Physical metallurgy principles

Chapter 5 Dislocations and Plastic Deformation

 Frank – read source
* A dislocation generator

Various stages in the generation

The dislocation segment xy may of a dislocation loop at a Frank-
move in plane ABCD under the Read source.
applied stress. Its ends, x and y,
however, are fixed.
Nucleation of dislocations
 If dislocations are not formed by dislocation
generators (Frank-Read source), then they must be
created by a nucleation process.
 Nucleation process created in two ways:
Homogeneous nucleation: formed in a perfect lattice
by the action of a simple stress, no agency other
than stress being required.
Heterogeneous nucleation: the dislocations are
formed with the help of defects present in the
crystal, perhaps impurity particles.
 Defects make the formation of dislocations easier by
lowering the applied stress required to form
dislocations.
 That homogeneous nucleation of dislocation requires
extremely high stresses.
 If dislocations are not formed by Frank-Read sources,
then they must be nucleated heterogeneously.
 Bend gliding

 The bending of crystals can be explained in

terms of Frank-Read or other sources.
 Elastic deformation: (before the yield point of
crystal)
the stress distribution
My
x 
I
M : the bending moment
y : the vertical distance measured from the neutral axis
I : the moment of inertia of the cross - section
 The stress distribution on slip planes corresponding to
the elastic deformation.
 The shear stress component parallel to
the slip plane.
 The sense of the shear stress changes its
sign as it crosses the neutral axis.
 The shear stress is zero at the neutral axis
and a maximum at the extreme ends of
the slip plane.
 upper: compressive stress; lower: tensile
stress
 positive edge : move toward the surface (high stress
region) and disappear
 negative edge : move toward the specimen’s neutral
axis(decreasing shear stress)
 neutral axis : free of dislocations, not be stressed
above the elastic limit, deformation will be elastic
and not plastic
Rotational slip

 Type of deformation due to

dislocations: simple shear,
bending, rotational slip.
 Rotational slip required more
than one set of dislocations
(slip plane must contain more
than one slip direction)
 Ex. FCC , and HCP
An array of parallel screw dislocations A double array of screw dislocations
 Critical resolved shear stress
 Critical resolved shear stress: the yield
stress for crystals of a shear stress
resolved on the slip plane and in the slip
direction.
An
 cos
Asp
fn fn
A   cos
Asp An
fn
   A cos  cos cos
An
 A : stress on the slip plane
 : shear stress resolved on the slip plane
•When a crystal possesses several
crystallographically equivalent slip systems,
slip will start first on the system having the
highest resolved shear stress.
 FCC slip systems
* Close-packed plane: {111}
* Close-packed directions:<110>
* Slip systems: 4 x 3=12
* Large number of equivalent slip system
 a: several slip systems have nearly equal resolved
shear stresses.
 b: 1: only one slip plane
2: multiple glide on intersecting slip planes
3: decreasing the rate of increase of the dislocation
density
---Flow curve for fcc single crystal.
• Stage Ⅰ
Predominantly primary slip (easy slip, easy glide)
Some second slip and ⊥ interaction ⇒ very low strain hardening rate (𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝛾).
⊥𝑠 glide for large distance with little hinderance.

• Stage Ⅱ multiple slip

Cottrell- Lomer locks, Scew jogs, and other barriers
⊥ pile ups
⊥ tangles, formation of ⊥ cells, 𝜌~1012 𝑐𝑚−2 at failure.
High 𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝛾

• Stage Ⅲ
Decreasing 𝑑𝜏 𝑑𝛾
Cross-slip of pinned ⊥𝑠

For high 𝛾𝑆.𝐹 metals

⇒cross-slip is easier.
⇒earlier onset of stage Ⅲ
HCP slip system
* Close-packed plane: basal plane (0001)
* Close-packed direction: <11-20>

Titanium (0001) 110

Titanium (10-10) 49
Beryllium (0001) 39
Zirconium (10-10) 6.2
 Just for Zn and Cd

