Lecture 1: Properties of Matter

PHY-1201
United International University
Department of Civil Engineering

Rahil Afzal Nihal

[email protected]
September 17, 2024

Contents
1 Introduction 3

2 States of Matter 3

3 Behavior of Solid under Stress 4

3.1 Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3.2 Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

4 Stress-Strain Diagram 6

5 Hooke’s Law 7

6 Elastic Constants 8
6.1 Young’s modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6.2 Bulk modulus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
6.3 Modulus of rigidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

7 Energy Density and Strain Energy 9

1
8 Poisson’s Ratio 9

9 Relation between Constants 10

10 Conclusion 10

2
1 Introduction
Our deep understanding of matter’s characteristics enables technological and engineering ad-
vancements. Mechanical characteristics of solids are generally concerned with deformations
caused by external forces acting on the materials. The feature of elasticity is important in a
variety of engineering and technological applications e.g a bridge used for traffic experiences
varying weights or forces. Steel samples are tested before to construction to determine their
ability to sustain expected loads. Elasticity is the study of how ordinary materials behave when
subjected to force.

2 States of Matter
Before starting we like to include the different states of matter. In general, states of matter are
described in terms of visible or physical properties. A solid is something that feels hard and
has a fixed shape, whereas a liquid feels moist and has a fixed volume but no fixed shape. A
gas is defined as substance capable of changing shape and volume. Although some introductory
chemistry textbooks list solids, liquids, and gases as the three states of matter, higher-level
textbooks identify plasma as the fourth state of matter. Plasma, like gases, can change volume
and shape; however, unlike gases, plasma can also change electrical charge.
A brief overveiw:

Figure 1: State of matters

• Solid: In solids, particles are closely packed in a fixed, orderly arrangement, giving them
a definite shape and volume. Solids are characterized by their rigidity and resistance to
deformation due to strong intermolecular forces.

• Liquid: Liquids have a definite volume but no fixed shape, conforming to the shape of
their container. The particles are more loosely arranged than in solids, allowing them to
flow while still experiencing significant intermolecular attraction.

3
 • Gas: In gases, particles are far apart and move freely, resulting in no fixed shape or volume.
Gases expand to fill their container and have weaker intermolecular forces compared to
solids and liquids.
• Plasma: Plasma is an ionized state of matter found at very high temperatures. It consists
of free electrons and ions, and unlike gases, it can conduct electricity and is influenced by
magnetic fields. Examples include the sun and lightning.
These states differ primarily in their particle arrangement, energy levels, and intermolecular
forces, each exhibiting unique physical properties.

3 Behavior of Solid under Stress

3.1 Stress
When a body is deformed by external force, internal reactionary forces are developed between
the molecules of the body to oppose the action of the deforming force, which tend to restore the
body to its original condition.
The internal restoring force developed per unit area of the body when subjected
to external deforming force is called stress.
Being a disturbed force, it is measured in the same manner as fluid pressure.These forces are self
adjusting forces. As deforming force increases restoring force also increases. When deforming
force is equal to restoring force, body attains equilibr, stress can be measured at equilibrium
can be measured by the deformation applied on a unit area of the body.

Restoring Force Deforming Force F

stress (σ) = = = (1)
Area Area A
Unit of stress is N m−2 and its dimensional formula is [M L−1 T −2]. There are main 3 types of
stress:

• Longitudinal Stress: If the deforming force acting on a body is along its longitudinal
axis and produces a change in its length, then the deforming force / unit area acting
normal to the surface. is called longitudinal or normal or tensile stress

Figure 2: Longitudinal Deformation

• Shearing Stress: If the deforming forces are applied tangentially over the top surface of
a cube and bottom surface being kept fixed then, the top face gets displaced towards the
direction of applied force.The tangential force/unit area or the stress which tends to make
one part of the body slide across the other part is termed as shearing stress or tangential
stress.

4
 Figure 3: Shearing Deformation

• Bulk Stress: When the forces or pressure are applied uniformly and normally inwards (or
outwards) over the whole surface of a body of volume V, then its volume gets decreased
(or increased) by an amount �V without any change in shape. The ratio of this change in
volume to its original volume is called volume strai

Figure 4: Bulk Deformation

3.2 Strain
(a) Longitudinal strain or Tensile strain
If the deforming force is of the nature of pull or a tension and acting along the longitudinal
axis of a wire of length L, and produces a change in length l without any change in shape, then
this fractional change l/L, is called longitudinal strain.
Longitudinal strain = Fractional change in length
If length increases from its natural length, then it is tensile strain. If in case there is decrease

