Lecture: Short Notes on Waves & Acoustics

PHY-1201
United International University
Department of Civil Engineering

Rahil Afzal Nihal

[email protected]
October 18, 2024

Contents
1 Introduction to Waves and Acoustics 3

2 Wave Types and Classification 3

2.1 Mechanical Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
2.2 Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 Surface Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.4 Body Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.5 Summary of Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

3 Wave Equations and Mathematical Representation 4

3.1 General Solution of the Wave Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.2 Sinusoidal Wave Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.3 Key Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.4 Harmonic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.5 Mathematical Representation of a 3D Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

4 Fundamentals of Sound 6

5 Types of Sound Waves 6

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6 Acoustic Parameters and Measurements 7

7 Sabine’s Formula 7
7.1 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

8 Case Studies in Acoustics 9

9 Newton’s and Laplace’s Corrections in Sound Velocity Formula 9

9.1 Newton’s Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
9.2 Laplace’s Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
9.3 Comparison of Corrections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

10 Conclusion 11

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1 Introduction to Waves and Acoustics
Waves and acoustics are fundamental concepts in the field of civil engineering that significantly
influence the design and performance of structures and infrastructures. Understanding the be-
havior of waves, whether mechanical or electromagnetic, is crucial for engineers tasked with
creating buildings, bridges, roads, and urban spaces that interact harmoniously with their en-
vironments.
In civil engineering, the study of waves primarily focuses on sound waves and their propaga-
tion through various media, such as air, water, and solid materials. The principles of acoustics
encompass the generation, transmission, and reception of sound, along with its effects on hu-
man environments. Effective acoustic design is essential for ensuring occupant comfort, safety,
and functionality within structures. For instance, concert halls, lecture theaters, and residen-
tial buildings all require careful consideration of sound propagation and absorption to enhance
auditory experiences and minimize noise disturbances.
Additionally, the interplay between waves and structures is critical in seismic engineering,
where understanding seismic waves is vital for assessing the potential impact of earthquakes on
built environments. Engineers must consider wave behavior when designing foundations and
structural components to withstand the forces generated by seismic activities.
This lecture aims to provide civil engineering students and practitioners with a comprehensive
understanding of waves and acoustics, exploring the underlying physical principles, mathemat-
ical models, and practical applications. The chapters will cover essential topics, including wave
types, sound propagation, acoustic parameters, and noise control measures. Through this explo-
ration, readers will gain the knowledge necessary to apply acoustic principles effectively in their
engineering projects, ultimately leading to the design of resilient, functional, and acoustically
optimized structures.
As the built environment continues to evolve, the importance of integrating acoustic consid-
erations into civil engineering practice cannot be overstated. This lecture serves as a valuable
resource for future engineers seeking to address the challenges posed by sound and vibrations in
their work, fostering a deeper appreciation for the intricate relationship between waves, acous-
tics, and the built environment.

2 Wave Types and Classification

Waves can be classified based on how they propagate and the medium through which they travel.
Below are the main types and classifications of waves:

2.1 Mechanical Waves

Mechanical waves require a medium (such as air, water, or solids) to propagate. They are further
classified into:
• Transverse Waves: In these waves, the displacement of the medium is perpendicular to
the direction of wave propagation. Examples include waves on a string and electromagnetic
waves (though EM waves do not require a medium).
• Longitudinal Waves: In these waves, the displacement of the medium is parallel to the
direction of wave propagation. Sound waves and seismic P-waves are examples.

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2.2 Electromagnetic Waves
Electromagnetic waves do not require a medium to propagate and can travel through a vacuum.
These waves consist of oscillating electric and magnetic fields and move at the speed of light.
Examples include light, radio waves, microwaves, and X-rays.

2.3 Surface Waves

Surface waves travel along the interface between two different media, such as air and water. A key
example is ocean waves, where particles of the medium undergo circular motion. Seismic surface
waves (Rayleigh and Love waves) are another important type, especially in civil engineering.

2.4 Body Waves

Body waves travel through the interior of a medium, such as the Earth. In seismology, body
waves are classified as:
• Primary (P) Waves: These are longitudinal waves that travel fastest through the Earth’s
interior.
• Secondary (S) Waves: These are transverse waves that are slower than P-waves and
can only travel through solid materials.

