Module 2

Comprehensive Lecture on Parts of Speech

a. Definitions of Parts of Speech

1. Noun

o A noun is a word that names a person, place, thing, idea, or concept.

o Example in Legal Terms: The court ruled in favor of the defendant.

o Gender-Sensitive Example: The teacher provided equal opportunities for both boys and
girls.

2. Pronoun

o A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun to avoid repetition.

o Example in Legal Terms: The judge delivered his verdict after considering all the
evidence.

o Gender-Sensitive Example: Each student must submit their assignment by Friday.

3. Verb

o A verb is a word that expresses an action, occurrence, or state of being.

o Example in Legal Terms: The attorney argued the case effectively.

o Gender-Sensitive Example: She advocates for gender equality in the workplace.

4. Adverb

o An adverb modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb, often indicating when,

where, how, or to what extent something happened.

o Example in Legal Terms: The contract was carefully reviewed by the legal team.

o Gender-Sensitive Example: They spoke respectfully during the discussion.

5. Adjective

o An adjective describes or modifies a noun or pronoun, providing more detail.

o Example in Legal Terms: The binding agreement was signed by both parties.

o Gender-Sensitive Example: She made a thoughtful contribution to the meeting.

6. Conjunction

o A conjunction connects words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.

o Example in Legal Terms: The contract was clear, and it was signed by all parties.
 o Gender-Sensitive Example: He can either stay or leave depending on the situation.

7. Preposition

o A preposition shows the relationship between a noun (or pronoun) and another word in
the sentence.

o Example in Legal Terms: The witness was under oath during the testimony.

o Gender-Sensitive Example: She sat beside her colleague during the meeting.

8. Interjection

o An interjection is a word or phrase that expresses strong emotion or surprise.

o Example in Legal Terms: "Objection!" the lawyer exclaimed during the trial.

o Gender-Sensitive Example: "Wow! That presentation was impressive," she said.

b. Kinds of Nouns

1. Proper Nouns: Specific names of people, places, or organizations.

o Example: Supreme Court, John Doe.

2. Common Nouns: General names of people, places, or things.

o Example: lawyer, contract.

3. Collective Nouns: Names for a group or collection of people or things.

o Example: jury, committee.

4. Abstract Nouns: Names for ideas, qualities, or concepts.

o Example: justice, freedom.

5. Concrete Nouns: Names for things that can be seen, touched, heard, smelled, or tasted.

o Example: document, gavel.

c. Uses of Nouns

1. Subject of a Sentence: The judge issued the ruling.

2. Object of a Verb: The lawyer prepared the brief.

3. Object of a Preposition: She submitted the motion to the court.

4. Subject Complement: The winner is the plaintiff.

5. Apposition: My client, John Doe, is innocent.

d. Forming the Plural Form of Nouns (20 Rules)

1. Regular Plurals: Add -s to most nouns.

o Examples: lawyer → lawyers.

2. Nouns Ending in -s, -ss, -sh, -ch, -x, or -z: Add -es.

o Examples: witness → witnesses, box → boxes.

3. Nouns Ending in -y (preceded by a consonant): Change -y to -ies.

o Examples: party → parties.

4. Nouns Ending in -o (preceded by a consonant): Add -es.

o Examples: hero → heroes.

5. Irregular Plurals: Change the vowel or word entirely.

o Examples: man → men, child → children.

6. Nouns Ending in -f or -fe: Change -f or -fe to -ves.

o Examples: leaf → leaves, wife → wives.

7. Compound Nouns: Pluralize the main noun.

o Examples: attorney general → attorneys general.

8. Latin or Greek Origin Nouns: Follow original plural forms.

o Examples: datum → data, crisis → crises.

9. Nouns Ending in -us: Change -us to -i.

o Examples: alumnus → alumni.

10. Nouns Ending in -is: Change -is to -es.

o Examples: analysis → analyses.

11. Nouns Ending in -on: Change -on to -a.

o Examples: criterion → criteria.

12. Nouns Ending in -um: Change -um to -a.

o Examples: forum → fora.

13. Nouns with Same Singular and Plural Forms: No change.

o Examples: sheep, series.

14. Nouns Plural in Form but Singular in Meaning: No change.

 o Examples: news, measles.

15. Foreign Words: Follow rules from their language.

o Examples: cactus → cacti, larva → larvae.

16. Nouns Ending in -y (preceded by a vowel): Add -s.

o Examples: boy → boys.

17. Irregular Nouns with No Plural Forms: No change.

o Examples: deer, fish.

18. Some Nationalities: Follow original plural forms.

o Examples: Japanese, French.

19. Plurals of Letters, Numbers, Symbols: Add -s or -‘s.

o Examples: 4s, A’s.