5
in length then it is compressive strain.
(b) Volume strain
When the forces or pressure are applied uniformly and normally inwards (or outwards) over
the whole surface of a body of volume V, then its volume gets decreased (or increased) by an
amount �V without any change in shape. The ratio of this change in volume to its original
volume is called volume strain.
Volume strain = Fractional change in volume
(c)Shearing Strain
When the deforming forces are applied tangentially over the top surface of the body, it suffers
a change in shape without any change in volume or length and is said to be sheared. Shear
is numerically equal to the ratio of the displacement of any layer in the direction of applied
tangential force to its distance from the fixed surface.
The strain produced is measured by an angle which a tilted surface makes with original vertical
surface. Strain produced by stretching or compressing force, both volume & shape of the body
may alter, while the strain produced by shearing forces only the shape of the body is altered
though the volume remains constant

4 Stress-Strain Diagram
The stress-strain curve is a graphical representation that shows the relationship between the
stress applied to a material and the resulting strain (deformation) experienced by the material.
This curve is essential in understanding the mechanical properties of materials, particularly
their behavior under load. Below is a labeled stress-strain curve with key points that highlight
different stages of material deformation:

1. The part OA of the curve is a straight line, where Hooke’s law is obeyed. (i.e.,) Stress is
proportional to strain
2. A is called the Proportional limit measured by the maximum stress that can be developed
in the given material without causing a deviation from Hooke’s law.
3. Upto Point B indicates the elastic limit. If the external load goes beyond the point. the
material will not come to its original shape.
4. Point B is called the Upper Yield Point. At this point the material is required the maximum
force to initiate plastic deformation.
5. Beyond point B materials behave like plastic material
6. After point C, material length will increase with a small load
7. Between CD the material becomes harder to lengthen. Hence this region is called Strain
Hardening
8. At point D maximal Stress can occur for the material before braking
9. After point D the necking occurs and at point E the material fractures.

6
 Figure 5: Stress-Strain Curve

5 Hooke’s Law
If a substance is subjected to a stress below the elastic limit, it recovers completely when the
stress is removed or within elastic limit, the stress is directly proportional to strain produced.
The linear relationship between the stresses and deformations produced below elastic limit is
called Hooke’s law. (i.e.,)

Strain ∝ Strain

or we can write

Stress = E × Strain

where E = Modulus of Elasticity. The value of modulus of elasticity depends upon the type of
stress and strain produced.

7
6 Elastic Constants
6.1 Young’s modulus
If the strain is longitudinal then the modulus of elasticity is called “Young’s Modulus” (Y).
Longitudinal Stress
Y =
Longitudinal Strain
F/A
=
l/L
FL
=
Al
Within elastic limit, the ratio of longitudinal stress to the corresponding longitu-
dinal strain is called Young’s modulus of elasticity.

6.2 Bulk modulus

When a uniform pressure (normal force) is applied normally over the whole surface of a body
of an isotropic material, it suffers a change in its volume though its shape remains unchanged
within elastic limit.
The ratio of the volume stress to the volume strain is called bulk modulus of elasticity of the
material.

F/A
K=
∆V /V
PV
=
∆V
Reciprocal of K is called compressibility.

6.3 Modulus of rigidity

When a body is subjected to tangential deforming force, it suffers a change in shape but volume
remains unchanged. Then body is said to be sheared. The stress developed in this case is
called shearing stress, due to which a shearing strain is developed. Within the elastic limit, the
ratio of shearing stress or tangential stress to shearing strain is called modulus of rigidity of the
material. If θ is angle of shear, then
0
BB
θ = tanθ =
BC
displacement of top surface
=
distance between moving and fixed surface
The modulus of rigidity is defined as
shearing stress
η=
shearing strain
F/A
=
θ

8
 Figure 6: Shearing Strain

7 Energy Density and Strain Energy

This section involves derivation of the strain energy formula W = 12 V σ

8 Poisson’s Ratio
When a wire is pulled, it not only becomes longer but also thinner. If a force produces elongation
or extension in its direction, a contraction also occurs in a direction perpendicular to it, that
is in lateral direction or vice versa.The fractional change in the direction of applied force is
longitudinal strain, fractional change in the perpendicular direction is lateral strain.
Within elastic limit, ratio of lateral strain to longitudinal strain is constant for a given material
and is called poisson’s ratio (ν). In the Fig, a wire of original length L and diameter D is acted

Figure 7: Dual Strain on a wire

upon by two equal and opposite force F along the length. Its length increases by ∆L, while its
diameter decreases by ∆D.

9
Let
∆L ∆D
α= ; β=
L D
Hence we can write the Poissons ratio as;
lateral strain
ν=−
longitudinal strain
β
=−
α
∆D/D
=−
∆L/L
L ∆D
=−
D ∆L
ν as a differential coefficient
L dD
ν=−
D dL
Minus sign indicates that increase in the direction of force would be accompanied by decrease
in the direction perpendicular to the force.ν is dimensionless and has no units. The limit of
Poissons ratio is −1 ≤ ν ≤ 0.5

9 Relation between Constants

The relartion between Young’s Modulus(Y), Rigidity Modulus(η) and poisson’s ratio (ν) is,

Y = 2η(1 + ν)

10 Conclusion
As we can see this chapter concludes the elastic nature of materials which is essential for civil
engineering. A clear understanding if this field is necessary to be a better civil engineer

10