2.5 Summary of Classification

• Based on Medium: Mechanical (requires a medium) vs. Electromagnetic (no medium
required).
• Based on Propagation: Transverse (perpendicular) vs. Longitudinal (parallel).

• Special Types: Surface waves (interface) and body waves (interior).

Understanding wave types and classification is crucial in fields like civil engineering for
analyzing seismic events, vibrations, and structural integrity.

3 Wave Equations and Mathematical Representation

The wave equation is a fundamental mathematical representation of wave motion. It describes
how waves propagate through space and time in a variety of media. The general form of the
wave equation in one dimension is:

∂2y 2
2∂ y
= v
∂t2 ∂x2
Where:
• y(x, t) is the displacement of the wave as a function of position x and time t,

• v is the speed of the wave in the medium,

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 • ∂2y
∂t2 is the second derivative of the displacement with respect to time, representing the
wave’s acceleration,

• ∂2y
∂x2is the second derivative of the displacement with respect to position, representing the
wave’s curvature.

3.1 General Solution of the Wave Equation

The general solution to the wave equation can be written as a superposition of two traveling
waves moving in opposite directions:

y(x, t) = f (x − vt) + g(x + vt)

Where:
• f (x − vt) represents a wave traveling in the positive x-direction,
• g(x + vt) represents a wave traveling in the negative x-direction.

3.2 Sinusoidal Wave Representation

A common and important solution to the wave equation is the sinusoidal wave, which represents
a periodic oscillation. It can be written as:

y(x, t) = A sin(kx − ωt + φ)
Where:
• A is the amplitude of the wave (the maximum displacement),
• k is the wavenumber (k = λ ,
2π
where λ is the wavelength),
• ω is the angular frequency (ω = 2πf , where f is the frequency),
• φ is the phase constant, which determines the wave’s initial position.

3.3 Key Parameters

• Amplitude A: The maximum displacement of the wave.
• Wavelength λ: The distance between two consecutive points in phase on the wave.
• Frequency f : The number of oscillations per unit time.
• Wave Speed v: The speed at which the wave propagates, given by v = λf .
• Phase φ: The initial angle of the wave at t = 0.

3.4 Harmonic Waves

When a wave is described by a sinusoidal function, it is called a harmonic wave. The harmonic
wave’s periodic nature is important in understanding oscillations and wave interference.

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3.5 Mathematical Representation of a 3D Wave
In three dimensions, the wave equation is extended as:

∂2y
 2
∂2y ∂2y

2 ∂ y
= v + +
∂t2 ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
This equation describes how waves propagate in 3D space.
Wave equations and their solutions are essential for understanding sound, light, seismic
waves, and electromagnetic waves. The sinusoidal wave solutions are particularly important
because they represent the simplest form of periodic motion, forming the basis for more complex
wave phenomena.

4 Fundamentals of Sound
Sound is a mechanical wave that results from the vibration of particles in a medium, such as
air, water, or solid materials. The fundamental properties of sound include:

• Frequency (f ): The frequency of a sound wave refers to the number of cycles (oscillations)
that occur per second, measured in hertz (Hz). Higher frequencies correspond to higher
pitches, while lower frequencies are perceived as lower pitches.
• Wavelength (λ): The wavelength is the distance between two consecutive points in phase
on a wave, such as two consecutive crests or troughs. Wavelength is inversely related to
frequency, following the relationship:

v =f ·λ

where v is the speed of sound in the medium.

• Amplitude: The amplitude of a sound wave is the maximum displacement of particles in
the medium from their equilibrium position. Amplitude is directly related to the loudness
of the sound; greater amplitude results in louder sounds.

• Speed of Sound (v): The speed of sound is the speed at which sound waves propagate
through a medium. This speed varies depending on factors such as temperature, density,
and elasticity of the medium. In air at 20°C, the speed of sound is approximately 343 m/s.