20. Plurals of Names: Add -s or -es.

o Examples: the Smiths, Joneses.

e. Possessive Form of Nouns

1. Singular Nouns: Add -’s.

o Example: the lawyer’s brief.

2. Plural Nouns Ending in -s: Add -’.

o Example: the judges’ decision.

3. Plural Nouns Not Ending in -s: Add -’s.

o Example: the children’s rights.

4. Compound Nouns: Add -’s to the last word.

o Example: my brother-in-law’s case.

5. Joint Possession: Add -’s to the last noun only.

o Example: Alice and Bob’s contract.

6. Separate Possession: Add -’s to both nouns.

o Example: Alice’s and Bob’s contracts.

f. Kinds of Verbs
 1. Action Verbs: Expresses a physical or mental action.

o Example: The lawyer argued the case passionately.

2. Linking Verbs: Connects the subject with a subject complement.

o Example: The contract is binding.

3. Auxiliary (Helping) Verbs: Accompanies the main verb to form a verb phrase.

o Example: The witness has testified.

g. Voice of Verbs

1. Active Voice: The subject performs the action.

o Example: The judge announced the verdict.

2. Passive Voice: The subject receives the action.

o Example: The verdict was announced by the judge.

h. Modals of Verbs

Modals are auxiliary verbs that express necessity, possibility, permission, or ability.

 Examples in Legal Terms: The defendant must appear in court. The witness may testify
tomorrow.

 Gender-Sensitive Example: Employees should have equal opportunities for promotion.

i. Subject and Verb Agreement (15 Rules)

1. Singular subjects take singular verbs.

o Example: The lawyer argues.

2. Plural subjects take plural verbs.

o Example: The lawyers argue.

3. Subjects joined by 'and' take a plural verb.

o Example: John and Jane are lawyers.

4. Subjects joined by 'or' or 'nor' take a verb that agrees with the nearest subject.

o Example: Neither the judge nor the lawyers were ready.

5. Collective nouns take a singular verb when the group is considered a unit.
 o Example: The jury reaches a verdict.

6. Indefinite pronouns like 'everyone', 'someone', 'each' take a singular verb.

o Example: Everyone is here.

7. Titles of single entities take a singular verb.

o Example: The United States is diverse.

8. Plural form subjects with singular meaning take a singular verb.

o Example: Economics is difficult.

9. When the subject follows the verb, ensure the verb agrees with the subject.

o Example: There is a lawyer in the room.

10. Subjects separated by words like 'along with', 'as well as', take the verb agreeing with the first
subject.

o Example: The lawyer, along with the witnesses, is prepared.

11. Use a plural verb with 'a number of', but singular with 'the number of'.

o Example: A number of cases are pending. The number of cases is rising.

12. In sentences beginning with 'here' or 'there', the verb agrees with the subject that follows.

o Example: There are many legal documents to review.

13. 'None' can take either a singular or plural verb depending on the context.

o Example: None of the witnesses were credible.

14. Use a singular verb with uncountable nouns.

o Example: Justice is important.

15. When a phrase comes between the subject and the verb, the verb should agree with the
subject, not the phrase.

o Example: The list of laws is extensive.

j. Transitive & Intransitive Verbs

1. Transitive Verbs: Require a direct object to complete their meaning.

o Example: The lawyer filed the brief.

2. Intransitive Verbs: Do not require a direct object.

o Example: The witness testified.

k. Verbals

1. Gerunds: Verb forms ending in -ing that function as nouns.

o Example: Pleading takes skill.

2. Infinitives: The base form of the verb, often preceded by to.

o Example: To argue in court is challenging.

3. Participles: Verb forms used as adjectives.

o *Example: *The signed document was crucial.

l. Kinds of Pronouns

1. Personal Pronouns: Refer to specific people or things.

o Examples: he, she, they.

2. Possessive Pronouns: Indicate ownership.

o Examples: his, her, their.

3. Relative Pronouns: Introduce dependent clauses.

o Examples: who, which, that.

4. Demonstrative Pronouns: Point to specific things.

o Examples: this, those.

5. Interrogative Pronouns: Used in questions.

o Examples: who, what, which.

6. Reflexive Pronouns: Refer back to the subject.

o Examples: himself, herself.

7. Indefinite Pronouns: Refer to nonspecific people or things.

o Examples: someone, anything.

m. Cases of Pronouns

Here's a table of pronouns categorized by case (subjective, objective, and possessive) and person (first,
second, and third), along with examples of sentences using legal terms:
 Subjective Objective Possessive
Person Examples
Pronouns Pronouns Pronouns

First My, Mine, Our, "I filed the complaint against the defendant."
I, We Me, Us
Person Ours <br/> "Our lawyer will represent us in court."