Zinc, cadmium and magnesium possess both a low critical resolved

shear stress and a single primary slip plane (basal plane)
BCC slip system
 Close-packed direction: <111>
 Slip plane (contains a close-packed
<111> direction) : {110},{112},{123}
 The lack of close-packed plane causes
high critical resolved shear stress for slip.
 Ex. Fe: 28 MPa
Cross slip
 Cross-slip: there are two or more slip planes with a
common slip direction occur in crystals.
 Only screw dislocation can shift of the dislocation
from one plane to another in the cross-slip.
Cross slip for total and extended dislocations

A. a total dislocation can readily cross-slip between a pair of octahedral planes.

B. ½ [-110]1/6[-211] +1/6[-12-1]
stair-rod
C. cross-slip of the leading partial , 1/6[-211] 1/6[-121]+1/6[-1-10]
D. cross-slip of the trailing partial, 1/6[-12-1]+1/6[-1-10]1/6[-21-1]
cross-slip for a total is much easier than extended s due to the formation of
stair-rod .
 Work hardening P
 t    (1   )
A
 a point: elastic limit, begin to l
deform plastically and neck.  t  ln  ln(1   )
l0
 The true strength of the metal  t : true stress
normally increases with  : engineerin g stress
increasing strain until it fractures.  t : true strain
 : engineerin g strain
 Geometrical instability

<u,
Due to large work hardening capacity,
instability cannot continue.
Localized strain at “weak line”
occurs regularly and repeatly.
>u,
work hardening rate decrease to
a point that instability once formed
continuous to develop.

40
41
42
43
44
Instability in tension
-Necking generally begins at max. load during the tensile deformation of a
ductile metal. An idea plastic material in which no strain hardening occurs
would become unstable in tension and begin to neck just as soon as
yielding took place.
-a real metal undergoes strain hardening, which tends to increase the
load-carrying capacity of the specimen as deformation increases. This
effect is opposed by the gradual decrease in the cross-sectional area of
the specimen as it elongates.
-Necking or localized deformation begins at max load, where the increase
in stress due to decrease in the cross-sectional area becomes greater
than the increase in the load-carrying ability due to strain hardening.
-The condition of instability leading to localized deformation is defined by
the condition dP=0.

45
 t t

t
t
t
46
Necking criterion (Considère’s criterion)

47
Relationship between dislocation density and
the stress

r is the measured dislocation

density, k is a constant , and 0 is
the stress obtain when is
extrapolated to zero

The relationship in terms of the

resolved stress on the active slip
plane, 

Taylor’s relation
the dislocation interaction must be
overcome in order to allow the
dislocations to continue to glide

k = amb
Strain and dislocation velocity

 Observing dislocation in crystal by etching

reagent, which forms an etch pit on the
surface of a crystal at each point where a
dislocation intersects the surface.
 The velocity of a dislocation moving under
a fixed applied stress = distance that a
dislocation moved by the time
 V=d/t , v: dislocation velocity ; d: dislocation
motion distance ; t: time of application of the
stress.
 Edge dislocation would normally move 50
times faster than screw dislocation.
ln v  ln  v : dislocatio n velocity

v( )m  : shear stress
D
D : stress that yields a dislocatio n velocity
of 1 cm/ sec
ex. LiF crystal : D  5.3 MPa, m  16.5,   2.65 MPa
16.5
 2.65 
dislocatio n velocity : v     1.1 10 5 cm / s
 5.3 
-1
constant stress : ln v 
T
v  f ( )e  E / kT
•The movement of dislocation is not smooth and continuous,
but rather it occurs in steps.
•Thermal vibrations aid the applied stress to overcome these
these obstacles to dislocation motion.

dislocatio n velocity :
l l
v 
t f  tw tw
l : the average distance between obstacles
t f : time of flight between obstacles
t w : average time the dislocatio n waits at an obstacle
Orowan equation : relationsh ip between the velocity of dislocatio n
and applied strain rate.
ex.
sheared amount : b(x / x)  b(A / A)
b : burger vector; x : distance of dislocatio n moves
A : the fraction of dislocatio n passed
bA bA
  
Az V
shear strain :  ; z : height of the crystal
bnl x
   rb x
V
nl
r : dislocatio n density 
V
 rb x
    rbv
t t