5 Types of Sound Waves

Sound waves can be classified into two main categories based on their propagation characteristics:

• Longitudinal Waves: In longitudinal waves, the particles of the medium vibrate parallel
to the direction of wave propagation. This type of wave creates regions of compression
(high pressure) and rarefaction (low pressure). An example of longitudinal waves is sound
waves traveling through air, where air molecules oscillate back and forth along the direction
of the sound wave.

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 • Transverse Waves: Transverse waves are characterized by particle movement that is
perpendicular to the direction of wave propagation. While transverse waves are less com-
mon in fluids, they can occur in solids. A classic example of transverse waves is waves
on a string, where the displacement of the string occurs vertically while the wave travels
horizontally.

6 Acoustic Parameters and Measurements

Several key acoustic parameters are essential for assessing sound in civil engineering contexts:

• Sound Pressure Level (SPL): The Sound Pressure Level quantifies the pressure level of
sound relative to a reference pressure of 20 µPa (the threshold of hearing). It is measured
in decibels (dB) and calculated using the formula:
 
p
SPL = 20 log10
p0

where p is the sound pressure, and p0 is the reference sound pressure.

• Reverberation Time (RT ): Reverberation time is the time it takes for sound to decay
by 60 dB after the source has stopped. It significantly affects the acoustic quality of a
space, impacting speech intelligibility and musical clarity.

• Sabine’s Formula: Sabine’s formula estimates the reverberation time in a room based
on its volume and total absorption:
0.161V
RT =
A
where V is the volume of the room in cubic meters, and A is the total absorption in square
meters, calculated as:
A = Σαi Si
with αi being the absorption coefficient and Si being the area of each surface.

• Absorption Coefficients: The absorption coefficient (α) quantifies how much sound
is absorbed by a material. Values range from 0 (no absorption) to 1 (total absorption).
Knowledge of absorption coefficients helps in selecting materials for soundproofing and
enhancing acoustics in a space.

7 Sabine’s Formula
Sabine’s formula is a fundamental equation used in acoustics to calculate the reverberation time
(RT ) of a room. Reverberation time is the duration it takes for sound to decay by 60 decibels
after the sound source has stopped. This parameter is crucial for understanding the acoustic
characteristics of a space, as it affects speech intelligibility and sound clarity in environments
such as concert halls, theaters, and classrooms.
The formula is expressed as:

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 0.161V
RT =
A
where:

• RT = Reverberation time (in seconds)

• V = Volume of the room (in cubic meters)
• A = Total sound absorption (in square meters), calculated as:

X
A= αi Si
where αi is the absorption coefficient of the material and Si is the surface area of that
material.

7.1 Example
Consider a rectangular classroom with the following dimensions:
• Length = 8 m
• Width = 6 m
• Height = 3 m

First, we calculate the volume V :

V = Length × Width × Height = 8 m × 6 m × 3 m = 144 m3

Next, assume the classroom has the following surfaces and their corresponding absorption
coefficients:

• Walls: 2 walls (length) with α = 0.1 (drywall), 2 walls (width) with α = 0.05 (brick)
• Ceiling: 1 ceiling with α = 0.2 (acoustic tiles)
• Floor: 1 floor with α = 0.3 (carpet)

Now, we calculate the surface areas:

• Surface area of the walls:

– Length walls: 2 × (8 m × 3 m) = 48 m2
– Width walls: 2 × (6 m × 3 m) = 36 m2

• Surface area of the ceiling: 8 m × 6 m = 48 m2

• Surface area of the floor: 8 m × 6 m = 48 m2

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 Now, let’s calculate the total absorption A:

A = (0.1 × 48) + (0.05 × 36) + (0.2 × 48) + (0.3 × 48)

A = 4.8 + 1.8 + 9.6 + 14.4 = 30.6 m2
Finally, we can calculate the reverberation time RT :
0.161 × 144 23.184
RT = ≈ ≈ 0.76 s
30.6 30.6

8 Case Studies in Acoustics

Several civil engineering projects have successfully integrated acoustic principles into their de-
signs:

