from (– 5, – 3) to (0, 2) and (b) C=C2 is the arc of the
parabola x = 4 – y 2 from (– 5, – 3) to (0, 2).
Solution:

Figure 7

51
Example 4
Evaluate C y 2 dx + xdy, where (a) C=C1 is the line segment
from (– 5, – 3) to (0, 2) and (b) C=C2 is the arc of the
parabola x = 4 – y 2 from (– 5, – 3) to (0, 2).
Solution:

Figure 7

52
Example 4
Work “not
Evaluate C y 2 dx + xdy, where (a) C=C1 is the line
independent
segment of
path~! ”
from (– 5, – 3) to (0, 2) and (b) C=C2 is the arc of the
parabola x = 4 – y 2 from (– 5, – 3) to (0, 2).
F(x, y) = < y 2 , x >
Solution:

Figure 7

53
Contour map (streamplot)
“not
independent of
path~! ”

F(x, y) = < y 2 , x > (0, 2)

Why?
C1 = ‘-’, C2 = ‘+’ (-5,-3)

54
Contour map (streamplot)
“not
independent of
path~! ”

F(x, y) = < y 2 , x > (0, 2)

Why?
C1 = ‘-’, C2 = ‘+’ (-5,-3)

55
Line Integrals
In general, a given parametrization x = x(t), y = y(t),
a  t  b, determines an orientation of a curve C, with the
positive direction(+) corresponding to increasing values of
the parameter t. (See Figure 8, where the initial point A
corresponds to the parameter value t = a and the terminal
point B corresponds to t = b.)

Figure 8 56
Line Integrals
If –C denotes the curve consisting of the same points as C
but with the opposite orientation (from initial point B to
terminal point A in Figure 8), then we have

–C f (x,y) dx = – C f (x,y) dx –C f (x,y) dy = – C f (x,y) dy

But if we integrate with respect to arc length, the value of
the line integral does not change when we reverse the
orientation of the curve:

–C f (x,y) ds = C f (x,y) ds

This is because si is always positive, whereas xi and yi
change sign when we reverse the orientation of C.
57
Line Integrals in Space

58
Line Integrals in Space
We now suppose that C is a smooth space curve given by
the parametric equations
x = x(t) y = y(t) z = z(t), atb
or by a vector equation r(t) = < x(t), y(t), z(t) >.

If f is a function of three variables that is continuous on

some region containing C, then we define the line integral
of f along C (with respect to arc length) in a manner similar
to that for plane curves:

59
Line Integrals in Space
r(t) = < x(t), y(t), z(t) >, a  t  b
We evaluate it using a formula similar to Formula 3:

Observe that the integrals in both Formulas 3 and 9 can be

written in the more compact vector notation

For the special case f (x, y, z) = 1, we get

where L is the length of the curve C.

60
Line Integrals in Space
r(t) = < x(t), y(t), z(t) >, a  t  b
We evaluate it using a formula similar to Formula 3:

Observe that the integrals in both Formulas 3 and 9 can be

written in the more compact vector notation

For the special case f (x, y, z) = 1, we get

where L is the length of the curve C.

61
Line Integrals in Space
r(t) = < x(t), y(t), z(t) >, a  t  b
We evaluate it using a formula similar to Formula 3:

Observe that the integrals in both Formulas 3 and 9 can be

written in the more compact vector notation

For the special case f (x, y, z) = 1, we get

where L is the length of the curve C.

62
Line Integrals in Space
r(t) = < x(t), y(t), z(t) >, a  t  b
Line integrals along C with respect to x, y, and z can also be
defined. For example,

Therefore, as with line integrals in the plane, we evaluate

integrals of the form

Work
by expressing everything (x, y, z, dx, dy, dz) in terms of the
parameter t.
F(x, y, z) = < P(x, y, z), Q(x, y, z), R(x, y, z)>
63
Line Integrals in Space
r(t) = < x(t), y(t), z(t) >, a  t  b
Line integrals along C with respect to x, y, and z can also be
defined. For example,

Therefore, as with line integrals in the plane, we evaluate

integrals of the form

Work
by expressing everything (x, y, z, dx, dy, dz) in terms of the
parameter t.
F(x, y, z) = < P(x, y, z), Q(x, y, z), R(x, y, z)>
64
Line Integrals in Space
r(t) = < x(t), y(t), z(t) >, a  t  b
Line integrals along C with respect to x, y, and z can also be
defined. For example,

Therefore, as with line integrals in the plane, we evaluate

integrals of the form

Work
by expressing everything (x, y, z, dx, dy, dz) in terms of the
parameter t.
F(x, y, z) = < P(x, y, z), Q(x, y, z), R(x, y, z)>
65
Example 4
Work “not
Evaluate C y 2 dx + xdy, where (a) C=C1 is the independent
line segment of
path~! ”
from (– 5, – 3) to (0, 2) and (b) C=C2 is the arc of the
parabola x = 4 – y 2 from (– 5, – 3) to (0, 2).
F(x, y) = < y 2 , x >
Solution:

Figure 7

66
Example 4
Work “not
Evaluate C y 2 dx + xdy, where (a) C=C1 is the independent
line segment of
path~! ”
from (– 5, – 3) to (0, 2) and (b) C=C2 is the arc of the
parabola x = 4 – y 2 from (– 5, – 3) to (0, 2).
F(x, y) = < y 2 , x >
Solution:

Figure 7

67
Example 5
Evaluate C ysinzds, where C is the circular helix given by
the equations x = cost, y = sint, z = t, 0  t  2.
(See Figure 9.)