"You must sign the affidavit before the notary

Second
You You Your, Yours public." <br/> "The contract is binding on
Person
your part."

"He will testify in court tomorrow." <br/>

Third He, She, It, Him, Her, It, His, Her, Its,
"The judge dismissed their appeal for lack of
Person They Them Their, Theirs
evidence."

Example Sentences Using Legal Terms:

1. First Person (Subjective):

o "I objected to the admissibility of the evidence during the trial."

o "We filed a motion to dismiss the case."

2. First Person (Objective):

o "The lawyer advised me to settle the dispute out of court."

o "The judge granted us an extension to submit the brief."

3. First Person (Possessive):

o "My attorney is preparing the contract for review."

o "Our firm specializes in corporate law."

4. Second Person (Subjective):

o "You must comply with the terms of the agreement."

o "You are required to attend the deposition on Monday."

5. Second Person (Objective):

o "The court summoned you to appear as a witness."

o "The prosecutor asked you to provide testimony."

6. Second Person (Possessive):

o "Is this your signed affidavit?"

o "The contract outlines your responsibilities in the transaction."

7. Third Person (Subjective):

 o "He was charged with embezzlement last year."

o "She will represent the defendant in the trial."

o "They have submitted their motion for summary judgment."

8. Third Person (Objective):

o "The jury found him guilty of fraud."

o "The judge ruled in her favor."

o "The attorney advised them to settle the lawsuit."

9. Third Person (Possessive):

o "The defendant provided his alibi during the trial."

o "The plaintiff presented her evidence to the court."

o "The company must fulfill its contractual obligations."

This table and these examples illustrate how pronouns are used in various cases and contexts within
legal sentences.

n. Kinds of Adjectives

1. Descriptive Adjectives: Describe the qualities of a noun.

o Example: The competent attorney presented her case.

2. Quantitative Adjectives: Indicate quantity.

o Example: Several witnesses testified.

3. Demonstrative Adjectives: Point out specific nouns.

o Example: This evidence is crucial.

4. Possessive Adjectives: Show ownership.

o Example: Her legal strategy was effective.

5. Interrogative Adjectives: Used in questions.

o Example: Which law applies here?

6. Indefinite Adjectives: Refer to nonspecific nouns.

o Example: Some laws are unclear.

o. Degrees of Comparison under Adjectives

1. Positive Degree: The base form of the adjective.

o *Example: *The lawyer is skilled.

2. Comparative Degree: Compares two things, usually using -er or more.

o Example: The second lawyer is more skilled than the first.

3. Superlative Degree: Compares three or more things, usually using -est or most.

o Example: She is the most skilled attorney in the firm.

p. Kinds of Adverbs

1. Adverbs of Manner: Describe how something is done.

o Example: The contract was reviewed thoroughly.

2. Adverbs of Time: Indicate when something happens.

o Example: The hearing will begin tomorrow.

3. Adverbs of Place: Indicate where something happens.

o Example: The client waited outside.

4. Adverbs of Frequency: Indicate how often something happens.

o Example: The lawyer always prepares well.

5. Adverbs of Degree: Indicate the extent or intensity.

o Example: The evidence was completely compelling.

q. Kinds of Conjunctions

1. Coordinating Conjunctions: Connect words or clauses of equal importance.

o Examples: and, but, or.

2. Subordinating Conjunctions: Introduce dependent clauses.

o Examples: because, although, since.

3. Correlative Conjunctions: Work in pairs to join words or clauses.

o Examples: either…or, neither…nor.

r. Prepositions (Examples and Uses)

1. Prepositions of Time: at, on, in.

o Example: The meeting is at 3 PM.

2. Prepositions of Place: in, on, under.

o Example: The document is on the desk.

3. Prepositions of Direction: to, toward, into.

o Example: The lawyer walked toward the bench.

s. Interjections (Examples and Uses)

1. Expressing Surprise: Oh!

o Example: "Oh! I didn’t see that coming," said the lawyer.

2. Expressing Pain: Ouch!

o Example: "Ouch! That argument was harsh," remarked the judge.

3. Expressing Joy: Yay!

o Example: "Yay! We won the case!"

References

 Crystal, D. (2003). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University
Press.

 Quirk, R., Greenbaum, S., Leech, G., & Svartvik, J. (1985). A Comprehensive Grammar of the
English Language. Longman.

 CHED Memorandum Order No. 20, Series of 2013 – General Education Curriculum: Holistic
Understandings, Intellectual and Civic Competencies.

 APA Style Guidelines (7th edition). (2020). American Psychological Association.

This lecture integrates Outcome-Based Education (OBE) principles by focusing on practical application,
encouraging gender sensitivity, and providing clear learning outcomes for each part of speech.