• Concert Halls: Structures like the Sydney Opera House have been meticulously designed
to enhance sound quality for performances. Acoustic panels, seating arrangements, and
architectural features contribute to the hall’s excellent reverberation characteristics.
• Office Buildings: Modern office designs often incorporate open spaces with sound-
absorbing materials to improve speech intelligibility and reduce distractions. Incorporating
acoustic zoning and using partition walls can create quieter work areas.
• Schools: Acoustic design in educational facilities is vital to minimize noise and enhance
learning environments. Schools often implement sound-absorbing panels and strategic
layouts to create spaces conducive to learning.
• Transportation Infrastructure: In the design of highways and railways, noise barriers
are employed to mitigate the impact of traffic noise on nearby communities. These barriers
are engineered to reflect or absorb sound waves, reducing noise pollution in residential
areas.

These case studies demonstrate the importance of acoustics in civil engineering, highlighting
how careful design can lead to improved performance, user satisfaction, and compliance with
regulatory standards.

9 Newton’s and Laplace’s Corrections in Sound Velocity

Formula
The velocity of sound in a medium can be affected by various factors, and corrections are often
necessary to provide more accurate calculations. Two significant corrections are Newton’s correc-
tion and Laplace’s correction, which account for the effects of temperature and compressibility
of the medium.

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9.1 Newton’s Correction
In Newton’s original formulation for the velocity of sound in an ideal gas, he derived the formula:
s
P
vN =
ρ

where vN is the velocity of sound, P is the pressure, and ρ is the density of the gas. This
formula assumes that the gas behaves as an ideal fluid and does not account for the effects of
temperature on the speed of sound.
Newton’s theory implies that the velocity of sound is independent of the temperature, which
is inaccurate. He overlooked the fact that sound waves cause adiabatic changes in pressure and
density. Therefore, his calculation does not adequately reflect the true behavior of sound in a
compressible medium.

9.2 Laplace’s Correction

Laplace modified Newton’s formula to account for the adiabatic processes involved in sound
propagation. He recognized that when a sound wave travels through a gas, the changes in
pressure and density occur without heat exchange, leading to adiabatic conditions. Laplace’s
corrected formula for the velocity of sound is given by:
s
γP
vL =
ρ

where vL is the corrected velocity of sound, P is the pressure, ρ is the density of the gas, and γ
(gamma) is the ratio of specific heats (also known as the adiabatic index):

Cp
γ=
Cv
where Cp is the specific heat capacity at constant pressure, and Cv is the specific heat capacity
at constant volume. Laplace’s correction provides a more accurate representation of the speed
of sound, especially in gases, as it accounts for the compressibility and thermal properties of the
medium.

9.3 Comparison of Corrections

The primary difference between Newton’s and Laplace’s corrections lies in the consideration of
adiabatic processes. While Newton’s formula assumes isothermal behavior, Laplace’s formu-
lation acknowledges that sound propagation occurs under adiabatic conditions, resulting in a
higher calculated speed of sound.
In practical applications, Laplace’s correction is widely used for calculations involving sound
velocity in gases, particularly in atmospheric studies and acoustics, as it provides a better
approximation of real-world conditions.

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10 Conclusion
In conclusion, the study of waves and acoustics is fundamental to the field of civil engineer-
ing. Understanding the principles of sound propagation, wave behavior, and acoustic design is
essential for creating structures that provide a safe and comfortable environment for occupants.
Civil engineers must consider various aspects of acoustics, including sound isolation, noise
control, and room acoustics, during the design and construction phases of projects. Proper
acoustic design not only enhances the functionality of spaces—such as concert halls, offices, and
schools—but also contributes to the overall well-being of individuals within those environments.
Moreover, the integration of acoustics into urban planning and infrastructure development
plays a significant role in mitigating noise pollution, promoting sustainable communities, and
ensuring compliance with regulatory standards. As technology and materials continue to evolve,
civil engineers will need to stay abreast of advancements in acoustic science to develop innovative
solutions for modern challenges.
Ultimately, a strong foundation in waves and acoustics enables civil engineers to contribute
to the creation of resilient, functional, and acoustically optimized spaces that meet the needs of
society while enhancing the quality of life for all.

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