Figure 9

68
Example 5 – Solution
Formula 9 gives x = cost, y = sint, z = t, 0  t  2.

69
Example 5 – Solution
Formula 9 gives x = cost, y = sint, z = t, 0  t  2.

70
Line Integrals of Vector Fields

71
Line Integrals of Vector Fields
We know that the work done by a variable force f (x) in
moving a particle from a to b along the x-axis is
Then we have found that the work done by a constant force
F in moving an object from a point P to another point Q in
space is W = F  D, where D = PQ is the displacement
vector.
Now suppose that F = P i + Q j + R k is a continuous force
field on . (A force field on could be regarded as a
special case where R = 0 and P and Q depend only on
x and y.)
We wish to compute the work done by this force in moving
a particle along a smooth curve C.
72
Line Integrals of Vector Fields
We divide C into sub-arcs Pi–1 Pi with lengths si by dividing
the parameter interval [a, b] into subintervals of equal width.
(See Figure 1 for the two-dimensional case or Figure 11 for
the three-dimensional case.)

displacement vector
=

: unit tangent vector

Figure 11
Figure 1 73
Line Integrals of Vector Fields
Thus the work done by the force F in moving the particle
from Pi–1 to Pi is approximately

and the total work done in moving the particle along C is

approximately

where T(x, y, z) is the unit tangent vector at the point

(x, y, z) on C.

74
Line Integrals of Vector Fields
Intuitively, we see that these approximations ought to
become better as n becomes larger.

Therefore we define the work W done by the force (vector)

field F as the limit of the Riemann sums in (11), namely,

Equation 12 says that work is the line integral with respect

to arc length of the tangential component of the force.

75
Line Integrals of Vector Fields
Intuitively, we see that these approximations ought to
become better as n becomes larger.

Therefore we define the work W done by the force (vector)

field F as the limit of the Riemann sums in (11), namely,

76
Line Integrals of Vector Fields
Therefore we make the following definition for the line
integral of any continuous vector field.

When using Definition 13, remember that F(r(t)) is just an

abbreviation for the vector field F(x(t), y(t), z(t)), so we
evaluate F(r(t)) simply by putting x = x(t), y = y(t), and
z = z(t) in the expression for F(x, y, z).

77
Example 7
Find the work done by the force field F(x, y) = < x2, – xy > in
moving a particle along the quarter-circle r(t)= < cos t, sin t >,
0  t   /2.

Solution:
Since x = cos t and y = sin t, we have
F(r(t)) = < cos2t, – cos t sint >
and r(t) = < –sin t, cos t >
Therefore the work done is

78
Example 7
Find the work done by the force field F(x, y) = < x2, – xy > in
moving a particle along the quarter-circle r(t)= < cos t, sin t >,
0  t   /2.

Solution:
Since x = cos t and y = sin t, we have
F(r(t)) = < cos2t, – cos t sint >
and r(t) = < –sin t, cos t >
Therefore the work done is

79
Example 7
Find the work done by the force field F(x, y) = < x2, – xy > in
moving a particle along the quarter-circle r(t)= < cos t, sin t >,
0  t   /2.

Solution:
Since x = cos t and y = sin t, we have
F(r(t)) = < cos2t, – cos t sint >
and r(t) = < –sin t, cos t >
Therefore the work done is

80
Line Integrals in Space
r(t) = < x(t), y(t), z(t) >, a  t  b
Line integrals along C with respect to x, y, and z can also be
defined. For example,

Therefore, as with line integrals in the plane, we evaluate

integrals of the form

Work
by expressing everything (x, y, z, dx, dy, dz) in terms of the
parameter t.
F(x, y, z) = < P(x, y, z), Q(x, y, z), R(x, y, z)>
81
Line Integrals of Vector Fields
Finally, we note the connection between line integrals of
vector fields and line integrals of scalar fields. Suppose the
vector field F on is given in component form by the
equation F = P i + Q j + R k.
We use Definition 13 to compute its line integral along C :

82
Line Integrals of Vector Fields
But this last integral is precisely the line integral in (10).
Therefore we have

For example, the integral C ydx + zdy + xdz could be

expressed as C F  dr where
F(x, y, z) = < y, z, x >

83
Example 7
Find the work done by the force field F(x, y) = < x2, – xy > in
moving a particle along the quarter-circle r(t)= < cos t, sin t >,
0  t   /2.
Solution 1:
F(r(t)) = < cos2t, – cos t sin t >, r(t) = < –sin t, cos t >
Therefore the work done is

84
Example 7
Find the work done by the force field F(x, y) = < x2, – xy > in
moving a particle along the quarter-circle r(t)= < cos t, sin t >,
0  t   /2. =x =y

Solution 2:
F(r(t)) = < cos2t, – cos t sin t >, r(t) = < –sin t, cos t >
Therefore the work done is

85
Example 7
Find the work done by the force field F(x, y) = < x2, – xy > in
moving a particle along the quarter-circle r(t)= < cos t, sin t >,
0  t   /2. =x =y

Solution 2:
F(r(t)) = < cos2t, – cos t sin t >, r(t) = < –sin t, cos t >
Therefore the work done is

86
Example 7
Find the work done by the force field F(x, y) = < x2, – xy > in
moving a particle along the quarter-circle r(t)= < cos t, sin t >,
0  t   /2. =x =y

Solution 2:
F(r(t)) = < cos2t, – cos t sin t >, r(t) = < –sin t, cos t >
Therefore the work done is Solution 1:

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Quiz 1/2/3. (기출문제)

담 수업시간까지~!

88
Quiz 1/2/3. (기출문제)

89
수고하셨습니다~~

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